CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This study is based on the analysis of Systemic Functional Theory of M.A.K. Halliday and model of genre by J.R Martin. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the framework of those theories in this chapter.
2.1 An Overview of Halliday’s Systemic Functional Theory
The most influential systemic functional theory is M.A.K. Halliday’s which was first introduced in his book, An Introduction to Functional Grammar, in 1985. This theory has been developed through the works of Halliday and his associates. Systemic functional linguistics is increasingly recognized as a very useful descriptive and interpretive framework for viewing language as a strategic, meaning-making resource (Enggins, 2004 : 2). Therefore, we may have a notion that systemic functional theory views language as a meaning-making resource. This might be related to Halliday’s view of language.
According to Halliday & Matthiessen (2004 : 10), grammar as system, enabling us to show the grammar as a meaning-making resource and to describe grammatical categories by reference to what they mean. This perspective is essential if the analysis of grammar is to be an insightful mode of entry to the study of discourse.
point of view the grammar becomes a study of how meanings are built up through the use of words. It indicates that the relations between language, meaning and grammar are the main object of the systemic functional theory.
The relations between language, meaning and grammar as the main object of systemic functional theory describe the actual use of language, texts and their contexts. In addition to the texs and contexts, the object of study focuses on the structures and how those structures construct meaning.
From those statements, we may have understanding that systemic funtional theory is used for analyzing and describing how language makes meaning through its choice of words and structures or grammar.
2.1.1 Metafunction of Language
Halliday & Matthiessen (2004 : 29) suggested that there are two basic functions of language : making sense of our experience, and acting out our social relationship. With language, functional diversification is modelled through metafunctions - ideational, interpersonal and textual. The term ‘metafunction’ was adopted to suggest that function was an integral component within the overall theory. Ideational linguistic resources are concerned with representation, interpersonal resources with interaction, and textual resources with information flow (Martin & Christie : 2000, 13).
2.1.1.1 The Ideational Function
lexicogrammar of every language are dedicated to that function. The ideational function is distinguished into two components, the experiential and the logical. The experiential or representational function of language (clause) is realized by the transitivity system of language (clause).
2.1.1.2 The Interpersonal Function
If the ideational function of the grammar is ‘language as reflection’, the interpersonal meaning is ‘language as action’. The interpersonal meaning is an interpretation of language in its function as an exchange. It is concerned with language as action. The interpersonal meaning of language in its function as an exchange is realised by the mood system. The mood system is represented by the mood structure of clause, which comprises two major elements: (1) mood, and (2) residue (Halliday, 1985).
2.1.1.3 The Textual Function
The textual meaning of language is an interpretation of language in its function as a message, which is a text-forming function of language. The textual meaning of language is realised by the theme system of language. The theme system of the clause is represented by the thematic structure of the clause, which comprises two major elements: (1) theme, and (2) rheme (Halliday, 1985).
2.1.2 Transitivity System
clause in its who=does=what-to-whom, who/what=is-what/who, when, where, why, or how function (Gerot & Wignell, 2001: 52).
In analysing transitivity system in a clause, it is necessary to describe three aspects of the clause: First, the selection of process. The process choice will be realized in the verbal group of the clause: Last year Diana gave blood. Second, the selection of participants. Participants will be realized in the nominal groups: Last year Diana gave blood. Third, the selection of circumstances. Circumstantial meanings are expressed through adverbial groups or prepositional phrases: Last year Diana gave blood (Enggins, 2004: 214).
2.1.2.1 Process and Participant
The transitivity system construes the world of experience into a manageable set of process types (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004 : 170). Processes are different kinds of goings on, which necessarily involve different kinds of participants in varying circumstances. Processes are realised by verbs, but some verbs do not show an action but rather express states of being or having. Halliday identifies there are six different types of Process.
Material Doing Bodily, physically,
materially
Behavioural Behaving Physiologically and
psychologically
Mental Sensing Emotionally, intellectually,
sensorily
Verbal Saying Lingually, signalling
Relational Being Equal to, or some attribute
of
These are the examples of transitivity process which esist in clauses :
Process type Example (Process + participants underlined; Process in bold; circumstances in italics)
Material During the European scramble for Africa, Nigeria fell and
to the British.
the British ruled it until 1960 Behavioural people are laughing
Mental The Ibos did not approve of kings.
Verbal so we say →that every fourth African is a Nigerian
Can you tell us about the political and cultural make-up of Nigeria?
Relational that every fourth African is a Nigerian. Existential so today there’s Christianity in the south (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004 : 171)
a. Material Processes
The actions are usually concrete and tangible. Material process are process of doing & happening (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004 : 179). They express the idea that some entity physically does something-which may be done to some other entity.
Clauses with a material process is obligatorily to have a doing (process) and a doer (participant). The entity who or which does something is the actor. There optionally is an entity to which the Process is extended or directed. This entity which may be done is the goal.
The exhausted bushwalker dropped his pack Participant :
Handel wrote the Messiah
Actor Material Goal
In the dispositive type, we have doings and happenings.
Kerr dismissed Whitlam
Actor Material Goal
The gun discharged
Actor Material
Material processes ‘take’ both the active voice (as above) and the passive.
Whitlam was dismissed by Kerr
Goal Material Actor
The gun was discharged
Goal Material
b. Behavioural processes
These are processes of (typically human) physiological and psychological behaviour, like breathing, coughing, smiling, dreaming and staring (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004 : 248). In this process, there is one obligatory participant: the behaver. The behaver is a conscious being. But the process is one of doing, not sensing, such as:
She lives in a beautiful old house
He listens carefully
Behaver Behavioural Circumstance : manner
Behaviourals can contain a second participant that is called the behaviour.
He smiled a big smile.
Behaver Behavioural Behaviour
c. Mental processes
While material clauses are concerned with our experience of the material world, mental clauses are concerned with our experience of the world of our own consciousness (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004 : 197). Mental processes are processes of sensing (feeling, thinking, perceiving). There are three types of mental processes : affective or reactive (feeling), cognitive (thinking), and perceptive (perceiving through the five senses). The participants in mental processes are called senser and phenomenon. The phenomenon is that which is sensed: felt, thought or seen.
That microwave doesn’t like you Participant:
Senser
Process: Mental
Participant: Phenomenon
There are clauses with senser or phenomenon only, such as:
Mark understood
Senser Mental : Cognitive
Loneliness hurts
The clause may also contain both Senser and Phenomenon, such as:
Mark likes new clothes
Senser Mental : Affect Phenomenon
d. Verbal processes
Verbal processes are processes of saying, or more accurately, of symbolically signalling. The process of a ‘verbal’ clause is realized by a verbal group where the lexical verb is one of saying (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004 : 254). There are three other Participants that may be incumbent upon Verbal Processes: Receiver is the one to whom the verbalisation is addressed, Target is the one acted upon verbally (insulted, complimented, etc), and Range/Verbiage is a name for the verbalisation itself.
John told Jenny a rude joke
Sayer Verbal Receiver Verbiage
Keating slurred Howard
Examples of verbal processes are listed below.
TYPE Examples of verbs
activity Targeting praise, insult, abuse, slander, flatter, blame, criticize, chide
talking speak, talk
Semiosis (neutral
quoting)
say, tell; go, be like
Indicating tell (sb that), report, announce, notify, explain, argue, convince (that), persuade
(sb that), promise (that)
ask (sb whether), question, enquire (whether)
(Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004 : 255)
e. Relational processes
Relational processes involve states of being (including having). Relational clauses serve to characterize and to identify (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004 : 210). They can be classified according to whether they are being used to identify something, quality to something. Processes which establish an identify are called Identifying Process and processes which assign a quality are called Attributive Processes. Each has its own characteristic participant roles. In Attributives there are Carrier and Attribute.
Barry Tuckwell is a fine horn player
In Identifying Processes the participant roles are token and value.
Barry Tuckwell may be the finest living horn player.
Token Identifying Value
Relational Processes can be further sub-classified according to whether they are: intensive, possessive or circumstantial. Paul Keating has dark hair. The yolk is in the centre. Albumen surrounds the yolk.
Listed here are some of the more common Relational Process:
Atributive Identifying include involve contain comprise provide cause
(Gerot & Wignell, 2001 : 71).
f. Existential processes
action or event, as in is there going to be a storm?, there was another robbery in the street (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004 : 258)
There’ s a unicorn in the garden.
Existential Existent Circumstance:place
“There” has no represential function; it is required because of the need for a Subject in English. Existential processes are expressed by verbs of existing: ‘be’, ‘exist’, ‘arise’ and the Existent can be a phenomenon of any kind.
There ensued a protracted legal battle
Existential Existent
Existential ‘there’ is not to be confused with Circumstantial ‘there’:
There ’s your book (right where you left it)
Attrib:Circ Attributive Carrier
There ’s even a book about great Australian dunnies Existential Existent Circumstance:matter
‘There’ ‘There’s your book’ tells where the book is. ‘There’ in ‘There’s even a book about great Australian dunnies’ is telling yout hat such a book exists.
Examples of verbs serving as Process in existential clauses
Type Verbs
Neutral Exist exist, remain
Happen arise; occur, come about, happen, take place
+ circumstantial feature Time follow, ensue
Place sit, stand, lie; hang, rise, stretch, emerge, grow
Abstract erupt, flourish, prevail
2.1.2.2 Circumstances
The circumstantial category answers such questions as when, where, why, how, how many and as what. They represent meaning about :
Time (temporal) : tells when and is probed by when? How often? How long? For example : He goes to church every Sunday.
Place (spatial) : tells where and is probed by where? How far? For example : He goes to church every Sunday.
Manner : tells how
-Means : tells by what means and is probed by what with? For example : He goes by taxi.
-Quality : tells how and is probed by how? For example : He loved her madly, deeply, truly!
-Comparison : tells like what and is probed by what like? For example : He was jumping arounf like a monkey on a roof. Cause : tells why
-Reason : tells what causes the Process and is probed by why? Or how? For example : The sheeps died of thirst.
-Purpose : tells the purpose and is probed by what for? For example : He went to the shop for cigarettes.
-Behalf : tells for whose sake and is probed by for whom? For example : He went to the shop for his mother.
Accompaniment : tells with(out) who or what and is probed by who or what else?
Matter : tells about what or with reference to what and is probed by what about?
For example : This book is talking about functional grammar. Role : tells what as and is probed by as what?
For example : He lived a quiet life as a beekeeper.
2.2 Model of Genre by J. R. Martin
In analysing the schematic structure of news genre, the writer uses model of genre by J. R. Martin. Genre commonly refers to various types of art and literary works. For example, in music, there are pop, rock, blues, jazz, etc. Those are the genres in music. From that example, we may have a notion that genre refers to different types in art. Genre in discourse analysis also refers to different type of texts. Genre represents the system of staged goal-oriented social processes through which social subjects in a given culture live their lives (Martin & Christie : 2000, 22). Social because we participate in genres with other people, goal-oriented because we use genres to get things done; staged because it usually takes us a few steps to reach our goals. In a brief sentence, I may take a notion that Martin defines genre as “types of texts which have various social goals or roles or functions and stages”.
Martin states that the number of recognizably distinct genres in any culture may be quite large, but not unmanageably so. In contemporary western culture we could name many spoken genres whose patterns of meaning are more less predictable, such as greeting cards, service encounters, casual conversations, arguments, telephone enquiries, instructions, lectures, debates, plays, jokes, games
specific genres. (Martin & Rose, 2008 : 8). Furthermore, Gerot and Wignell (2001) gives more genres of written texts, they are spoof/recount, recounts, reports, analytical exposition, news item, anecdote, narrative, procedure, description,
hortatory exposition, explanation, discussion and reviews.
Genres are culture specific, and have associated with them are purpose or goal of the text, schematic structures of the text, lexicogrammatical choices of the text .
2.2.1 Schematic structures of text
The schematic structures of each genre are also different. The term schematic structure simply refers to the staged, step-by-step organization of the genre, or, in Martin’s terms:
Schematic structure represents the positive contribution genre makes to a text: a way of getting form A to B in the way a given culture accomplishes whatever the genre in question is functioning to do in that culture. (Martin 1985b : 251) in (Enggins 2004 : 59).
2.2.2 Purpose or goal of text
The social purpose is the goal that shows the function of the text. The social purpose of text is varied, depends on the genre of the text. For example,
Men think that they are dogs so they go to the psychiatrists. After a while the doctors say they are cured. The men meet friends on the streets. The friends ask them, ‘How fo you feel?’ ‘Fine’, the men say. ‘Just feel our noses.’
2.2.3 News Genre
Martin & Christie assumes that news genre as one of the most influential textual domains in contemporary society, that of mass-media news reporting. The texts of news genre known as 'hard news'. This hard news category includes reports which are primarily grounded in a material event such as an accident, natural disaster, riot or terrorist attack, and those grounded in a communicative event such as a speech, interview, report or press release (Martin & Christie, 2000 : 110).
Following Martin’s idea of news genre, Gerot & Wignell develop a simple explanation. They don’t use the term ‘hard news’ anymore to refer to the text of news genre but simply use the term news text. According to Gerot and Wignell (2001 : 200), news genre is a type of text which function is to inform readers, listeners or viewers about events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important. Generally, news genre exists in articles of newspaper and magazine. The articles of news are also varied from politics, world news, business, technology, health, science and entertainment.
2.2.3.1 The Schematic Structure of News Genre
In news genre, the schematic structures are divided into three stages. They are newsworthy events, background events and sources.
a. Newsworthy Events
Newsworthy events recounts the event in summary form. This is like the summary of the news in few clauses.
Example:
Moscow A Russian journalist has uncovered evidence of another Soviet nuclear catastrophe, which killed 10 sailors and contaminated an entire town.
b. Background Events
Background events elaborate what happened, to whom, in what circumstances. In this structure, the events in the news are explained, what the event is, how it happens, why it happens, when it happens and who gets involved.
Example:
The accident, which occured 13 months before the Chernobyl disaster, spread radioactive fall-out over the base and nearby town, but was covered up by officials of the then Soviet Union.
c. Sources
Sources are comments by participants in, witnesses to and authorities or expert on the event.
Example:
2.4 Relevant Studies
There are some books and theses which also discussed about transitivity process and schematic structure of genre that the writer uses as references. Those books and theses are reviewed as the following:
Halliday & Matthienssen (2004) identifies that there are six transitivity process. They are material, mental, relational, verbal, behavioural, and existential. This book helps the writer to identify six processes in six political articles of Time Online Magazine.
Martin, J.R. & Christie, Frances (2000) identifies that there are many genres. One of them is news genre which schematic structure consists of newsworthy event, background event and source. This book helps the writer to identify the schematic structure of news genre in six political articles of Time Online Magazine.
Gerot & Wignell (2001) develop simple understanding about functional grammar and genre. This book helps the writer to get knowledge about transitivity process as well as to identify the schematic structure of news genre in six articles of Time Online Magazine.
Harahap, UN (2012) compares the schematic structures of narrative genre in “Beauty and the Best” and recount genre in letter “Weekend at the Beach”. The result shows that the structure of narrative genre is Abstract, Orientation, Complication, Evaluation, Resolution and Coda while the structure of recount genre is Orientation, Events and Re-orientation. From this thesis, the writer may take a look at how Ummi Natsiroh classified structure of a genre.
finds that each story has the schematic structures: Abstract, Orientation, Complication, Evaluation, Resolution and Coda. But there are two stories which do not have “Evaluation”. From this thesis, the writer knows that a text does not always have complete schematic structure. This thesis is a reference to the writer to analyze transitivity process and schematic structures. Instead of narrative genre, the writer chooses news genre to analyze.
Indra (2005) analyzes the schematic structure and transitivity process in three short stories in Annida, A Moslem Magazine. Those short stories are The Words on the Ceiling, A Letter for Grandma, The Wise King using systemic functional theory. The result shows that not all of schematic structure of narrative genre and types of transitivity process exist in those short stories. This thesis helps the writer to analyze schematic structure and transitivity process. Instead of narrative genre in short stories, the writer choose news genre in political articles.
