CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
A.Reading
Reading is something important and has main role in human being. By reading, we can get information about science, technology, other advancement of the world. Therefore, the most important technique in transferring the information is reading.
According to Allan and Arnold (2008: 43), reading is defined as process of receiving and interpreting information encoded in language form via the medium of print.
Finochiano and Bonomo in Tarigan (2008: 9), state that reading bringing meaning to and getting meaning from printed or written material.
From the definition above, we can see that reading is the process to understand the text or the passage. The primary target in reading is the students reading comprehension ability to understand the content as it is used in written material.
5. The Importance of Reading
Widyanto in Tursijah (2006: 8), states that there are five important points to achieve successful study, as follows:
a. Reading is the most full learning resources. b. Reading is the cheapest learning resources. c. Reading is easiest learning resources.
d. Reading is the most speed learning resources. e. Be up to date to reading comprehension.
6. The Aim of reading
The aim of reading is looking for and getting information from books or texts. In reading, the students have to understand the idea, the content and themeaning of the texts on the passage. According to Tarigan (2008) there are some purposes of reading:
a. Reading for details of fact, that is reading to get detail information of fact, for example we want to know some new invest in medical, health, etc.
b. Reading for main ideas, that is to know the reason of some activities, idea of human being
c. Reading for sequence or organization, which is we read it to know what happen in each part of stories, action, etc.
d. Reading for inference, this is to find out the conclusion from the action of the idea in the text.
f. Reading to evaluate, that is to evaluate the writer has done or what he tries to explain or contrast.
g. Reading to compare or contrast, that is the reader compares the plot of story or contents, whatever having similarity with him or contrast.
7. Reading Comprehension
Reading is not merely to do with an ability to read a text, but it is to do with reading comprehension. According to Hodgson in Tarigan (2008: 7) reading is a process that is done by the reader to get message that would be conveyed by the author through words or written media. The main purpose of reading is to get information, covering the content and the meaning it signals.
In comprehending the reading material, the most important thing that needs to be considered is the component of reading. According to Hoover (2008: 10) there are five essential components of reading, those are:
a. Phonemic awareness
b. Phonics
To be master of reading, students also should have ability to recognize the relationship between letters and sound in spoken language and how to apply that knowledge in reading words. That ability is called as phonis.
c. Fluency
In reading, fluency is vital to comprehension. Fluency is the ability to read text quickly, accurately and with expression. By having good fluency in reading, the words and group words can be recognized by the students automatically during the reading process.
d. Vocabulary
Before the students can understand the meaning of spoken or written text, knowing the words mean is needed by the students. Knowledge of the meaning, use and pronunciation of individual words is known as vocabulary. In order to communicate effectively, the students should have good vocabulary skills.
e. Comprehension
In teaching reading, comprehension is identifies as the primary goal of reading. Comprehension is the ability to understand what one is reading, to relate a text to what one already knows while also constructing new knowledge and understanding.
8. The Micro and Macro Skills of Reading Comprehension
According to Brown (2004: 188), there are some macro skills and micro skills representing the possible spectrum for objective in the assessment of reading comprehension:
a. Macro Skills
1) To recognize the rhetorical forms of written discourse and their significance for interpretation.
2) To recognize the communicative functions of written texts, according to form and purpose.
3) To infer the context that is not explicit by using background knowledge.
4) To describe events, ideas, etc., ifer links and connection between events, deduce, causes and effect, detect such relation as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization and exemplification.
5) To distinguish between literal and implied meanings.
6) To detect cultural specific references and interpret them in a context the appropriate cultural schemata.
7) To develop and use a battery of reading strategies, such as scanning and skimming, detecting discourse markers, guessing the meaning of words from context, and activating schemata for interpretation of texts.
b. Micro Skills
2) To retain chunks of language of different lengths in short term memories.
3) To process writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose. 4) To recognize a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and
their significance.
5) To recognize grammatical word classes (noun, verb, etc), system (e.g., tenses, agreement, pluralization), pattern, rules, and elliptical forms.
6) To recognize that plural meaning may be expressed in different grammatical forms.
7) To recognize cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in signaling the relationship between among clauses.
From some micro skills called above, the writer will use some macro and micro skills in teaching reading comprehension to know whether Reciprocal Teaching technique effective or not in teaching reading narrative text in Junior High School.
a. Macro Skills
1) Skimming text for gist and for main idea, scanning text for specific information (names, date, key words).
2) Understanding given information stated in the passage.
3) Recognizing the communicative functions of written text, according to form and purpose.
b. Micro Skills
2) Using context to guess meaning of unfamiliar words. c. Evaluation
According to Douglas (2001: 308), there are some evaluations for reading comprehension:
1) Doing: the reader responds physically to a command.
2) Choosing: the reader selects from alternatives posed orally or in writing.
3) Transferring: the reader summarizes orally what is read.
4) Answering: the reader answers the questions about the passage. 5) Considering: the reader outlines or takes notes on a passage. 6) Extending: the reader provides an ending to a story.
7) Duplicating: the reader translates the message into the native language or copies it (beginning level, for very short passage only). 8) Modeling: the reader engages in a conversation that indicates
appropriate processing of information.
From some evaluations above, the writer chooses one of them to be focusing of instrument in this research. One of the evaluations is „choosing‟ which means that the students select from alternatives posed
orally or in writing. The writer will use one type of test to collect the data, which is Multiple-choice. The writer will make the test whose total number of test is 30. It contains 30 items of Multiple Choice.
B.Reciprocal Teaching
state that Reciprocal Teaching is a kind of strategy that attempts to establish an active and relatively expanded dialog between teacher and students and among students themselves. This dialogue is described as reciprocal because each learner acts in response to another.
Hacker and Tenent (2002) elaborate Reciprocal Teaching as a scaffold dialogue model based on social interaction and reading comprehension learning strategy. This instructional model helps teachers to model main strategies to construct the meaning of a passage in a social interaction and give learners enough practice on this Reciprocal Teaching technique.
1. The Strategies of Reciprocal Teaching
There are four discrete and specific reading strategies used actively as texts are processed: predicting, clarifying, questioning and summarizing (Allan and Arnold, 2008: 48). The four strategies of Reciprocal Teaching are:
a. Predicting sets a purpose for reading.
Before reading, the group previews elements of text structure, the text‟s cover, title, illustrations, (and tables) to look for clues about
the setting, characters, problem, events, and theme (for fiction): content and main ideas (for nonfiction).
With an information text, students figure out what they might learn in the subsequent passages. The learner consequently participates what comes closely to the text, grounded on appropriate prior knowledge and on the structure and content of the text. The purpose-setting allows learners to go over a segment and to confirm or reject their hypotheses. It encourages learners to actively think ahead and leave a hunch or hazard a guess.
b. Clarifying helps students monitor their comprehension.
It helps them identify unfamiliar or difficult words, unclear sentences and passages.
The clarification setup focuses on training students in defining steps to help with the decoding (letter-sound correspondence, “chunking,” spelling, etc.) as well as fix-up strategies to deal with the
c. Questioning increases students‟ awareness of the text‟s important ideas The language of questioning may include the question words, who, what, where, when, why, and how. Students may mark passages to turn into questions.
When playing on the questioning angle, readers monitor and assess their own understanding of the text by asking themselves some questions. This self-awareness of one‟s own internal thought process or “metacognition” allows the learner to explore the meaning of the text
in-depth. Questioning given them the opportunity to identify the kind of information needed to provide the corresponding answers. It frames the relevant questioning before, during and after the reading. Pertinent questions grant them the chance to offer potential explanations to the interrogatory. Asking the right questions could provide the right answers each of them have in their minds. The learners‟ active
participation in the Q and A helps monitor their respective perceptions and abet other learners to answer the question. They challenge themselves to judge their own feedbacks to the very questions they brought up.
d. Summarizing requires students to recall and arrange only the important ideas in a text.
Summarization depends upon the readers to perform the task of discriminating between the trivial and the significant details in the text. It must then be organized into a coherent whole (Palinscar and Brown, 1984). When the learners synopsize, they just identify and integrate the fine points in the context. They need first to point the big picture in the contents, soon after interface or intermix data, and before long own that essential idea to indicate understanding.
2. The Advantages of Reciprocal Teaching
According to Mc. Kaechie in Barkley (2005: 133), there are some advantages of Reciprocal Teaching.
a. Students have a solid opportunity to speak in a class the four strategies of reciprocal teaching such as predicting, questioning, clarifying and summarizing with their teacher and among the students themselves. b. Students get repeated experience by seeing the strategies modeled and
opportunities to practice and instructed in the use of those strategies by teacher directly.
c. Students can internalize language and their communicative competence in the target language because they have opportunities to talk in class so it can be useful for students in the world outside the classroom.
C.Teaching Reading Comprehension through Reciprocal Teaching
There are steps of teaching reading comprehension through Reciprocal Teaching. According to Mc. Keachiein Barkley (2005: 141) the basic stages of Reciprocal Teaching are:
1. Teacher‟s demonstration
Teacher‟s demonstrated or modeled and explain the use of four strategies
in Reciprocal Teaching.
2. Students learning and practicing
The teacher instructs students on the four strategies and the use of it. Students are lead into guided practice and receive feedback from teacher. 3. Teacher students group
Teacher lead discussion about the text in small group, repeatedly take turn leading discussion from all the groups and give feedback for the groups. 4. Students Group
Students take turn leading the discussions using four strategies in small groups with other students. Each student except the leader take responsibility for giving feedback on the strategy use then the leader of the group will lead the discussion and present their result to the other group. The teacher moves from one group to another to observing the progress and giving assistance as needed.
5. Students self-regulation
Teacher‟s activity in teaching using Reciprocal Teaching
a. Teacher tells the students that they are going to learn materials using Reciprocal Teaching technique. Teacher at first explain to the students about Reciprocal Teaching technique and the procedure of it.
b. Teacher distributes reading text and ask the students to predict what the author may discuss in the first paragraph, then teacher ask students to tell their opinion orally.
c. Still with the first paragraph, teacher asks students to questioning what the author will discuss in the next paragraph and also to ask them to clarify the difficult vocabularies, phrases or sentences that they do not know yet.
d. After the students finish discussing the whole paragraph then teacher asks the students to summarize the content of the text.
Students‟ activities in learning through Reciprocal Teaching
a. Students divided into group of four by the teacher and given same
reading text to be discussed.
b. Students will predict the text using Reciprocal Teaching technique, as the teacher teaches theme before.
c. Each group will discuss the text using all the stages of Reciprocal Teaching and one of them as leader of each group will tell the whole class their result. Each group taking turn to present their result.
D.Previous Research
The researchers found that there are some researches which applied Reciprocal Teachingas a technique that used to teaching and learning. For example, Arningsih (2012) conducted that aimed at improving students' reading comprehension using Reciprocal Teaching technique. The Classroom Action Research was done at SMP N 1 Sokaraja. The researcher took two cycles with four actions (two actions in each cycle). The result of analysis data showed that Reciprocal Teaching technique could improve the students' reading comprehension.
Greenway in Omar and We shah (2010) conducted a study to compare two groups of students with difficulties in learning vocabulary. One group was trained in Reciprocal Teaching technique while the other group received training in induction - deduction reasoning. The result showed that the cohort trained in Reciprocal Teaching technique was more effective than the cohort trained in induction - deduction reasoning method of reasoning in remembering, understanding and using vocabulary.
Based on both of previous research, the different from the first research is in research method. The researcher used Classroom Action Research while in this study the researcher used experimental research.
E.Basic Assumption
By using Reciprocal Teaching as a teaching technique, the students will be active in learning process. Because this technique allows the students to interact one and other (student to student or student to their teacher) in finding solution from the problem around reading in class. This techniqueencouragesstudents to predict, clarify, make questions and makesummary about what they will read.
Reciprocal Teaching willbe very meaningful activities for the students.Using reciprocal technique is challenging and interesting. If the students arechallenged and interested in doing the activities, they will find it easier to understand the material.
Reciprocal Teaching is a technique used by students to help them learn languageuseful and meaningful and help them too learn reading with the interest ways cause itmake them have motivating and challenging in reading. So this technique is effective forteaching reading.
F. Hypothesis
