Content
(linked to respective subjects) Ethics and Professional Ethics Ethics and Morality: the Diference Philosophy and Ethics
Ethics and Morality
Value & Ethics of Science Agricultural Ethics
Farm Structure Animal Ethics Food Safety
Environmental Impact International Trade Food Security
Agricultural Biotecnology
Ethics and Professional
Ethics
What is the diferent between ETHIC and ETHICS?:
An ethic means a principle , while Ethics is the study
of moral philosophy.
What is ETHICS?
Ethics is a branch of philosophy which seeks to
address questions about morality; that is, about concepts such as good and bad, right and wrong, justice, and virtue.
How do we defne PERSONAL ETHICS and
PROFESSIONAL ETHICS?
personal ethics is subjective; professional ethics is
Ethics and Morality: the
Diference
The terms ethics and morality are often used
interchangeably - indeed, they usually can
mean the same thing, and in casual
conversation there isn't a problem with
switching between one and the other.
However, there is a distinction between them
Ethics and Morality:
Etymology
Morality and ethics have same roots, mores
which means manner and customs from the
Latin and etos which means custom and
habits from the Greek.
Ethics and Morality:
What are
they?
Strictly speaking, morality is used to refer to
what we would call moral standards and
moral conduct while ethics is used to refer to
the formal study of those standards and
Philosophy and Ethics
Professional ethics is a branch of the area of
study called ethics, which is itself one of the traditional areas of philosophy.
review the defnitions of philosophy and ethics:
philosophy (df.): the area of inquiry that
attempts to discover truths involving
Philosophy and Ethics
Philosophy is an area of
inquiry
(df.):
an
attempt to discover truths about the world
(research)
Philosophy” derives from the Greek words for
love (
philo
) and wisdom (
sophia
). For the
ancient Greeks, “philosophy” was love of
wisdom. But while this might give us the
Ethics and Morality
Morality: frst-order set of beliefs and
practices about how to live a good life. The
discipline dealing with what is good or bad.
Ethics: a second-order, conscious refection
Morality
The quality of being in accord with standards
of right or good conduct.
A system of ideas of right and wrong conduct:
religious morality; Christian morality.
Virtuous conduct.
Philosophy and Ethics
Many philosophers (though not all) consider
ethics to be one of the four main branches of
philosophy, the other three being
logic
,
metaphysics
and
epistemology
.
ethics
(df.): the area of philosophy that
Three Areas of Ethics
Ethics itself is divided into three areas:
normative ethics
meta-ethics
Normative Ethics
Normative ethics (df.): the area of ethics that
asks general questions about the morality of behavior; it attempts to provide general moral norms of behavior.
normative (df): a normative statement, or
question, or theory, concerns how things should be, how they ought to be, rather than how they actually are.
the opposite of “normative” is: descriptive (df.): a
Normative Ethics
Normative Ethics
So normative ethics is the branch of ethics
that tries to answer general questions about how we should behave, how we ought to act.
In other words, it attempts to discover general rules or principles of moral behavior. In this area of ethics, you’ll fnd claims like the following:
If doing x will beneft someone without harming anyone
else, then it is morally permissible for you to do x.
If doing x treats someone as a means to an end without
Meta Ethics
meta-ethics (df.): the area of ethics that tries to
answer questions about the nature of morality
itself. It does not ask or make judgments about what types of action are moral and immoral; rather, it asks questions like:
does morality depend on what we believe about it, or is it
independent of our beliefs?
does morality depend on what God commands?
are moral judgments (statements attributing morality or
immorality to a given act, e.g. “Murder is immoral”; “Charity is morally good”) capable of being true or false? or are they simply expressions of emotion? or something else?
Applied Ethics
applied ethics
(df.): the area of ethics that
asks relatively concrete questions about the
morality of specifc actions and policies.
There are many applied ethics, including
Moral Categories
immoral
(df.): not permitted by morality;
morally bad; in performing the action, you
are doing something morally wrong;
examples of actions that are generally
considered to be immoral are: rape,
torturing someone simply because you enjoy
causing him pain, and killing someone
simply because you fnd him or her annoying
(or for some other relatively trivial reason).
Moral Categories
morally permissible
(df.): permitted by
morality; in performing the action, you are
not doing anything immoral.
There are three sub-categories of morally
permissible action:
obligatory,
Moral Categories
obligatory
(df.): required by morality; if you
don’t do it, then you’ve done something
immoral (for example, saving the life of a
baby who is drowning in two feet of water,
when doing so would pose no risk to your
own life).
Moral Categories
morally neutral
(df.): neither morally good
nor morally bad; no moral value whatsoever
(for example, tossing a piece of chalk up in
the air and then catching it... doing so has no
consequences for anyone else and only trivial
consequences for yourself; it violates no one’s
rights and in fact has nothing to do with
Moral Categories
supererogatory
(df.): going above and
beyond what morality requires; you are not
obligated to do it, so in failing to do it, you
would not be immoral; but you’ve done
something morally good if you do it (for
Value of Science
Value of Science
Science is the quintessence of knowledge of Science is the quintessence of knowledge of human cognition of the objective world.
human cognition of the objective world.
Technology is being and developing mode Technology is being and developing mode created by mankind.
created by mankind.
Science and technology is the driving Science and technology is the driving force and foundation of modern
force and foundation of modern civilization.
Value of Science
Value of Science
Contemporary scientifc revolution has Contemporary scientifc revolution hastriggered of technological revolution and triggered of technological revolution and
industrial revolution. industrial revolution.
the theory of relativity, quantum and the theory of relativity, quantum and cybernetics fueled the development of cybernetics fueled the development of
nuclear , semi-conductor, laser physics nuclear , semi-conductor, laser physics
and so on, which gave birth to, the and so on, which gave birth to, the
development of nuclear energy, industrial development of nuclear energy, industrial automation, IC and IT technology and the automation, IC and IT technology and the
Value of Science
Value of Science
Modern science and technology has
Modern science and technology has
brought about improvt agriculture,
brought about improvt agriculture,
health care and quality of life.
health care and quality of life.
IT, life sciences and biotechnology, etc
IT, life sciences and biotechnology, etc
have brought human into an era of
have brought human into an era of
global and knowledge-based economy.
global and knowledge-based economy.
Modern
Modern
science and technology has
science and technology has
opened a new era of harmonious and
opened a new era of harmonious and
sustainable development of human
sustainable development of human
with nature.
Modern science and technology is still
Modern science and technology is still
brewing new breakthroughs, which will
brewing new breakthroughs, which will
bring about revolutionary changes to the
bring about revolutionary changes to the
future production mode, life style, social
future production mode, life style, social
structure, etc. meanwhile inevitably
structure, etc. meanwhile inevitably
giving rise to more ethical and moral
giving rise to more ethical and moral
issues.
IT will continue its developing towards IT will continue its developing towards broadband, wireless, intelligence and broadband, wireless, intelligence and grid working, and bring about profound grid working, and bring about profound impact on the daily life, production
impact on the daily life, production mode, commercial and social
mode, commercial and social management, and further boost management, and further boost
globalization of information, capital, globalization of information, capital, human resources, production and human resources, production and operation.
operation.
—— —— However, problems such as networking However, problems such as networking
fraud, hacker attack, information leakage,
fraud, hacker attack, information leakage,
data falsifcation, gambling and illegal
data falsifcation, gambling and illegal
dissemination of pornography , etc also
dissemination of pornography , etc also
come along. Moreover, due to imbalance of
come along. Moreover, due to imbalance of
information acquisition and application
information acquisition and application
among diferent countries, regions and
among diferent countries, regions and
individuals, new disparity between rich and
individuals, new disparity between rich and
poor — digital gap, will occur
Further development of life sciences Further development of life sciences
and biotechnology will bring about and biotechnology will bring about new revolutionary changes to
new revolutionary changes to agriculture and healthcare. agriculture and healthcare. Meanwhile, the
Meanwhile, the advancement and advancement and extensive application
extensive application of industrial of industrial
and eco-environmental biotechnology and eco-environmental biotechnology will lead to the advent of
will lead to the advent of Bio-economy
economy era era —— ——.. However, ethical problems such as However, ethical problems such as
individual life code disclosure, dificulty in
individual life code disclosure, dificulty in
defnition of individual’s social attribution, etc
defnition of individual’s social attribution, etc
will also rise. Other problems include
will also rise. Other problems include
factitious impact on ecological balance and
factitious impact on ecological balance and
safety, new threat to human genetic and
safety, new threat to human genetic and
development health, etc.
The Achievements of The Achievements of
nanotechnology may further change nanotechnology may further change the industries of information,
the industries of information,
electronics, manufacture, chemical electronics, manufacture, chemical process, pharmaceuticals, materials process, pharmaceuticals, materials and environmental protection etc. and environmental protection etc.
——
—— However, once nanotechnology is extensively However, once nanotechnology is extensively applied in various felds, numerous challenges in
applied in various felds, numerous challenges in
aspects such as human health, social ethics,
aspects such as human health, social ethics,
ecological environment, etc may appear. Research
ecological environment, etc may appear. Research
already show, that some nano powder have
already show, that some nano powder have
special toxicity , nano particles and nano carbon
special toxicity , nano particles and nano carbon
tube may trigger cancer and could penetrate
tube may trigger cancer and could penetrate
animal’s blood-brain barrier, and the waste
animal’s blood-brain barrier, and the waste
disposal of nano materials may bring us to face
disposal of nano materials may bring us to face
new problems. If one day nanotechnology is used
new problems. If one day nanotechnology is used
to make danger weapons, man has yet to fnd
to make danger weapons, man has yet to fnd
ways and means to protect ourselves.
Progress of cognitive science will possibly Progress of cognitive science will possibly
trigger revolutionary changes for trigger revolutionary changes for computer, communication, brain/nervous computer, communication, brain/nervous science, and even learning and education, science, and even learning and education, providing more efective means for the providing more efective means for the well-being and development of human well-being and development of human brain and neural system, and the brain and neural system, and the prevention and cure of mental diseases.
prevention and cure of mental diseases.
——
—— However, improper use of cognitive However, improper use of cognitive science may lead to control of man’s
science may lead to control of man’s
behavior, sensibility and thought such
behavior, sensibility and thought such
as psychological inducement, cognition
as psychological inducement, cognition
inducement, etc and cause serious
inducement, etc and cause serious
ethical problems such as illegal
ethical problems such as illegal
infringement on human rights such as
infringement on human rights such as
privacy and self-determination of
privacy and self-determination of
behavior, etc.
Combination of information Combination of information
technology and life sciences with technology and life sciences with biotechnology, nanotechnology, biotechnology, nanotechnology, cognitive science and
cognitive science and
mathematics / system science mathematics / system science will fnd new, efective and
will fnd new, efective and simple mathematic tools and simple mathematic tools and
methods to understand matters, methods to understand matters, life and human cognizing
life and human cognizing
process, and possibly trigger of process, and possibly trigger of new scientifc and technological new scientifc and technological revolution.
revolution.
——
—— However, this may also bring about new However, this may also bring about new knowledge gap and imbalance of development.
Advanced and extensive application of Advanced and extensive application of
space technology (GIS,GPS,RS) has space technology (GIS,GPS,RS) has
expanded human’s visions of cognition, expanded human’s visions of cognition,
promoted developing the earth, promoted developing the earth,
resource and environmental science, resource and environmental science,
provided the technological support for provided the technological support for
agriculture, monitoring the agriculture, monitoring the
eco-environmentals, forecasting climate environmentals, forecasting climate
change and natural disaster, and change and natural disaster, and
creation of a digital earth. creation of a digital earth.
——
—— but under modern space supervision, it’s but under modern space supervision, it’s dificult to keep individual privacy and
dificult to keep individual privacy and
confdentials of commercial information, so
confdentials of commercial information, so
countries possessing space supervision
countries possessing space supervision
technologies inevitably have information
technologies inevitably have information
advantages, thus causing new ethical problems
advantages, thus causing new ethical problems
such as dissymmetry of information, unfair of
such as dissymmetry of information, unfair of
development, etc.
As fortune created by mankind
As fortune created by mankind jointlyjointly, science , science and technology has the characteristics of and technology has the characteristics of accumulation, sharable and re-creation. It accumulation, sharable and re-creation. It
should beneft all mankind. should beneft all mankind.
Meanwhile, we should clear realize that science Meanwhile, we should clear realize that science
and technology is also a double-edged sword, and technology is also a double-edged sword,
once misused, it may endanger natural once misused, it may endanger natural
ecosystem, human rights, life in the earth, and ecosystem, human rights, life in the earth, and harmonious and sustainable evolution between harmonious and sustainable evolution between human society and nature, thus causing further human society and nature, thus causing further
unfair, insecurity, disharmony, no unfair, insecurity, disharmony, no
Scientifc ethics that mankind
Scientifc ethics that mankind
should all abide
should all abide
Scientists and engineers should not only have the interest Scientists and engineers should not only have the interest
and passion for creation, but also shoulder the social
and passion for creation, but also shoulder the social
responsibility.
responsibility.
In S&T innovation, we should respect life (including that of In S&T innovation, we should respect life (including that of
mankind and other life).
mankind and other life).
In In S&T S&T innovation, we should respect the human rights innovation, we should respect the human rights
fairly (including that among not just the
fairly (including that among not just the contemporaries contemporaries but also the diferent generations).
but also the diferent generations).
In In S&T S&T innovation, we should respect dignity of human innovation, we should respect dignity of human
(including those of diferent ethnic groups, genders, ages
(including those of diferent ethnic groups, genders, ages
and with diferent beliefs).
and with diferent beliefs).
In In S&T S&T innovation, we should respect nature, protect eco-innovation, we should respect nature, protect
eco-systems and environment, and realize harmonious
systems and environment, and realize harmonious
coexistence and sustainable evolution between man and
coexistence and sustainable evolution between man and
nature.
Commonality between ancient oriental
Commonality between ancient oriental
philosophy
philosophy
and modern scientifc ethics
and modern scientifc ethics
2500 years ago, the Chinese philosopher 2500 years ago, the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551 BC — 479 BC) put forward Confucius (551 BC — 479 BC) put forward the following ethical norms:the following ethical norms:
•treasure lifetreasure life
•treat people equally treat people equally
•respect each other respect each other
•encourage creationencourage creation
Confucius (551 BCConfucius (551 BC －－ 479 BC) said, “Without 479 BC) said, “Without
recognizing the ordinances of Heaven, it is recognizing the ordinances of Heaven, it is impossible to be a superior man” (The impossible to be a superior man” (The
Analects· Yao Yue)
Analects· Yao Yue) － － in which “ordinances in which “ordinances of Heaven” means the rule of nature.
of Heaven” means the rule of nature.
Lao Tzu (around 571 BCLao Tzu (around 571 BC － － 471 BC) once 471 BC) once
said, “Tao models itself after the nature” said, “Tao models itself after the nature” (The Classic of the Way and virtue), (The Classic of the Way and virtue), highlighting the necessity of abiding by the highlighting the necessity of abiding by the
rule of nature. rule of nature.
Ancient
oriental
philosophy
attaches
Ancient
oriental
philosophy
attaches
importance
importance
to the unity of heaven and man,
to the unity of heaven and man,
harmonious
harmonious
Zhuang Tzu (around 369 BC Zhuang Tzu (around 369 BC － － 286 BC) 286 BC) once said, “There is nothing superior; there once said, “There is nothing superior; there is nothing inferior” (Zhuang Tzu · Discussion is nothing inferior” (Zhuang Tzu · Discussion
on Making All Things Equal)
on Making All Things Equal) －－ requesting to requesting to treat all things in the universe equally.
treat all things in the universe equally.
Mencius (around 372 BC Mencius (around 372 BC － － 289 BC) 289 BC) asserted “loving people and treasuring asserted “loving people and treasuring things”(Mencius·Doctrine of Extending things”(Mencius·Doctrine of Extending Afection), treating people kindly and loving Afection), treating people kindly and loving
the nature. the nature.
Ancient
oriental
philosophy
attaches
Ancient
oriental
philosophy
attaches
importance
importance
to the unity of heaven and man,
to the unity of heaven and man,
harmonious
harmonious
It is not scientifc and technological development It is not scientifc and technological development itself but just improper use that accounts for some itself but just improper use that accounts for some ethical problems arising along with scientifc and ethical problems arising along with scientifc and technological development. Man should by no technological development. Man should by no means give up or restrict scientifc and means give up or restrict scientifc and technological development in the excuse of technological development in the excuse of
ethnics. ethnics.
————Exploring the unknown world, innovating production Exploring the unknown world, innovating production mode and lifestyle and preserving the eco-environment are
mode and lifestyle and preserving the eco-environment are
everlasting drive for scientifc and technology.
everlasting drive for scientifc and technology.
——
——Science and technology is the inexhaustible source Science and technology is the inexhaustible source and driving force for progress of human civilization.
and driving force for progress of human civilization.
——
——It is the common social responsibility for scientists and It is the common social responsibility for scientists and engineers to develop science and technology to promote the
engineers to develop science and technology to promote the
welfare of human beings.
welfare of human beings.
——
——The combination of scientifc spirit and humanistic The combination of scientifc spirit and humanistic spirit will inevitably help to establish new ethical norms
spirit will inevitably help to establish new ethical norms
following science and technology
We are convinced that so long as
We are convinced that so long as
Scientists, Engineers and other peoples
Scientists, Engineers and other peoples
of all countries work hand in hand to
of all countries work hand in hand to
face common challenges, enhance
face common challenges, enhance
exchange and adequately cooperate
exchange and adequately cooperate
each other, we will be able to create a
each other, we will be able to create a
more promising future for mankind!
Ethics is about choices, and agricultural ethics is about choices for people engaged in agriculture either directly as farmers, or indirectly as
government regulators, extension agents,
Role of Ethics in
Agriculture
Ethics is a systematic and critical analysis of
morality, of the moral factors that guide human conduct in a particular society or practice.
As agriculture represent an interaction
between humans and the aquatic ecosystem,
Agric. Ethics
Agriculture has a long history. Starting
approximately 12,000 years ago, the
domestication of plants and animals began independently in several diferent places,
including centers in West Asia, East Asia, Central America, and South America.
Domestication also may have occurred in other
locations, although convincing archeological evidence has not been found.
In the domestication process, humans manipulated
Agric. Ethics
It is less widely known that religious, political, and
philosophical refection on agriculture and the environment also has a long history
The fundamental value of agriculture was
highlighted by Enlightenment thinkers from John Locke to Thomas Jeferson, who underscored the
political, economic, and philosophical importance of “tillers of the soil”
In the late twentieth century, systematic thinking
about the values and norms associated with the food system—farming, resource management, food
Agric. Ethics
Agricultural ethics incorporates elements of
philosophical ethical analysis with concerns about particular issue areas that arise in connection with the food system.
Many issues associated with the food system
arise from actions that are justifable from the perspective of one ethical theory but clearly wrong from the perspective of anoth
er
This is why they are referred to as issues: situations in
which some people’s positions or arguments about what constitutes the right or wrong thing(s) to do are at
focus of agricultural ethics as
issues in the food system
farm structure, animal ethics, food safety,
environmental impacts, international trade,
food security,
agricultural biotechnology, research ethics,
public trust in science,
the process of institutionalizing agricultural
FARM STRUCTURE
Farm structure refers to the general social and
economic features of agriculture in a given society.
It includes elements such as the average size of
farms, relative market shares of diferent-sized farms, numbers of people employed in farming, and whether or not farms are owner-operated.
There are many causes of structural change.
Improved farm technology allowed farm size to
grow while improving eficiency and productivity.
Better transportation allowed access to markets
ANIMAL ETHICS
The use of animals in agriculture raises many
ethical issues. A few of the questions raised by
the practice of producing animals for food are
the following:
how long will the Earth’s natural resources be
able to sustain an industrial agricultural system devoted to high-volume, low-cost, monoculture production of animal feedstufs?
To what extent will animal producers pay for
ANIMAL ETHICS
Answers to these questions will depend, in
large part, on one’s views about the moral
status of animals and humans’ responsibilities.
For example, we may do whatever we please to
animals; animals have value only as means to human ends, either because animals are not sentient (it is believed) or because they lack consciousness.
Ethical issues in animal production arise only in
ANIMAL ETHICS
Animals can be harmed just as people can,
and they can be benefted as well.
Utilitarian ethics demands that we attempt to
achieve a balance of humans’ and animals’
benefts and harms.
Accordingly, genetically engineering “happy”
FOOD SAFETY
Food safety is an ethical issue in part because,
in the modern food production-transportation-processingwholesaling-retailing chain, foods can be exposed to chemicals or microbial
pathogens, or simply can be mishandled.
In addition, the food system is not transparent;
that is, consumers on their own may not know or be able to tell whether the foods they
purchase and eat will put them at risk for
FOOD SAFETY
The complexity and lack of transparency of the
production system leads to the need for
agencies such as public health departments, to
play an important role in ensuring food safety.
On this view, governments have an ethical
responsibility to ensure that rights are not
violated and that food is therefore safe.
But, determining food safety is not simple:
FOOD SAFETY
Some people have called for implementation of a
“precautionary approach” in food safety assessments (as well as in environmental risk assessments),
which would place stricter demands on regulators. The precautionary approach would require that risk
analyses be exhaustive; products being evaluated would be deemed “safe” only if it could be
determined that there are no risks associated with the use or consumption of the product.
Issues pertaining to the potential negative impacts of certifed “safe” foods on certain groups (e.g.,
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS
Together with managed forests, crop
agriculture and animal production dominate
human-managed ecosystems on both a
national and global scale. Along with that
domination come the tremendous
environmental impacts that agriculture has
had and continues to have.
These environmental impacts fall into
three
three general areas of
ethical concern in
environment.
1. Agricultural production practices can have toxic efects through organic wastes and chemical
pollution, which can afect nontarget organisms, leave chemical residues on food, and expose
farm workers and other human beings to harm. 2. Agricultural use of soil, water, and genetic
resources can be wasteful.
3. Agriculture has a range of efects on wild
organisms and natural ecosystems that goes beyond the direct efects of exposure to
chemical toxins
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS
Although most people would agree that these
questions raise ethical concerns, dificult philosophical issues arise in attempting to articulate a response.
Questions of acceptable risk, and norms for weighing
the degree and distribution of risks against benefts, are central in each issue.
As is the case with food safety, tensions arise between
utilitarian- and rights-oriented approaches to risk.
In addition, wasteful practices and efects on wild
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS
Alternatively, some people believe that humans
have obligations of stewardship and respect for nature that go beyond any use human beings will ever make of natural resources.
Debates over the environmental impact of
transgenic crops have raised anew the question of just what is an unwanted environmental
impact (UNFAO 2001). Whether transgenic
INTERNATIONAL
TRADE
There long have been questions about the fairness
of the conditions of international trade, especially between richer and poorer nations (countries)
Most current ethical questions focus on the
institutional arrangement under which global trade now is conducted—the World Trade Organization (WTO).
Membership in the WTO implies that a nation agrees
to abide by WTO rules concerning labor and
production practices, environmental regulations,
INTERNATIONAL
TRADE
The WTO negotiations, rules, and sanctions
clearly have ethical overtones. The existence
of the WTO itself also has been subject to
challenges: certain lesser-developed
countries (LDCs) see the organization as a
tool for developed country’s corporations to
gain/maintain control over their internal
FOOD SECURITY
Food security is an umbrella term that covers a
wide variety of issues.
At its most basic level, food security notes that
having enough food is a basic need for all human beings, and that threats to the food that people
need to survive are among the most basic problems human beings have faced since antiquity.
The phenomenon of hunger continues to be an
AGRICULTURAL
BIOTECHNOLOGY
The development of recombinant DNA
techniques for transforming agricultural plants and animals, as well as for food processing and animal drugs, has been the focus of controversy for more than 25 years
Agricultural biotechnology is debated in terms
of food safety and consumer consent, the
broader environmental efects of its use in crop and livestock production, its impact on the
AGRICULTURAL
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Each of these issues might be raised with
RESEARCH ETHICS
Within many domains of science, research
ethics has focused
primarily on human subjects and informed
consent, and
secondarily on the use of animals as research
subjects.
Whereas the frst concern has not afected
RESEARCH ETHICS
Research ethics is coming to be seen in terms of
the broader steering of and control over the research agenda and the proper role of self-interested actors (such as corporations) in supporting public-sector scientifc research.
In agricultural research, these ethical issues
TRUST IN SCIENCE
Agricultural science is a communal process
devoted to the discovery of knowledge and to
open and honest communication of
knowledge.
Its success, therefore, rests on two diferent
TRUST IN SCIENCE
Epistemological values are values by which
scientists determine which knowledge claims are better than others.
The values include clarity, objectivity, capacity to
explain a range of observations, and ability to generate accurate predictions.
Epistemological values in science also include
fecundity, or the ability to generate useful new hypotheses; simplicity, or the ability to explain
observations with the fewest number of additional assumptions or qualifcations; and elegance, or
TRUST IN SCIENCE
Personal values, including honesty and responsibility, are a second kind of values—those that allow scientists to trust the knowledge claims of their peers.
If scientists are dishonest, untruthful, fraudulent, or excessively
self-interested, the free fow of accurate information essential to science will be thwarted.
If a scientist plagiarizes the work of others or uses fabricated
data, that scientist's work will become shrouded in suspicion and otherwise reliable data will not be trusted.
If scientists exploit those who work under them or discriminate
INSTITUTIONALIZING
AGRICULTURAL ETHICS?
Ethical concerns have always been important
in agriculture.
However, that ethics has not always been
given an explicit place in the structure of
organizations dedicated to agricultural
INSTITUTIONALIZING
AGRICULTURAL ETHICS?
The most direct strategy for institutionalizing ethics
is for everyone in the food system to begin to
include some consideration of ethics in the actions, decisions, and policies they create or support.
This strategy means that farmers, scientists,
Agricultural
intensifcation
Agricultural intensifcation can be technically
defned as an increase in agricultural production per unit of inputs (which may be labour, land, time, fertilizer, seed, feed or cash).
For practical purposes, intensifcation occurs when
there is an increase in the total volume of agricultural production that results from a higher productivity of inputs, or agricultural production is maintained while certain inputs are decreased (such as by more
An ethics framework
The word “ethics” refers to principles or standards
that defne behaviour, action or rules for action that is considered to be right, good and proper.
A framework for organizing the enormous variety of
ethical standards that have served in this role
throughout human history can be developed from a simple schema of human action.
Individuals, associations or the designated agents
An ethics framework
Actors considering or initiating action do so
under three kinds of constraints that determine which action or behaviour is possible
constraints determine the physical universe of
possibility limits of possible actions represent technology.
law and policy limit the universe of possible
behaviour and action that an actor will consider.
individuals and associations limit the universe
When is intensifcation
ethically good?
Utilitarian ethics
Agricultural intensifcation is a process that
occurs when individual human beings,
communities or organizations take actions of one sort or another.
Rights-based ethics
A rightsbased approach to intensifcation is
more concerned as to whether the actions that result in higher food production are consistent with these rights and duties than in their
When is intensifcation
ethically good?
Utilitarianism and rights-based ethics
The basic tension between utilitarian
consequentialism, on the one hand, and
rightsbased ethics, on the other, underlies many issues associated with agricultural intensifcation.
Researchers have used the germplasm in breeding
programmes to develop higher-yielding varieties as well as searching for other valuable genetic traits.
From a utilitarian viewpoint, the increased yields of new varieties more than justifed the collection of
