CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Grammar
Currently, grammar is one of language aspects which enables users of language, in this case English, to construct sentences in the form of writing and speaking. Grammar was defined as the system of elements (such as words) and the rules of phonology, morphology, syntax and semantic (Bruce: 2009). Further explained that grammar is not only collection of form but also involved the three dimensions of linguistics such as syntax, semantic, and pragmatics (Celce-Murcia: 2000). Despite having a syntatical form, grammatical structure was used to express meaning (semantics) in appropriate use (pragmatic). In the other words, grammar is referred to as the dimension of form, meaning, and use. It implies that a change in one dimension effects other dimensions. The two examples might below approve the previous statement.
a. I arose early this morning. b. I got up early this morning.
Grammatically, the form of first sentence is correct, but it is unappropriate in use. As it is understood, the word “arose” is not
Additionally, grammar was described as aspects of organization involved in modern linguistic theories (Hall: 1993). Based on the theories, the use of grammar indicates how educated the speaker is. In other words, studying grammar help ones to use language and it indicates that grammar is a reference for people to use language based on standard usage.
For a long time, grammar was learnt under a static conception of language which was centered on a limited view of grammar (Pennington: 1995). In other words, grammar was seen narrowly as the hearth of language and manifested in controlled production of correct sentences based on formal and academic language. This condition was surely hard for students to learn English grammar as part of English lesson in their school. Therefore, students urgently need a new method of learning grammar.
Methods, techniques and approaches in teaching grammar have been being developed in order to help the students to acquire the ability of applying various grammatical structures in communication context where traditional teaching was not applicable any more. Presently, the approach of teaching grammar is a top down process which begins with whole matters to individual matters (Nunan: 1991).
grammar entails the formal explanation of grammar rules. Students who receives a great deal of grammatical explanation will end up knowing a lot about the language, but they will not be able to put the language in communicative context. Secondly, teaching grammar is basically a matter of providing students with practices in mastering common grammatical patterns through a process of analogy rather than explanation. It means that students may become fluent in using structures, but they may not be able to use them in communication outside classroom. Thirdly, teaching grammar is a matter of giving students opportunities to use English in a real situation.
2.2 The Importance of Learning Grammar
Nunan (1991) states that mastering grammar of target language is significantly important because an adequate knowledge of grammar will help students to improve their linguistic creativity and the capacity of communication. In the other words, mastering grammar is needed as an essential tool to explore and deliver what is being thought to others in the concept of communication.
The reason for learning a grammar should improve one‟s
signs by showing 3 fingers which indicated that the price was Rp. 3.000,00. From this example, it can be underlined that grammar existed to enable people to communicate. In other words, communication was impossibly done beyond a very simple level (Nunan: 1991). Therefore, mastering English grammar is significantly required for interaction purposes.
Carter (2006) states that there were two most basic principles of grammar, those are the arrangement of items (syntax) and the structure of items (morphology). Furthermore, he explains that syntax rules the way words are arranged which help people to interpret what the sentence means. For instance, the sentence is “I give my sister a sweater for birthday party”. People will know the
word “I” who give the sweater since it is placed before the verb. On
the other hand, Carter (2006) stated that morphology is concerned with the structure of words of phrases. For instance,
1) I give my sister a sweater for birthday party 2) I gave my sister a sweater for birthday party
Those sentences have different verb, those are “give” and “gave”.
The difference implies the meaning of the sentence. The verb “give” refers to present tense and the verb “gave” refers to past tense. The
case indicates that morphology rules the use of tenses.
student wants to tell about their daily activity, he ought to use simple present tense (Carter: 2006). Therefore, he could speak accurately when he was using correct tenses.
Even though, the role of grammar mastery on the entire mastery of all the language skills is very important, students are still in trouble with it particularly the three basic tenses. In addition, students should be able to master the tenses first as they are the foundation of advanced tenses, such as present continuous tense, past continuous tense, and so forth.
2.2.1 Simple Present Tense
Carter (2006) states present tense was seen either as the moment of speaking or writing, or as time round now, or as the more general, permanent time relating to truths and general facts. Simple present is used in several circumstances:
1) General Truths and Facts
Simple present is used to refer to general or permanent state of affairs, or facts which are considered true at the present time. For example: She is Swedish. She comes from Stockholm.
3) Regular and Habitual Events
Regular and habitual events are usually reffered to in Simple Present. For example: We always have breakfast around eight o‟clock.
In general, simple present tense has its pattern (Azar: 1992), as follows:
Statement (I, You, We, They) work (He, She, It) works
Negative (I, You, We, They) do not work (He, She, It) does not works Question Do (I, You, We, They) work?
Does (He, She, It) work?
2.2.2 Simple Future Tense
Simple future tense is used for future action (Kon: 1991). Further, future time can not be used in the same way as those in the past or present. Simple future tense is used as several circumtances (Cerce-Murcia: 1999):
For example: After July, Agung will take the half past two bus to Cilacap.
3) In the main clause of future condition. For example: If you leave, you will be sorry.
In general, simple future tense has its pattern (Azar: 1992), as follows:
Statement (I, You, We, They, He, She, It) will come tomorrow
Negative (I, You, We, They, He, She, It) will not come tomorrow
Question Will (I, You, We, They, He, She, It) come tomorrow?
2.2.3 Simple Past Tense
Carter (2006) defines that past tense was seen as time before the moment of speaking or writing, or as “time around a point before
the moment of speaking”. Past tense has common definite time
happening. Specifically, the usage of simple pas tense was mentioned as follows (Celce – Murcia, 1999):
1) A definite single complete event or action in the past. For example: I attended an ESA meeting last week. 2) An event with duration that applied in the past with the
implication that it no longer applies in the present.
For example: Mr. Bambang worked in bank for 15 years. 3) States in the past
For example: He owned me a lot of money
In general, simple past tense has its pattern (Azar: 1992), as follows:
Statement (I, You, We, They, He, She, It) worked yesterday
Negative (I, You, We, They, He, She, It) did not work yesterday
Question Did (I, You, We, They, He, She, It) work yesterday?
2.3 Index Card Games
English teachers have a big challenge in teaching grammar. The challenge is on students‟ mind set in learning grammar.
Wright (1997) argues that games helped and encouraged many students to maintain their interest and work. Through games, the students were able to learn things in a fun way. When they enjoyed the activities of a game, students were not afraid of using English (Paul: 2003) as cited in (Diptoadi: 2008). Moreover, games also help the teachers to create contexts which make teaching learnning process more useful and meaningful. Students will be willing to take part and to do so they must understand what others are saying or have written. In short, they must speak or write in order to express their own point of views or to give information.
Wright (1997) further mentions various versions of games. Those are magic trick, true / false games, picture games, psychology games, card games, sound games, story games, word games, memory games, question and answer games, guessing and speculating games, and miscellaneous games. In this research, card game is selected as an interesting game dealing with teaching and learning grammar. The reason is that card, as the main tool, can be modified into several forms of media used as activities in teaching learning process.
2.3.1 Basic Ten Questions
Basic ten questions is a game which requires students to match between questions and answers. This game was modified from “Twenty Questions Games”. However, in this
game, the questions were reduced to 10 questions and the fields included nouns that represented a person, a place and a thing. This game is a group game which requires students to practice yes / no question. It also serves as a vocabulary review and a general knowledge. The class is divided into two groups of students in applying the game. Each group has the same chance to guess the identity of one of opposing members. Before implementing the game, teacher has to prepare some tools such as a set of cards which consist of three cards with the name of a person, a place, or a thing. It may be necessary to include some additional information. The game works in several steps as follows:
1) Explaining the cards to students and tell that there are three categories such as person, place, and thing on the cards. Within the set of cards, there are three difficulty levels which are easy, moderate, and difficult. To play the basic ten question games, have students to choose which level they want to play.
question so that others answer only yes or no. tell that there are only ten questions may be asked. Each student may show his card to other students in the same group. 3) Asking a member of group done by other groups. The
questioning begins with “are you a person?” and so forth
until a correct identification is got or the ten questions have been answered.
4) Identifying the winner by checking which team has the most correct identification.
2.3.2 Matched Pairs
Matched pair is a game which requires students to remember the location of the card and make matching pairs. The game can be played as a group activity. The game is purposed to review vocabularies and to stimulate conversation among students. Further, teacher needs to choose a category of vocabulary which has been taught, for example antonym. Teacher writes a word each in twelve cards and the matching antonyms on twelve other cards. There are some steps in applying this game. Those are:
1) Laying the cards out face down with the numbers showing.
3) Teacher turns over the called cards. If the cards do not match, the cards are turn back. If the cards are matched, students may remove the cards and take the next turn until they fail to make a match.
4) When all the cards have been matched, students with the most matches win the game.
2.3.3 Scrambles
This game requires student to rearrange a jumbled sentences, sequences, and stories. This game is useful for review work and sentence order and the placement of punctuation mark. To play the game, there are some steps, as follows:
1) Dividing the students into groups of 2 or 3 students. 2) Giving each group a sentence and put the extra
bundled sentences in a central place.
3) Telling each group to use all the cards to form a sentence.
4) When the group is satisfied with its sentence, they have to write the sentence on a separated sheet of paper. Then the groups return the sentence into the center place and choose other a new bundled of cards. 5) When the groups have finished, read the correct
2.3.4 Categories
Categories are a game which requires students to use English quickly and descriptively. The game may review vocabularies and teach command of teaching process. Teacher needs to prepare cards with several words in the same categories. Teacher should follow the procedures of the game as follows:
1) Dividing the students into two or more groups.
2) Giving a card to a representative of each group as clue-giver.
3) The clue-givers announce the category to their own group. The other groups only watch and listen.
4) The clue-giver makes up the clues while the members try to guess the words on the card. For example, the clue-givers may say “it is in the sky and gives us light and heat”. The team answers with “the sun”.
5) The game continues until all the words have been identified.
6) When the first group has finished, the next group gets a chance to play with different category and words.
2.3.5 Index Card Match
that ICM was used to review previous material. However, it could also possibly be used to teach new material but the students should learn the material before. Furthermore, Zaini (2008) explained the procedure of implementing ICM, as follow:
1) preparing cards as the amount of students 2) deviding the cards into two parts.
3) writing question in one part of the card.
4) writing the answer of the question on another part of the card.
5) mixing all cards so the answers and the question are mixed.
6) giving the cards to each student and explaining that this is pair activity. A half of students get the answer card and others get the question cards.
7) asking students to find their pair and to sit beside their pair.
8) asking students to read the question card one by one. 9) asking other students to answer the question.
10) making clarification and conclusion.
designed on the need of English teaching learning process. The cards consist of 19 couples. There are patterns of tenses, to be, and examples that should be matched.
There are some steps and rules that should be followed in using ICM;
1) A set of Index card match consists of 5 card packages of the same simple present tense. A card packages consists of 19 couples of card.
2) This game can be implemented by 3 over 30 students.
3) If there are more than 10 students, teacher should divide the students into groups as he wants maximally 5 groups. The number of the member is unlimited.
4) Each groups should make a circle.
5) If each group has been formed, the teacher should hand the card out, each group gets a package of card.
6) Teacher choose a representative of each group to hold the card. 7) The representative of each group should hand the card out to all
member in the group wisely. For instance, there are 6 students in a group and there are 19 couples of card, so she / he gives 3 until 4 couples of card for 5 other members.
9) If 10 second has been over, each member have to give the card they are holding to the next member of the group, then again thay have to read and remember the card and so on.
10) If the rotation is over, all members have remembered all cards, then the card should be submitted to the representative of each group.
11) After that, one of the representative randoms and then shows one of cards to member of other groups. They have to guess what the couple is.
12) The member of the same group may answer by raising his / her hand up and be pointed by the representative.
13) If she / he successfully answers it correctly, the card holder may give the card that has been answered.
14) The game is over whenever there is no more card. 15) The member that gets the more cards is the winner.
By implementing ICM, teachers get outstanding benefits since it has great strength that can be maximized. Supriyanti stated (2010), there were many advantages of implementing ICM. Firstly, ICM was able to stimulate students to actively involve in teaching learning process. It was very helpful for the teacher to make students more confidently showing of themselves in front of class. Secondly, teachers would get the function of ICM since it could upgrade teachers‟ performance. In other words, teaching learning
On the other hand, teacher should be aware of ICM weaknesses that should be anticipated. Supriyanti (2010) found that there were several important things that should be considered in using ICM. Firstly, ICM took time to be prepared. Teachers should prepare and design the cards well. Secondly, the implentation of index card match caused a crowd class during teaching learning process. However, teachers should manage the class well by giving clear instruction and rules to minimize the crowd class.
Comparing the advantages of ICM from its disadvantages, Index card match is determined as an appropriate medium in teaching the three basic tenses of English grammar. This medium brings outstanding benefits for both students and English teachers. Therefore, ICM is chosen as the medium of the reseach.
Futhermore, the effectiveness of ICM has been approveded in several fields of study, such as Religion, Biology and English writing skill. Ningtyas (2009), that one of S2 students of Islamic Educational Faculty, explained ICM was able to increase students‟ achievement. Before applying ICM, students‟ average achievement was 80.1 %. However after applying
ICM, students‟ achievement was 87.5 %. Other research in Biology
department Yulianti (2011) showed positive influence to students in which they became more motivated and had great interests in learning Biology.
implementation of ICM was able to improve students‟ interest of writing. It
was approved with an increase of students‟ score of pre-test and post-test.
In summary, considering that ICM has been used in several important reseach and different fields, there is a big will of doing research toward ICM in mastering English grammar particularly the three basic tenses.
2.4 Research Gap
Simple present tense, simple past tense and simple future tense are the three basic grammar generally used in our daily conversation. Teaching those three tenses require appropriate teaching methods, techniques, and media so that the students do not feel bored and confused. ICM brings the solution as an appropriate medium to make students enjoy teaching learning process. Moreover, this medium assists them to practise tenses in a fun and enjoyable way. In short, ICM is able to help students understanding simple present tense, simple past tense and simple future tense.
2.5 Action Hypothesis
