View of Penyediaan Air Bersih di Era Tatanan Normal Baru

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Jurnal Teknik Pengairan: Journal of Water Resources Engineering, 2022, 13(2) pp. 206-218 https://jurnalpengairan.ub.ac.id/ | p-ISSN : 2086-1761 | e-ISSN : 2477-6068

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Penyediaan Air Bersih di Era Tatanan Normal Baru

Clean Water Provision In The New Normal Area

Yenni Ciawi^1*), Ananda Sri Parthiswari², Yan Ramona³, Annisa Maria Hidayati²

1Environmental Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia

2Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia

3Biology Department, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia

Article info: Research review

DOI:

10.21776/ub.pengairan.2022.013.02.07

Kata kunci:

air bersih; pandemi covid-19;

pemanasan global; tatanan normal baru

Keywords:

clean water; covid-19 pandemic; global warming; new normal era

Article history:

Received: 14-05-2022 Accepted: 27-09-2022

*)Koresponden email:

yenniciawi@unud.ac.id

Creative Commons License

This works is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License

Abstrak

Tahun 2020 merupakan tahun terpanas sepanjang sejarah manusia, padahal sejak akhir 2019 kegiatan manusia yang menimbulkan polusi udara sudah berkurang banyak karena pandemi Covid-19.

Pemanasan global yang sudah berlangsung menyebabkan cuaca ekstrim di banyak tempat di seluruh dunia. Sebagian permukaan bumi semakin kering sedangkan di bagian yang lain, banjir dan angin topan semakin sering terjadi. Sementara itu, pandemi Covid-19 yang mengharuskan cuci tangan lebih sering, menyebabkan kebutuhan air semakin meningkat dengan pesat. Tujuan tulisan ini adalah merangkum upaya-upaya penyediaan air yang sudah ada yang dapat dilakukan untuk meminimkan dampak kekeringan pada saat pandemi Covid-19 dan pada masa tatanan normal baru. Penelitian dilakukan dengan metode review traditional terhadap tulisan pada rentang tahun 1981-2022. Ditemukan bahwa kearifan lokal dan teknologi baru yang relatif sederhana dapat dimanfaatkan untuk penyediaan air bersih bahkan sampai tataran rumah tangga sehingga menjangkau masyarakat banyak, yaitu dengan desalinasi air laut, memanfaatkan air hujan, menyaring air limbah, memanfaatkan waduk bawah tanah, menggunakan saringan batu tradisional, saringan keramik, dan membran polimer.

Abstract

The year 2020 was the hottest year of human history, even though, since the end of 2019, human activities that cause air pollution have significantly decreased due to the pandemic of Covid-19. The ongoing global warming has caused extreme weather in many places worldwide. As a result, drought happens in some regions of our globe, while heavy flooding and hurricanes become more frequent in other areas. During the Covid-19 pandemic, the need for clean water increased as everyone had to wash their hands more often. This review aims to summarize the availability of clean water supply for people, particularly during this Covid-19 pandemic and in the new normal era. This manuscript was prepared by reviewing related manuscripts published in reputable journals from 1981 to 2022. It can be summarized from this review process that local wisdom and relatively simple modern technologies, such as desalinating seawater, utilizing rainwater, filtering wastewater, utilizing underground reservoirs, using traditional stone filters, ceramic filters and polymeric membranes, were found to be suitable methods/technologies to provide many people with clean water.

Such technologies can even be applied at the household level.

Kutipan: Ciawi, Y., Parthiswari, A, S., Ramona, Y., Hidayati, A, M. (2022). Penyediaan Air Bersih di Era Tatanan Normal Baru. Jurnal Teknik Pengairan: Journal of Water Resources Engineering, 13(2), 206-218.

https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.pengairan.2022.013.02.07

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1. Introduction

Earth's temperature is now in a critical state due to global warming, which has led to several natural disasters to occur. The year 2020 was recorded by NASA as one of the hottest years in human history (Brown 2021), while 2021 was found to be the sixth warmest year of the globe (NOAA 2022).

Although people's activities (which contributed to air pollution) were halted during the Covid-19 pandemic (Kanniah et al. 2020; Viglione 2020), the global temperature of the earth continues to increase over time (Armitage and Nellums 2020; Saptoyo 2021). During this pandemic, people were encouraged to wash their hands more frequently to prevent the Covid-19 virus from spreading (Brauer et al. 2020; Hillier 2020; Litchman et al. 2020; Stoler et al. 2020), and this has increased the clean water need (Rahimi and Amin 2020). Water supply plays an important role in people's health and well-being. In the Provision of clean water, its hygiene aspect is very important as it is closely related to human health. According to The Indonesia Water Institute (IWI), there is a daily increase of 50 litres of clean water consumption for families with five family members in 2020 compared to 2013 data, with the assumption that everybody washes their hands more than five times a day (Nainggolan 2021). This requires the availability of useable water and creates a challenge for many places that already experience drought due to global warming. Even before the pandemic hit, 800 million people did not have clean water, and many had to walk tens of miles and spend a lot of time accessing clean water (Wheeler et al. 2018; WHO 2019). Many developing countries, particularly those in Africa and South Asia, still have difficulty providing their people with clean water, which is estimated to hinder the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030 (Tortajada and Biswas 2020). Sustainable Development Goals are the global plan of world leaders to end poverty, reduce inequality, and protect the environment by 2030, including access to clean water and sanitation and sustainable cities and communities (Fukuda et al. 2019). Sustainable cities and communities are urban planning systems and community structures that consider the system's sustainability for future applications (Kuswartojo 2011; Rajendra 2020). Therefore it is urgently required to promote measures to provide more access to clean water using traditional to modern technologies.

2. Materials and Methods

This paper used the traditional review method. The chosen topic is based on the fact that global temperature has risen, and in post covid era, we still have to consider the increment in clean water needs. Clean water provision may vary from one place to another places, and much traditional wisdom has been used in remote places, which is unique to some places and probably can be mimicked by other places. Some updated technologies are also discussed. The main sources of references come from PubMed-Medline, Google Scholar, and Research Gate.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Global Warming

The United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration or NASA has recorded global temperatures of the earth from 1880 and found out that there has been an increase in recent decades.

IPCC Agency (The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) predicted a possible temperature change of 2.5 to 10 °F in the next century (Shaftel et al. 2022). The impact of global warming is climate change which is quite extreme in several countries. One of the impacts of climate change is the erratic season, namely the occurrence of a rainy or dry season that is longer than usual. Besides, the magnitude of some natural disasters, such as hurricanes, is predicted to increase over time. The glaciers at the poles will melt and eventually cause a sea-level rise. Floods, erosion, and prolonged drought are also the consequences of this climate change. The emergence of new disease outbreaks due to damaged ecosystems can also occur and often spread to humans (Keman 2007). On the other hand, global warming has reached the record hottest year in human history; therefore, several mitigation steps are needed to deal with this to ensure the availability of clean water. The global movement has been carried out to prevent further damage.

The first UN Climate Change Conference was held in Berlin, Germany, in 1995. In the Conference of the Parties 21st (COP21) on December 12, 2015, in Paris, an agreement became an

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important milestone in the multilateral climate change process (Briggs 2021). The Paris Agreement is important because all countries agree for the first time to be bound by common goals to improve climate change and adapt to its impacts. The main objective of this agreement is to reduce the global warming rate to below 2 or better 1.5 ⁰C than the pre-industrial level. In addition, this agreement requires economic and social transformation for each country with a work cycle of 5 years. This agreement also invites countries to develop long-term low greenhouse gas emission development strategies (LT-LEDS), which provide a framework for financial, technical, and capacity-building support for countries (UNFCCC 2021a, 2021b). Unfortunately, the COP26, which was planned for November 2020 in Glasgow, UK, was postponed to November 1-12, 2021, due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

3.2 The Covid-19 Pandemic

The Covid-19 pandemic started in December 2019, caused by the new coronavirus, known as SARS-CoV-2, which caused a typical acute respiratory illness, first emerged in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China (Yesudhas et al. 2021). The Covid-19 pandemic reached Indonesia in early 2020.

To reduce the spread, the government of Indonesia has been promoting washing hands as part of the health protocols. However, this campaign needs to be accompanied by providing clean water (Hillier 2020; Islam and Kibria 2020; KPCPEN 2020; Litchman et al. 2020; Rahimi and Amin 2020), which is a challenge in some regions and is exacerbated by climate change. This situation worsens in some areas due to the difficulty of maintaining hygiene due to the scarcity of clean water (Brauer et al.

2020; Stoler, Jepson, and Wutich 2020). It is concerned that this will result in the ineffectiveness of community efforts to prevent the spread of Covid-19 in particular and difficulty accessing clean water in the future in general 19 (Sivakumar 2021). Therefore, clean water infrastructure must be modernized to avoid a clean water crisis (Dayanti 2021). Furthermore, there should be many alternatives to water supply for safe handwashing.

3.3 Clean Water

Clean water, according to the Regulation of the Minister of Health of the Republic of Indonesia Number: 416/Menkes/Per/IX/1990 concerning the requirements for water quality control, is water used for daily needs whose quality meets health requirements and can be drunk when it has been cooked. The criteria for clean water, in general, are clear, colorless, tasteless, has no smell, has a normal temperature, neutral pH, and is free from bacteria contamination (Krisnayanti et al. 2013).

Clean water should not be contaminated by hazardous substances and should be clear. According to the Ministry of Health, the maximum turbidity limit for potable water is 5 (NTU scale), while for clean water is 25 (NTU scale). The colour of the water determines the quality of the water.

Contaminated water, caused by human or animal or industrial waste, will look dirty, cloudy, or unnatural in colour. Clean water that is fit for consumption is recommended to have no taste or smell.

The normal temperature of clean water is around 10-25°C. The permissible pH value is 6.5 to 8.5 for drinking water and 6.5 to 9.0 for clean water. However, the ideal water pH level is seven or neutral.

Good clean water is free from all bacteria, especially Escherichia coli, which can cause severe diarrhea, stomach aches, and fever (Kusnoputranto 1981). The government and the community can implement this mitigation either funded by the government or independently. Therefore, it is suggested that there is open cooperation to accelerate this mitigation action to ensure access to clean water (Jiwani and Antiporta 2020; Pandit and Kumar 2015).

3.4 Seawater and viruses

Seawater is available abundantly in the coastal area. According to Kivuti-Bitok et al. (2020), seawater can be used in viral disinfection as it contains a high salt level that creates hypertonic conditions. Such conditions can inhibit the coronavirus by destroying the fat component of its envelope that was leading to its detachment from surfaces. However, many pathogenic viruses that usually infect aquatic life exist in seawater (Aguilera-Rivera et al. 2019; Leiva-Rebollo et al. 2020;

Liu et al. 2020; Nabi and Khan 2020; Tsiola et al. 2020). Marine viruses are the most abundant life form in the sea, they can infect the phytoplankton whale, and marine viruses can also spread to terrestrial mammals (Suttle 2005, 2007). SAR-CoV-2 may be present in the coastal marine

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environment brought by sewage effluent (Westhaus et al. 2021), but it is not a major virion in the marine environment. But enveloped RNA viruses usually decay in the marine environment (Mordecai and Hewson 2020).

4. Clean Water Provision

4.1. Rainwater harvesting (RWH)

Many traditional and modern ways of harvesting rainwater are described in Pradhan and Sahoo (2020). Some of these can be implemented in housing, private or public spaces, and urban or rural areas (Figure 1). According to Cristiano et al. (2021), rainwater harvesting systems is less expensive than a green roof in mitigating flood in urban area, moreover, rainwater harvesting also has the benefit of providing water for household use (Campisano et al. 2017), and is very beneficial in the areas which are far from piped water supplies. RWH was successfully implemented in many places in the world as a solution to water shortage in addition to reducing floods and inundation and mitigating the impact of climate change (Gado and El-Agha 2020; Behzadian et al. 2018; Bernard and Joyfred 2020; Chubaka et al. 2018; Gado and El-Agha 2020; Santos et al. 2020; Terêncio et al.

2018; Tran et al. 2021; Wurthmann 2020; Zhang et al. 2019). Pre-treatment should be put on the arsenic content of rainwater collected in the mining area (Quaghebeur et al. 2019; Zhang et al. 2019).

a.

b.

c.

Figure 1. a. Rooftop Catchment system, b. Ground catchment system, c. concrete tank use in runoff catchment (ctc-n.org in (Pradhan and Sahoo 2020))

4.2. Underground Water Dam

Many above-ground dams have been built to provide clean water. For example, Bali has the Titab dam on the Saba River which is located upstream in Tabanan Regency and empties into an economic activity area in Seririt District, Buleleng Regency for irrigation of paddy field, raw water, and Hydro

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Power Plant (PLTA) (Elsaputra and Anwar 2017), West Java has the Jatiluhur dam, Central Java has the Kedungombo dam. With surface water that has started to run low, the land is limited, and to provide wider access, underground water is one of the development ideas for providing clean water.

An underground dam is a structure that holds the natural flow of underground water and holds it below ground level. There are two underground water dams; sub-surface dams and sand-storage dams. Sub-surface dams (Figure 2a, (Irura 2006)) are constructed below ground level and retain natural water flow, while sand-storage dams (Figure 2b), (Irura 2006) store water in sediments so that the water accumulates in the dam itself (Irura 2006; Nishigaki, Kankam-Yeboah, and Komatsu 2004; Onder and Yilmaz 2005; Raju, Reddy, and Munirathnam 2006). Several countries in the African continent have the potential to build underground water dams. A large water reserve was found in East Africa, Libya, Algeria, and Chad, which amounted to 75 m in water depth throughout the region (Patnistik 2012). Dam selection, planning, and design must account for the dam project's environmental impact. This means significant development based on economic equality and social and environmental sustainability (Altinbilek 2002).

a. b.

Figure 2. a. Subsurface dam (Irura 2006), b. Sand storage dam (Irura 2006)

4.3 Desalination

In places near the coastline, seawater is abundant. Clean water can be produced from seawater desalination, which is the process of separating salt from seawater, so that clean water is suitable for use. There are two types of desalination technologies: thermal desalination and membrane desalination (Arevalo et al. 2018; Imbrogno and Belfort 2016; Li et al. 2019; Nugroho 2004; Terêncio et al. 2018; Wang et al. 2018). Thermal desalination requires energy in the form of waste heat from the generator for its energy source, while membrane-type desalination only requires electricity to run the pump. Several criteria must be considered in selecting the desalination technology, such as the salinity level of the seawater, the desired quality of clean water, energy sources to produce water, water discharge, economic factors, operation and maintenance (Elsaid et al. 2020; Jang et al. 2019;

Shahzad et al. 2019; Z. Wang et al. 2019). Desalination and salt production can also produce a zero- waste process and reduce costs (Ariono et al. 2016; Wenten et al. 2017). However, membrane desalination has disadvantages, i.e., fouling problems, low mechanical strength, and thermally unstable, which can be overcome using graphene oxide nanocomposite (Zunita et al. 2018a).

Furthermore, membrane desalination using nanotechnology is more economical when compared to the thermal process (Saavedra et al. 2021; Wenten et al. 2016).

4.4 Filter 4.4.1 Jempeng

Although myriads of conventional water treatment technologies are available for large populations in rural areas of developing countries, these systems are either inappropriate or too expensive. Therefore, around the world, rural communities are adopting some simple and basic water treatment techniques that can be of use to either communities or individual households (Asmara et al. 2011). Jempeng is one of the local wisdom in the water supply system of Indonesia, especially in Bali. Jempeng is made of rock and concrete and requires a pool. Jempeng has a wall thickness ranging from 7 to 12 cm, a height of 60 cm, and an outer diameter of 40 cm. Jempeng is a Balinese cultural heritage that has been used to filter dirty or muddy water with a porous rock container. The way it

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works is as follows: dirty water enters through the pores of the rock and will be filtered naturally, so that clean water collects in the inner jempeng container. Porous rock stone is used because this material is relatively inert and thus will not affect the filtrate quality (Suyasa 2014). There are several types of jempeng (BPPT 2000; Sudiyasa 2000), as shown in Figure 3.

a. b

.

c.

Figure 3. a. U-shape jempeng (a), b. W-shape jempeng and c. hexagonal plate jempeng(BPPT 2000)

Jempeng U-shaped is made entirely of rock and has a half-spherical enclosure-shaped bottom, cylindrical filter body, and an open top so that its vertical section is U-shaped (Figure 3a). Hexagonal plate jempeng has a semi-hexagonal lower part, as shown in Figure 3.b, and is made entirely of rock.

The body of the jempeng is cylindrical, or rectangle, and the top is also open (BPPT 2000). Jempeng W-shaped is made not only of rock. Three sides and the bottom side were made of waterproof concrete. Only the middle side is made of rock, while the top is open (Figure 3c) (BPPT 2000).

Jempeng is used by placing it in a stream of water so that the water is absorbed. The performance of the jempeng filter to produce clean water is influenced by several factors, i.e., the size of the pore diameter of the filter material, degree of water turbidity, water temperature, the degree of acidity (pH) of water, water pressure on the filter wall, and the thickness of the filter walls. Jempeng, with a thickness of 13 cm, can produce as much as 3.81 liters/hour of clean water (Kusnoputranto 1981).

4.4.2 Ceramic Filter

A low-cost ceramic filter (Figure 4.a) was developed by Dr Fernando Mazariegosin in a potter for peace program (Mally 2021). It has spread to many countries, including Indonesia. Nowadays, ceramic water filters have been used widely in many developing countries to provide affordable, safe drinking water to low-income communities (Zeng et al. 2020), e.g., in Kenya (Morris et al. 2018), South Africa (Mwabi et al. 2012), Cambodia (Brown and Sobsey 2010), in Brazil (Dias et al. 2018), in Tanzania (Mohamed et al. 2016). Ceramic filters last 1.5-2.3 times longer than activated carbon, thus making them cheaper; the need for maintenance is also lower (Sharma et al. 2018). However, comprehensive training is needed for properly handling filters and monitoring water quality (Murray et al. 2020). Other aspects to be looked after are standard procedure for filter production (Lantagne et al. 2017) and consistency of pot production quality (Brown and Sobsey 2009). Sometimes, some end-users refuse to use the filter (Luoto et al. 2011) or refuse to pay for the filter they obtain (Burt et al. 2017). Many efforts have been done to improve the performance of the ceramic filter, including the use of colloidal silver (van Halem et al. 2009) and zeolite (Wenten et al. 2017), and nanosilver and activated carbon (Figure 4b)(Navaza 2022).

a. b.

Figure 4.a. Ceramic water filter (van Halem et al. 2009), b. Commercial ceramic filter using nanosilver and activated carbon (Navaza 2022)

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4.4.3 Polymeric Membrane

The polymeric membrane has been used widely to provide clean water at low-cost production and is easy to maintain. It can be modified to have antibacterial properties by using some agent which can be incorporated via grafting, blending, and coating (Aryanti et al. 2017). At the same time, this will prevent fouling of the membrane as the antibacterial agent prevents the bacteria's attachment to the surface of the membrane and kills them when they get into the membrane pores (Aryanti et al.

2017). Several materials can be used as antibacterial agents, including metal oxides (Zunita et al.

2018).

5. Conclusion

Global warming has already disturbed our daily life, i.e., prolonged drought in some areas and heavy rains in others affect the supply of clean water, which is essential in the Covid-19 pandemic.

Several measures can be taken at a community or household level to meet the demand of increased clean water consumption during the Covid-19 pandemic and the new normal era. In an area with high rain intensity during the rainy season and is very dry in the other season, rainwater harvesting fields can be built by using government land to provide backup, clean water for the community in the dry season. In areas that suffer from low-quality water sources, such as polluted water sources, the area hit by floods, jempeng, ceramic filters, and polymeric filters can be used. Seawater desalination facilities can be built near the coastline area, and underground water dams can be constructed in appropriate locations.

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