Gizi Dalam Pembangunan: Distribusi Pendapatan dan Gizi

Gizi Dalam Pembangunan:

Distribusi Pendapatan dan Gizi

By : Suyatno, Ir. MKes

Office : Dept. of Public Health Nutrition, Faculty of Public Health Diponegoro University, Semarang

Contact : 081-22815730 / 024-70251915 Blog : suyatno.blog.undip.ac.id

Dietary Intake Macro-nutrients Micro-nutrients Health Status Access to food Household income/ expenditures on food

Maternal & child care practices Quality & quantity of care

Health environment & services Access & quality of health, sanitation & water

Policies that encourage -food production

-income generation -transfer food in-kind

Policies & programs that increase -caregivers access

-caregivers resource control

-caregivers knowledge, adoption & practice

Policies that improve -adequate sanitation -safe water supply -health care availability

-environmental safety/ shelter

Political & legal Institutions

Political commitment, legal structures for implementing food laws

Potential resources

Poverty/natural resources availability/ agricultural technology

Resource control, ownership, use Resource use & pricing policies

Adult development and Labor productivity Immediate Causes Underlying Causes Basic Causes Nutrition Security

Conceptual Framework of Linking Poverty & Nutrition

Nutrition Security

Keterkaitan Pendapatan & Gizi

Pendapatan mempengaruhi konsumsi dan

Gizi

Besar pendapatan akan menentukan:

akses pangan secara ekonomi

data beli pangan

jumlah dan kualitas pangan

Distribusi pendapatan yang baik akan

mengurangi kesenjangan ekonomi antar

keluarga sehingga akan mengurangi

SOURCES OF FAMILY INCOME

Gifts and assistance from abroad and from domestic source

Dividends from investments Imputed rental values of owner

occupied dwelling units Interests, royalties

Rentals including landowner’s share of agricultural products Pensions

Receipts from family sustenance activities

Salaries and Wages Commissions/tips Bonuses

Family and clothing allowances Transportation and

representation allowances Honoraria

Other forms of compensation Net receipts/ profits derived

from operation of family

operated enterprises/ activities and practice of profession or trade

Income from Other Sources Primary Sources of Income

FAMILY EXPENDITURE

FAMILY EXPENDITURE

FAMILY EXPENDITURE

FAMILY EXPENDITURE

Food Non-Food

Food consumed at home

Cereals and cereal preparations Roots and tubers

Fruits and vegetables

Meat and meat preparations Dairy products and roots Fish and marine products Coffee, Cocoa and tea Non-alcoholic beverages Food not elsewhere classified

Food regularly consumed outside the home

Alcoholic beverages

Tobacco

Fuel, Light and Water

Transportation and communication

Household operation

Personal care and effects

Clothing, Footwear and other wear

Education

Recreation

Medical care

Non-durable furnishings

Durable furniture and equipment

Taxes

Housing, House Maintenance and Minor Repairs

Miscellaneous expenditures

Special family occasion

Gifts and contributions to others Other expenditures

Other disbursements

National Statistics Office

Pendapatan & Belanja Pangan

Dalam ekonomi pangan, yang

terpenting:

berapa jumlah/persentase untuk konsumsi/belanja pangan.

bagaimana distribusi pendapatan dan pangan.

Hukum Engel

:

“the proportion of a family’s budget devoted to food declines as the familiy’s income

increase”

the income elasticity of demand for food is less than

one.

Penyebab berlakunya hukum Engel adalah:

Hukum Bennett

:

the ‘starchy staple ratio’ declines as houshold

income increase as the consumer diversifies the food consumption bundle to include higher-priced calories.

Argumentasi:

Karena pangan pokok berpati jumlah substitusinya sedikit dan jumlah konsumsinya terbatas disebabkan oleh kemampuan manusia terbatas secara fisiologis

Karena adanya keinginan manusia yang universal untuk memperoleh bahan makanan yang bervariasi dan

The figure is drawn in logarithms to illustrate elasticities:

(log) Food Quality = (log) food expenditure – (log) food quantity

Food Consumption Food expenditure (Engel’s low) Food quantity (calories) (Bennet’s low) Food Quality Starchy staples (calories) Household income

Hukum Houthakker

:

“the average quality of food calories (measured by prices) rises with incomes”

HUBUNGAN ANTARA PENDAPATAN DENGAN KONSUMSI KALORI

Note: Solid lines indicate consumption patterns before a subsidy on dried cassava; dotted lines indicate consumption patterns after a subsidy on dried cassava. The shaded areas indicate increases in calorie intake after the subsidy.

Pengukuran Distribusi Income

dan Gizi

Lorenz Curve:

• A curve showing the proportion of total

income earned by a given percentage of

the population.

• e.g what proportion of total income is

earned by the top 10% of the

Lorenz Curve

% of National Income

Percentage of Population

This line represents the situation if

income was

distributed equally. The poorest 10% would earn 10% of national income, the poorest 30% would earn 30% of national income. 10% 10% 30% 30%

Lorenz Curve

% of National Income

Percentage of Population

The Lorenz Curve will show the extent to which equality exists. The greater the gap between the line of equality and the

curve the greater the degree of inequality. 30% 20% In this example, the poorest 30% of the population earn 20% of the national income. 7% In this second

example, the Lorenz curve lies further below the line of equality. Now, the poorest 30% only earn 7% of the national income.

Gini Coefficient

• Enables more precise comparison of

Lorenz Curves

• The proportion of the area taken up by

the Lorenz Curve in relation to the

Didasarkan pada kurva Laurenz

–

Angka berkisar 0 - 1

–

Kriteria kesenjangan:

• 0.50 – 0.70 = kesenjangan tinggi • >0.35 – <0.5 = kesenjangan sedang • 0.20 – 0.35 = kesenjangan rendah

–

Perhitungan angka Gini ada 3 cara, yaitu:

Gini ratio, Bilangan Gini dan Pendekatan

Integral

Mengukur Kesenjangan:

Metode Gabungan

Gini Coefficient

% of National Income

Percentage of Population

The total area under the line of equality The area bounded by the Lorenz Curve

a. Gini Ratio (G)

Rumus: G = A’/A

Dimana : A’ adalah area antara kurva Laurenz dan garis kesamarataan 100 % 100 % 0 % Penerima Pendapatan Gar is ke sam arat aan Kur va L aure nz

A’

A

b. Bilangan Gini (G)

Rumus (I) :

G =

∑

P

_i

. I

_i+1

-

∑

P

_i+1

. I

_i

Dimana :

P

_i

= persen komulatif penerima pendapatan

ke-i

I

_i

= persen komulatif pendapatan yang

diterima kelompok ke-I

k = kelompok penerima pendapatan

1 1

k k

No (k)

Penerima Pendapatan (% komulatif)

Pendapatan diterima (I) Persentase Komulatif Pendapatan diterima (Rp) (%) Kuantil Desil 1 60.000 0.6 2 (k-1) 10 90.000 0.9 1.5 3 130.000 1.3 4 (k-2) 20 180.000 1.8 4.6 4.6 5 210.000 2.1 6 (k-3) 30 230.000 2.3 9.0 7 250.000 2.5 8 (k-4) 40 270.000 2.7 14.2 14.2 9 280.000 2.8 10 (k-5) 50 300.000 3.0 20.0 11 330.000 3.3 12(k-6) 60 370.000 3.7 27.0 27.0 13 420.000 4.2 14(k-7) 70 500.000 5.0 36.2 15 590.000 5.9 16 (k-8) 80 700.000 7.0 49.1 49.1 17 1.040.000 10.4 18 (k-9) 90 1.200.000 12.0 71.5 19 1.350.000 13.5 20(k-10) 100 1.500.000 15.0 100 100 Jumlah 10.000.000 100

Contoh: Perhitungan Bilangan Gini I

∑ PPPP_{i i i i} . I. I. I. I_{i+1 i+1 i+1 i+1 ∑} PPPP_i+1i+1i+1i+1 . I. I. I. I_iiii

• k1 ….. 0.1 x 0.046 = 0.0046 …… 0.2 x 0.015 = 0.003 • k2 ….. 0.2 x 0.09 = 0.018 …… 0.3 x 0.046 = 0.0138 • k3 ….. 0.3 x 0.142 = 0.0426 …… 0.4 x 0.09 = 0.036 • k4 ….. 0.4 x 0.2 = 0.08 …… 0.5 x 0.142 = 0.071 • k5 ….. 0.5 x 0.27 = 0.135 …… 0.6 x 0.2 = 0.12 • k6 ….. 0.6 x 0.362 = 0.2172 …… 0.7 x 0.27 = 0.189 • k7 ….. 0.7 x 0.491 = 0.3437 …… 0.8 x 0.362 = 0.2896 • k8 ….. 0.8 x 0.715 = 0.572 …… 0.9 x 0.491 = 0.4419 • k9 ….. 0.9 x 1.0 = 0.9 …… 1.0 x 0.715 = 0.715 • K10.... 1.0 x 0.0 = 0 . G = 2.3131 - 1.8793 = 0.4338

Rumus (II) :

G = 1 -

∑

P

_i

(I

_i

+I

_{i -1}

)

Dimana :

P

_i

= persen penerima pendapatan

kelompok ke-i

I

_i

= persen komulatif pendapatan yang

diterima kelompok ke-I

k = kelompok penerima pendapatan

1 k

No (k)

Penerima Pendapatan

(%)

Pendapatan diterima (I) Persentase Komulatif Pendapatan diterima (Rp) (%) Kuantil Desil 1 60.000 0.6 2 (k-1) 10 90.000 0.9 1.5 3 130.000 1.3 4 (k-2) 10 180.000 1.8 4.6 4.6 5 210.000 2.1 6 (k-3) 10 230.000 2.3 9.0 7 250.000 2.5 8 (k-4) 10 270.000 2.7 14.2 14.2 9 280.000 2.8 10 (k-5) 10 300.000 3.0 20.0 11 330.000 3.3 12 (k-6) 10 370.000 3.7 27.0 27.0 13 420.000 4.2 14 (k-7) 10 500.000 5.0 36.2 15 590.000 5.9 16 (k-8) 10 700.000 7.0 49.1 49.1 17 1.040.000 10.4 18 (k-9) 10 1.200.000 12.0 71.5 19 1.350.000 13.5 20(k-10) 10 1.500.000 15.0 100 100 Jumlah 10.000.000 100

Contoh: Perhitungan Bilangan Gini II

G = 1 - ∑ P_i (I_i +I_{i -1}) • k1 ….. 0.1 (0.015 + 0 ) • k2 ….. 0.1 (0.046 + 0.015) • k3 ….. 0.1 (0.09 + 0.046) • k4 ….. 0.1 (0.142 + 0.09) • k5 ….. 0.1 (0.2 + 0.142) • k6 ….. 0.1 (0.27 + 0.2 ) • k7 ….. 0.1 (0.362 + 0.27) • k8 ….. 0.1 (0.491 + 0.362) • k9 ….. 0.1 (0.715 + 0.491) • K10.... 0.1 (1.0 + 0.715) G = 1 - 0.5662 = 0.4338

Kemiskinan (Poverty)

• Poverty is “welfare level below a reasonable

minimum.”

• Poverty has various dimensions

– Income poverty – Security poverty – Education poverty

– Health – Nutrition Poverty – Multiple deprivation

Beragam Makna dari “Poverty”

The primary focus is on individuals or groups suffering from multiple deprivations Core Poor Education poor Health Poor Security Poor Income Poor

KEMISKINAN

Ekonomi • Pendapatan Perkapita rendah • Tingkat pengangguran tinggi • Ketergantungan pada sektor pertanian yang tinggi sehingga produktivitas tenaga kerja rendah • Persentase penduduk miskin tinggi • Investasi Rendah • Topografi wilayah • Kondisi geografis • Kurangnya sarana & prasarana Struktural • Klimatologi tdk mnguntungkan • SDA yang belum dapat digunakan secara optimal Situasional • Tingkat Pendidikan & Kesehatan masih Rendah • Rasio Beban Tanggungan yang tinggi • Adat kebiasaan • Berpikir & cara

pandang miskin • Kepercayaan tradisional Sosial • Jauh dan sulitnya akses dari sumber kekuasaan • Kurangnya Partisipasi & budaya politik Politik

The Vicious Circle of Poverty

Investasi Rendah Kekurangan Modal Tabungan Rendah Produktivitas Rendah Pendapatan Rendah

Akibat kemiskinan

Akses terhadap program promotif &

preventif rendah

Sehingga pengetahuan kesehatan

terbatas (ignoransi)

Selanjutnya (juga) melemahnya akses

terhadap pelayanan kuratif dasar,

akses terhadap obat esensial,

pelayanan kedaruratan, terutama bagi

kelompok resiko tinggi (bumil, balita dll)

Dan dampaknya terhadap kehidupan

sosial ekonomik yang sehat dan produktif

Kemiskinan

Menurunnya: • kualitas hidup • produktivitas • kemampuan belajar • tabungan Meningkatnya hutang, dll Meningkatnya

• faktor resiko personal & lingkungan

• malnutrisi Menurunnya :

• akses ke pengetahuan & informasi

• kemampuan

mengakses pelayanan

Indikator Kemiskinan

• Terdapat beberapa indikator kemiskinan

yang biasa digunakan, yaitu indikator:

– Kemiskinan relatif

– Kemiskinan absolut

– Kemiskinan kultural, dan

– Kemiskinan struktural

Kemiskinan Relatif

• Seseorang dikatakan berada dalam kelompok

kemiskinan relatif, jika pendapatannya berada di

bawah pendapatan di sekitarnya, atau dalam

kelompok masyarakat tersebut, ia berada di

lapisan paling bawah.

• Bisa jadi meskipun pendapatannya cukup untuk

memenuhi kebutuhan pokok, namun karena

dibanding masyarakat di sekitarnya,

pendapatannya dinilai rendah, ia termasuk

miskin.

• Amerika Serikat menggunakan indikator

kemiskinan semacam ini.

Characteristics of the very poor

• Children don't go to school • Lack of food

• Poor shelter - many people in one room

• Unemployed

• Lack of clothes to wear

• Beggar/ must hunt food/ hand outs • Big families

• Don't meet families basic needs • Deserted by husbands

• No source of income/ no-one else to help

• Struggles for food and shelter, no thought of luxuries

• Children are dirty

• No opportunities to achieve anything • Uncertainty eg. food for tomorrow • Works for other village people • Polygamous families

• No assets

• Unmarried daughters with children • Bad health

• Many children to support

• Pensioner with very big responsibilities • Christmas is like any other day

• Get food by ploughing

• Children steal from others - especially food

Group 1:The very poor

Characteristics of the poor

• Casual labourers - farm/domestic • Pensioner with big responsibilities • Buy some food daily; not good food • Can't satisfy their needs - money

doesn't last

• Working but not earning enough • Have shelter - bit better than poorest • Poor clothes - but better than poorest • Problems sending children to school

-often don’t go beyond primary level • Small businesses

• Lot of credit

• Don't have much; things only OK when have job

• Problems sending kids to school • Problems with emergencies

• Lot of children to support • Deserted by husbands • Big families

• Better house, but owner died/ redundant - so conditions have gone down

• Better clothes than the poorest • Better shelter - especially during

the rains

Group 2: Very poor, but a bit better than the poorest

Characteristics of the poor

Group 3: Poor

• Dreams of luxury

• Can buy basic food and other basic needs

• Have businesses • Pensioner with little

responsibilities

• Employed, but low salaries

• Children go to school and have uniforms, but can’t afford tertiary education

• Manage to support families • Employed, but low income • Poor income, but little

responsibilities • Better housing

• Fewer children to support • Some clothes

Group 4: People who are not poor; better off; rich

• Professionals / Government workers • Have cars

• Run businesses • Better housing

• Good jobs/ secure jobs • Herds of cattle

• Good food

• Afford luxuries/ don't lack money • Good clothes

• Can afford to educate to tertiary level • Hire other people for their business/ at

home

• Everyone has a bed

• Look after families with no hardships • Children go to better schools

• Shop owners

• Well off with little responsibilities • Taxi owners

Kemiskinan Absolut

• Dilihat dari kemampuan pendapatan untuk

memenuhi kebutuhan pokok (sandang,

pangan, pemukiman, pendidikan dan

kesehatan).

• Jika pendapatan seseorang di bawah

pendapatan minimal untuk memenuhi

kebutuhan pokok, maka ia disebut miskin.

• Indonesia menggunakan indikator

Kemiskinan Kultural

• Dikaitkan dengan budaya masyarakat

yang “menerima” kemiskinan yang terjadi

pada dirinya, bahkan tidak merespons

usaha-usaha pihak lain yang

membantunya keluar dari kemiskinan

tersebut.

Kemiskinan Struktural

• Kemiskinan yang disebabkan struktur dan

sistem ekonomi yang timpang dan tidak

berpihak pada si miskin, sehingga

memunculkan masalah-masalah struktural

ekonomi yang makin meminggirkan

Starvation Line

• The present poverty line is a conveniently

low threshold based largely on only caloric

norms.

• In fact, it should be called the

starvation

line

.

• It

does not

factor in norms for nutrition,

health, clothing, housing, education etc.

• Even worse is that the Planning

Commission recognizes this shortcoming

and yet doesn’t do anything about it.

“starvation line” calculated:

• The present line is based on the norm that the

average person :

– In Indonesia 2100 kkal per capita per day

– in urban India should consume 2400 calories a day and a person from rural India should consume 2100 calories a day.

• The minimum cost of obtaining such nutrition

was calculated when this line was formed:

– Sajogyo : in rural 240 kg rice per capita a year, and in urban 360 kg beras per capita a year in 1973

– In India about 650 grams of grains in 1979

• All those who spent less than this amount on

food were considered poor.

• Since then, this amount was periodically

updated based on inflation.

Garis Kemiskinan (Poverty Line)

• Garis yang membagi/menjadi batas

penduduk miskin dan tidak miskin

• Gais kemiskinan: standar hidup minimum

yang sesuai kondisi masyarakat

• Didasarkan pada 2 konsep,yaitu:

- Konsep Standar hidup

- Tingkat minimum yang cocok/dapat

diterima (minimum acceptable level)

Indeks yang digunakan

• Indeks ganda (a multiple Index approach):

~ Didasarkan pada pemenuhan kebutuhan dasar yang berbeda-beda.

• Indeks tunggal (

Head Count Index)

:

~ Didasarkan pada perkiraan nilai pendapatan (nilai uang) yang didasarkan 2 pendekatan:

0 Menentukan keranjang barang-barang pokok yang terdiri dari

makanan dan bukan makanan yang kemudian dihitung uang yang diperlukan untuk membelinya berdasarkan harga yang berlaku

0 Menentukan garis kemiskinan langsung berdasarkan

Aksioma yang Harus dipenuhi oleh “poverty line”

Axiom 1: If a person A enjoys a higher standard of living than person B, then the real poverty line for person A cannot be higher than that of person B.

Axiom 2: The poverty line should be proportional to individual needs.

Axiom 3: If two persons A and B have the same needs and face the same prices, then person A should have higher poverty line than person B

because person A has more expensive tastes than person B.

Axiom 4: A person on poverty line in period t, denoted by z_t should have exactly the same standard of living as the person on the poverty

Poverty Lines and Poverty

Measurement

• Two Issues in Generating Poverty

Estimates

– Fixing a poverty line: Identification

– Measuring poverty: Aggregation

Methods of Fixing Poverty Lines

• Cost-of-basic-needs method (Food-share

method)

– Cost of basic food needs

– Cost of basic non-food needs

• Food-energy method

– Expenditure level that meets the food energy requirement

– Based on calorie-income relationships

Cost-of-Basic-Needs Method

Total Poverty Line = Z

Z=Z

F

+ Z

N

Z

F =

Food Poverty Line

How to calculate the Food Poverty

Line

1. Calculate average household (HH) size

2. Find minimum requirement of daily per-capita calories for WHO

3. Find the typical food bundle of the relative poor HH 4. Calculate the calories of this food bundle

5. Determine the cost of this food bundle

WHO’s average minimum ZF _{= calorie requirement}

calories in average food bundle for relatively poor HH Cost of the average food bundle *

How to Calculate the Non-food Poverty

Line

1. Find typical Household (HH) on the food poverty line. 2. Calculate the non-food expenditures of the HH.

xF _{= per capita expenditures on food}

XN = _{per capita expenditure on non-food}

X = total per capita expenditure

ZN _{= E {X}N_|xF_{= Z}F_{} for the poor}

(Non-food poverty line is the per capita non-food expenditure level when the per capita food expenditure level is equal to the food poverty line)

ZN _{= E {X}N_{|x= Z}F_{} for the ultra (extreme) poor}

(The non-food poverty line is given by the per capita non-food expenditure when the total expenditure is equal to the food poverty line. The food poverty line in essence becomes the total poverty line for the ultra poor)

Minimum daily caloric requirements by sector and gender Urban Rural

Age categories _{Male Female} Male _Female

0 to 1 year 820 820 820 820 >1 to 2 years 1,150 1,150 1,150 1,150 >2 to 3 years 1,350 1,350 1,350 1,350 >3 to 5 years 1,550 1,550 1,550 1,550 >5 to 7 years 1,850 1,750 1,850 1,750 >7 to 10 years 2,100 1,800 2,100 1,800 >10 to 12 years 2,200 1,950 2,200 1,950 >12 to 14 years 2,400 2,100 2,400 2,100 >14 to 16 years 2,600 2,150 2,600 2,150 >16 to 18 years 2,850 2,150 2,850 2,150 >18 to 30 years 3,150 2,500 3,500 2,750 >30 to 60 years 3,050 2,450 3,400 2,750 >60 years 2,600 2,200 2,850 2,450

Source: Caloric requirements are from WHO (1985, Tables 42 to 49). Notes:

Requirements used are for men weighing 70 kilograms and for women weighing 60 kilograms. Urban

individuals are assumed to need 1.8 times the basal metabolic rate (BMR), while rural individuals are assumed to need 2.0 times the average BMR. Children under one year of age are assigned the average caloric need of children either 3–6, 6–9, or 9–12 months old.

Poverty lines and spatial price indexes by region Region Food poverty line Reference poverty line Ultra poverty line Relative price index Metropolitan 50.18 129.19 75.36 1.000 Lower urban 45.94 101.72 67.52 0.787 Lower rural _{44.29 85.38} 64.71 0.661 Upper urban _{45.19 67.51 0.785} Upper rural 40.36 53.37 0.641 101.36 82.81

Notes: Poverty lines are monthly, per capita figures in Egyptian pounds. The Metropolitan poverty line is used as a base line to create the relative price index, which is simply the ratio of each region's reference poverty line to the base line.

Issues in the Poverty Line

• Does a poverty line exists?

• Can it be used & is it well accepted?

• Are international standards for setting poverty

lines accepted in all countries?

• Can we use the same poverty line throughout a

country?

• Can the nutritional basket underlying the poverty

line be derived from surveys?

Measures of Poverty

• Incidence of Poverty: poverty rate

– Use the headcount rate to calculate the poverty rate of the % of population below the poverty line

• Depth of Poverty – how far a person is below the

poverty line

• Poverty Gap – aggregation of depth of poverty

• Poverty Severity – aggregation with weights

Head-count Index of Poverty

• Proportion of population whose consumption

(y) is less than the poverty line Z

Y

₁

, Y

₂

,..…Z, ..…Y

_n

q

H =q/n

H = Head-count index q = number of poor

n = size of the population

Eg: if n=100; q=50 then H=0.5 or 50%

• Problems

– Insensitive to the depth of poverty

– H will not change when a poor persons welfare changes if he/she remains below the poverty line

Example of the Head-count

Index Calculation

Income of 4 individuals in a sample: 1,2,3,4

Poverty Line Z = 3.0

+ food energy method * BSS 1991 and BSS 1995 54 Year Sector BBS Graph* Fitting Method + Ahmed et al. (1991)+ Ravallion & Sen (1994) Rahman & Haque (1988) Hossain & Sen (1992) Sen & Islam (1993) Muqtada (1986) 1973/ 1974 Rural Urban 82.9 81.4 (5.6) - - 65.3 62.5 71.3 n.a. n.a. 63.2 55.9 37.8 1981/ 1982 Rural Urban 73.8 66.0 71.8 65.3 - 79.1 50.7 65.3 n.a n.a. 48.4 -1983/ 1984 Rural Urban 57.0 66.0 n.a. n.a. 53.8 40.9 49.8 39.5 50.0 n.a. n.a. 42.6 -1985/ 1986 Rural Urban 51.0 56.0 51.6 66.8 45.9 30.8 47.1 29.1 41.3 n.a. n.a. 30.6 -1988/ 1989 Rural Urban 48.0 44.0 - 49.7 35.9 - 43.8 n.a. n.a. 33.4 -1991/ 1992 Rural Urban 50.0 46.8 - 52.9 33.6 - - -

Poverty Gap Index (PGI)

• Aggregate short-fall of the poor relative to the

poverty line Z

Y

1

_{, Y}

2

_{,…, Y}

q

_{; Y}

q

≤

_Z

Poorest Least poor

q

PG = 1/n

_Σ

[(Z-Y

_i

)/Z] =

mean proportionate

i=1 _{poverty gap across the}

whole population (zero gap for the non=poor)

Example of Poverty Gap

Calculation

Income of4 individuals in a sample: 1,2,3,4

Poverty line = Z = 3; n=4

PG = [(3-1)/3 + (3-2)/3]/4

= [(2/3) + (1/3)]/4

= [(3/3)/4]

= ¼ or 0.25

Poverty gap index does not capture differences in

severity of poverty.

Why?

Region A = (1,2,3,4)

Region B = (2,2,2,4)

Poverty line = Z = 3

H

_A

= 0.75 H

_B

= 0.75

PG

_A

= 0.25 PG

_B

= 0.25

Poverty gap will be unaffected by an income transfer from a poor person to another poor person who

Squared Poverty Gap Index

(SPG)

• Mean of the squared proportionate poverty gap

• Reflects severity of poverty

• Sensitive to the distribution among the poor

q

SPG = 1/n

_Σ

[(Z-Y

_i

)/Z]

2

i=1

Eg: Region A = (1,2,3,4) Region B = (2,2,2,4) with Z=3 SPG_A = 0.14 SPG_B = 0.08

Poverty Analysis

Income/Consumption Poverty Profile

• Correlates poverty with:

– Gender

– Age

– Residential location

– Ethnic characteristics

– Income source

– Employment sources

– Share of food/ non food consumption

– Education outcomes

Qualitative Analysis of Poverty

• Role of informal sector?

• Social analysis of poverty?

• Institutional analysis of poverty reducing

institutions

Use of Qualitative Methods

• Subjective meaning of poverty

• Intra-household dimensions of poverty

• Poor people’s priorities for action

• Social, political, and cultural factors, gender roles,

and traditional beliefs

• Participants help in designing household surveys

• Assess the validity of HHS results at local level

Income or Consumption?

• Consumption reflects income as well as

past savings, access to credit markets,

and seasonal variation in income

• No records of income or seasonal

fluctuations

• Large informal sectors

• Consumption data helps in deriving the

poverty line

Measuring Income/

Consumption Poverty

• Household data availability – tools

• Measurement of income poverty

• Quantitative analysis tools

• Qualitative analysis tools

Data Needs for Poverty

Analysis

• National level data

– National accounts – GDP, consumption,

savings, investment, imports, exports, etc.

– Ministry of Finance, Central Statistical Agency

– Budgets, price surveys, and data collection

Data Needs for Poverty

Analysis cont.

• Local level data

– Consumer and producer prices, climatic data,

availability and use of markets and services

– CSA, local service providers, regional

departments

– Price and market surveys

– Monthly, yearly

Data Needs for Poverty

Analysis cont.

• Household – Individual level data

– Household income, consumption,

employment, assets, production,

demography, etc.

– CSA, sectoral ministries, NGOs, academics

– Household survey, rapid assessments,

monitoring and evaluation

Data Sources for Poverty

Analysis

• Administrative data

• Population Census

• Household surveys

• Qualitative and Participatory Assessments

– ethnographic, village studies, beneficiary

assessments, etc.

Types of Household Surveys

• Single-topic surveys

• Multi-topic surveys

• Census data

• Poverty monitoring surveys

• Times series data

Garis Kemiskinan BPS:

• Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) mengukur

garis kemiskinan dengan pendekatan

konsumsi sejalan dengan pendekatan

Bank Dunia.

• Garis kemiskinan tersebut diukur dari

kemampuan membeli bahan makanan

ekuivalen dengan 2100 kkal per kapita per

hari dan biaya untuk memperoleh

kebutuhan minimal akan barang/jasa,

pakaian, perumahan, kesehatan,

Kriteria BPS (2007):

1. Sangat miskin :

kemampuan minimal untuk memenuhi konsumsi

setara atau kurang dari 1900 kalori per orang

perhari dan pengeluaran Non Makanan atau

senilai Rp120 000 per bulan.

2. Miskin :

kemampuan minimal untuk memenuhi konsumsi

antara 1900-2100 kalori perorang dan

pengeluaran non makanan atau senilai Rp 150

000 perorang bulan.

3. Mendekati Miskin:

kemampuan minimal untuk memenuhi konsumsi

antara 2100-2300 kalori perorang perhari dan

pengeluaran Non makanan atau senilai Rp 175

000 perorang bulan.

Garis Kemiskinan VV. Bhanoji Rao

• Rao menghitung garis kemiskinan dengan

memperhitungkan kebutuhan kalori per

hari minimum yang diperlukan seseorang

untuk hidup layak sebagai dasar,

kemudian diambah lagi dengan keperluan

untuk kehidupan dasar yang sifatnya

sosial, misalnya untuk pemeliharaan

kesehatan, sekolah, dsb.

Indikator Kemiskinan Prof Sayoga

• Dibedakan antara daerah perkotaan dan

pedesaan.

• Garis kemiskinan untuk pedesaan setara

dengan 240 kg beras per kapita per tahun,

sedangkan untuk perkotaan setara

dengan 360 kg beras per kapita per tahun.

• Garis kemiskinan ditetapkan setelah

Pergeseran Pengertian Kemiskinan

• Pergerseran pengertian kemiskinan

dengan tidak melihat aspek pendapatan

dan konsumsi saja, tetapi juga melihat

masalah ketergantungan, harga diri,

kontinuitas pendapatan dsb.

SMERU

• Mengartikan kemiskinan dengan melihat

berbagai dimensi:

– Ketidakmampuan memenuhi kebutuhan konsumsi dasar (sandang, pangan, papan);

– Tidak adanya akses terhadap kebutuhan hidup dasar lainnya (kesehatan, pendidikan, sanitasi, air bersih, dan transportasi)

– Tidak adanya jaminan masa depan (karena tidak adanya investasi untuk pendidikan dan keluarga) – Kerentanan terhadap goncangan yang bersifat

SMERU-lanj.

– Rendahnya kualitas sumber daya manusia dan keterbatasan sumber daya alam;

– Tidak dilibatkan dalam kegiatan sosial masyarakat; – Tidak adanya akses terhadap lapangan kerja dan

mata pencaharian yang berkesinambungan; – Ketidakmampuan berusaha karena cacat fisik

maupun mental;

– Ketidakmampuan dan ketidakberuntungan sosial

(anak-anak terlantar, wanita korban kekerasan rumah tangga, janda miskin, kelompok marjinal dan

Bank Dunia:

o Miskin (absolut) jika pendapatan kurang dari

1 $ per day -- dijadikan acuan BPS

o Miskin (relatif) jika pendapatan kurang dari 2

$ per day -- dijadikan acuan World Bank

Kemiskinan Indonesia

• Masalah kemiskinan memang telah lama ada

sejak dahulu kala.

• Pada masa lalu umumnya masyarakat menjadi

miskin bukan karena kurang pangan, tetapi

miskin dalam bentuk minimnya kemudahan atau

materi.

• Belum ada kesepakatan yang mantap dan

general antar negara dalam mendefinisikan

kemiskinan (e.g : Bank Dunia dengan PPP US $

2/hari, Indonesia dengan US$ 1/hari)

Gambaran Perubahan

• Tingkat kemiskinan mutlak menurun drastis

dalam dua dasawarsa sebelum krisis ekonomi

1997;

– Jumlah penduduk miskin pada 1976 mencapai 54,2 juta jiwa (40,1 %),

– menurun menjadi 40,6 juta jiwa (26,9 %) pada tahun 1981,

– 35 juta jiwa (21,64 %) pada tahun 1984,

– 27,2 juta jiwa (15,1 %) pada tahun 1990, dan – 22,5 juta jiwa (11,3) pada 1996.

Near poor :

• Kelompok nyaris miskin

• Rata-rata pengeluaran lebih 20 % dari garis kemiskinan

Transient poverty :

• Rentan Miskin /kemiskinan sementara

• Kelompok near poor mudah masuk dan keluar dlm perangkap kemiskinan ini dlm waktu singkat

• Suatu kenaikan besar jumlah penduduk miskin sebagai dampak suatu fluktuasi yang cepat dan mendadak pd harga kebt pokok dan pendapatan

• Mengatasi relatif mudah, al: Stabilisasi harga komoditas dasar

Transient Poverty

• Lebih di kenal nyaris miskin (based on tingkat pendapatan)

• Hampir 42 persen dari seluruh rakyat Indonesia hidup di antara garis kemiskinan AS$1- dan AS$2-per hari

• hasil survei Bank Dunia tahun 2004 menunjukkan hanya 16,7 persen penduduk Indonesia yang tergolong miskin, lebih dari 59 persen dari mereka pernah jatuh miskin

dalam periode satu tahun sebelum survei dilaksanakan. • Data terakhir juga mengindikasikan tingkat pergerakan

tinggi (masuk dan keluar) kemiskinan selama periode tersebut, lebih dari 38 persen rumah tangga miskin pada tahun2004 tidak miskin pada tahun 2003.

29,30% 29,30% 52,32% 52,32% 21,21% 21,21% 43,86% 43,86% 7,86% 7,86% 20,76% 20,76% 9,29% 9,29% 27,89% 27,89% Noon Poor

Noon Poor PoorPoor

Household without access to safe water

Household without access to safe water

Household without access to sanitation

Household without access to sanitation

Household with children aged 12

Household with children aged 12--15 not 15 not

enolled in junior high school

enolled in junior high school

Household with birth attended by

Household with birth attended by

traditional paramedics traditional paramedics 0,00% 0,00% 10,00%10,00% 20,00%20,00% 30,00%30,00% 40,00%40,00% 50,00%50,00% 60,00%60,00% Source: SUSENAS 2002, BPS Source: SUSENAS 2002, BPS

Potret Kesenjangan Wilayah

• Kesenjangan KBI-KTI, Jawa-Luar Jawa, antara kota metropolitan-kota besar-kota menengah dan kecil, perkotaan-perdesaan

• Akar kesenjangan:

– perbedaan potensi sumber daya alam, – letak geografis,

– budaya

– kebijakan pembangunan orientasi pembangunan

Poverty and Inequality 1978

Poverty and Inequality 1978

-

-

2004

2004

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1978 1980 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2003 2004 Year P e rc e n t 0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 In d e x G in i

Income Distribution (Lower Middle, and Low Income)

$0 $500 $1,000 $1,500 $2,000 $2,500 $3,000 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0 60.0 65.0

Gini Coefficient (0 = equitable, 100 = inequitable)

P e r-c a p it a T ra d e ( U S $ ) Thailand Lithuania Fiji Ukraine

Source: International Financial Statistics, International Monetary Fund, December 2001, and Measuring

Ciri Kemiskinan Indonesia

• Lebih Banyak Penduduk yang rentan

terhadap kemiskinan (US$1-2/hari)

• Kemiskinan pendapatan vs kemiskinan

non-pendapatan (gizi, kesehatan,

pendidikan, akses air bersih,dll)

• Kesenjangan antar wilayah (kota-desa,

jawa-luar jawa, KTI-KBI)

Sebab-sebab Struktural

Kemiskinan di Indonesia

• Ketidakmampuan mengelola sumber daya alam

secara maksimal;

• Kebijakan ekonomi yang tidak berkomitmen

terhadap penanggulangan kemiskinan dan

semata-mata mengejar pertumbuhan ekonomi

(trickle down effect tidak bekerja)

– Kesalahan mendasar dalam asumsi perekonomian Indonesia adalah pengangguran dan kemiskinan

hanya mungkin diatasi jika ekonomi tumbuh minimal (misalnya) 6,5 %.

– Asumsi demikian salah, karena:

• Yang dapat mengatasi pengangguran dan

kemiskinan adalah pertumbuhan ekonomi yang melibatkan kegiatan ekonomi rakyat yang

pelakunya adalah masyarakat miskin.

• Pengangguran dan kemiskinan adalah dua hal berbeda. Orang yang menganggur belum tentu miskin.

– Ilustrasi: 1 % pertumbuhan diasumsikan

mampu menampung 200.000-400.000 tenaga

kerja baru, maka pertumbuhan 6.5 % hanya

mampu mempekerjakan 1,3 juta-2,6 juta

tenaga kerja dan tidak ada jaminan bagi

penduduk miskin yang mencapai puluhan juta

jiwa.

Kebijakan Pemerintah untuk

Menanggulangi Kemiskinan

• Masa Kolonial: ‘politik etis’ balas budi.

• Masa Orde Baru: terkait dengan program pembangunan nasional sejak Repelita I-V. Program sektoral yang

pernah dilaksanakan:

– BIMAS, INMAS, dan P4K (Departemen Pertanian), – UPPKS (BKKBN),

– KUD dan Koperasi Simpan Pinjam (Departemen Koperasi), – UED-SP, BKD dan PKK (Departemen Dalam Negeri),

– KUBE (Departemen Sosial)

– Wajar 9 tahun (Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan) dan – pengembangan Puskesmas (Departemen Kesehatan)

Kebijakan Pemerintah untuk

Menanggulangi Kemiskinan-lanj.

•

Mulai Repelita VI diluncurkan Inpres Desa

Tertinggal (IDT), yang meliputi:

– Komponen bantuan langsung sebesar Rp 20 juta/desa sebagai dana bergulir selama 3 tahun; – Bantuan pendampingan pokmas IDT oleh tenaga

pendamping Sarjana Pendamping Purna Waktu (SP2W);

– Bantuan pembangunan sarana/prasarana

•

Untuk masyarakat miskin di kelurahan tidak

‘tertinggal’ diluncurkan program

Kebijakan Pemerintah untuk

Menanggulangi Kemiskinan-lanj.

• Ketika terjadi krisis ekonomi, jumlah penduduk

miskin meningkat tajam karena merupakan

gabungan dari penduduk miskin lama dan

penduduk baru yang bersifat sementara

(transient poverty).

– Untuk mengatasi masalah ini, dikeluarkan program Jaring Pengaman Sosial (JPS), yang dibagi dalam empat kelompok program, yaitu JPS Departemen teknis, JPS prioritas, JPS sektor-sektor

Beberapa Kelemahan dalam Program

Penanggulangan Kemiskinan

1) Masih berorientasi pada pertumbuhan ekonomi makro daripada pemerataan;

2) Sentralisasi kebijakan daripada desentralisasi; 3) Lebih bersifat karitatif daripada transformatif;

4) Memposisikan masyarakat sebagai objek dan bukan subjek;

5) Cara pandang tentang penanggulangan kemiskinan masih berorientasi pada ‘charity’ daripada

‘productivity’;

6) Asusmsi permasalahan dan solusi kemiskinan sering dipandang sama daripada pluralistis.