CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Theoretical Framework
2.1.1 An Overview of Discourse Analysis
Everything we read or hear belongs to discourse. Fairclough in Sinar (2002:7)
regards discourse as something more than just language use, in which he refers to it
as language use, whether speech or writing, seen as a type of social practice. And
Halliday (1985:xxii) says, “Discourse analysis has to be founded on a study of the
system of the language. At the same time, the main reason for studying the system is
to throw light on discourse –on what people say and write and listen to and read”.
Johnstone (2008:4) said that in discourse analysis, we examine the aspects of
the structure and function of languge in use. In addition, he said that discourse
analysis is more than the language analysis. We are not centrally focused on
language as an abstract system. We are interested in what happens when people draw
on the knowledge they have about language, knowledge based on their memories of
things they have said, heard, seen, or written before to do things in the world:
themselves and others and the like. This knowledge is a set of generalization which
can sometimes be stated as rules, about what words generally mean, about what goes
on through a sentence, and the like. That is why language is regarded as an abstract
system of rules or structural relationship.
Then, Johnstone (2008:4) also added that discourse analysis typically focuses
on the analytical process in a relatively explicit way. It means that in analyzing a
discourse, we analyze the form or the structure of language explicitly. The meaning
or ideas in the discourse can be realized through the structure of the language is used.
2.1.2 Systemic Functional Linguistic (SFL)
Systemic Functional Linguistic (SFL) is a theory in analyzing a discourse. This
theory views language as a resource for making meaning based on the grammatical
structure and its social context, as Martin and Rose (2007:4) said that in SFL,
discourse analysis interfaces with the analysis of grammar and the analysis of social
activity. So, this theory focuses on language in use. It does not only focus on the
language form but also on the context of the language.
SFL is a theory which is introduced by M. A. K. Halliday, a professor of
Linguistics from University of Sydney, Australia. Halliday adopted this theory from
his teacher named J.R. Firth. Firth developed Malinowski‟s concept about context of
situation and context of culture which is known as system structure theory. Then,
Halliday developed this theory to be the theory of language in context which is
known as Systemic Functional Grammar.
Systemic Functional Linguistic Theory (SFLT) views language based on the
form of the language grammatically and its social context. Language and grammar
that grammar is a theory of language, of how language is put together and how it
works. Halliday (1985:xvii) defined language as a system for making meaning. The
system of meaning in language is expressed by grammar as well as by vocabulary. It
means that the meaning can be realized through wordings. The meaning and
wordings are related by natural grammmar which is known as functional grammar.
Halliday also added that functional grammar is a study of wording which is
interpreted by reference to what it means. So, functional grammar views language as
resource for making meaning in which it focuses on language in actual use and on
text as well as its context.
In General Sytemic Functional Linguistic Theory (GSFLT), Sinar (2002:31)
explained every single term that construct GSFLT. The “S” for “systematic” implies
that that theory focuses on the systematic relations and the probabilities in a system
network of relations and choices starting from general to specific features which are
paradigmatic in nature. It also focuses on the system of meaning that are involved
and interrelated with respect to the phenomena. Then, the “F” for “functional”
implies that the theory focuses on the functional realization of the system in
structures and patterns, which are structurally syntagmatic in nature and also focuses
on the semiotic functions or meanings that are in operation. The “L” for “linguistic”
implies that the theory is derived from and belongs to a discipline called “linguistics”
(a study of language) and it is based on a theory of language whose approach to
investigate the phenomena of socio-semiotic, thematic and trans-disciplinary in
nature. The last is “T‟ for “theory” which means “theory and applications” for the
value of a theory lies on its applications.
SFLT works on language in context which is available in a great variety of
language in text as discourse form. Halliday (1985:xvii) says, “A discourse analysis
that is not based on grammar is not an analysis at all, but simply a running
commentary on a text.” Because of that, SFLT which focuses on the linguistic or
grammar is very important to analyze a discourse.
According to Halliday (1985:xv), there are two aims of applying the linguistic
analysis in a discourse. Firstly, to understand the text: the linguistic analysis enables
us to show how and why, the text means of what it does. To get this aim, the text is
analyzed through the general feature of the language or based on a grammar.
Secondly, to evaluate the text: the linguistic analysis enables us to say why text is, or
is not, an effective text for its own purposes and in what respects it succeeds and in
what respects it fails, or is less successful. To get this aim, the text is not only
connected to its environment (context of situation and context of culture), but also
based on how the linguistic features of the text relate systematically to the features of
its environment, including the intentions of those involved in its production.
2.1.3 Metafunctions of Language
Beside focusing on the linguistic aspect of a discourse, SFLT also focuses on
its social context. To analyze the social context of a discourse is done by analyzing
the schematic structure of the genre in discourse (Sinar, 2002:12). In addition, the
social context of language use is also realized through the metafunctions of language.
These metafunctions interface laguage and the outside. They are the theoretical
concepts that enable us to understand the relation of language and what is outside of
language and the relation that has shaped the form of grammar. The metafunctions of
language consist of three major functions of language. They are ideational function,
2.1.3.1Ideational function
The ideational function views language as the representation or reflection of
human experience, in which the speaker as an observer of reality construes natural
reality. Sinar (2002:42) said that the ideational function of language relates to the
inner and outer worlds of reality; it is “language about something”. In addition,
Halliday (1985:101) says, “A fundamental property of language is that it enables
human beings to build a mental picture of reality, to make sense of their experience
of what goes on around them and inside them.” So, the ideational function of
language is to represent human experience. This function has two sub functions, as
the following:
Logical function
The logical function views language as natural logic. It focuses on the
interpretation of clause complexity. The logical function of language relates the
functional semantic between clauses that make up the logic of natural language. This
function is realized by the clause complexity system.
Experiential function
The experiential function focuses on the clause level in which the clause is a
representation means to represent human experience. Sinar (2002:42) said that one
function of clause is as a representation of experience of both external reality (reality
outside oneself) and internal reality (reality inside oneself). The experiential function
of language is realized by the transitivity system. The transitivity system is
interpreted as a what-is-going-on process: of doing, happening or feeling.
2.1.3.2Interpersonal function
The interpersonal function of language is as an exchange which is concerned
as an interactive event that involves speaker, or writer, and audience (listener or
reader). So, the function of clauses in interpersonal meaning is as an exchange which
represents speech role relationship. Halliday (1985:68) described two fundamental
types of speech role: 1)giving, and 2) demanding. A speaker is not only giving
something to the listener (for example: a piece of information), but he is also
demanding something from the listener. Giving means inviting to receive, and
demanding means inviting to give. Because of that, in interpersonal meaning, there is
an interaction between a speaker and listener.
The interpersonal function of language is realized by the mood system. There
are two major elements of mood system of the clause: mood and residue. A mood
element of an English clause consists of a subject and a finite, whereas a residue
element consists of predicator, complement(s), and adjunct(s).
2.1.3.3Textual function
The textual function interprets language as a message. Halliday (1985:38)
asserted that laguage has some forms of organization that give it the status of a
communicative event. So, this function is focused on the text form. Sinar (2002:48)
defined textual function as a relevance or interfacing function that makes language
(text) relevant internally (based on language itself) and externally (based on the
situation (context) in which language or text is used).
At the clause level, the textual function is focused on how intra-clausal
elements are organized to make meaning. And at the text level, it is focused on how
inter-clausal elements are organized to form a united text that makes meaning.
Because of that, the textual function is focused on the way of the text is organized or
The textual function of language is realized by the theme system which
consists of two major elements: theme and rheme. Theme is the starting point of the
message or it is what the clause is going to be about, whereas rheme is a new
information in the message or the rest of the clause.
2.2 Transitivity System
Transitivity system belongs to experiential metafunction. The experiential
metafunction focuses on the clause level in which the clause is as a representation
means to represent human experience in reality. Because of that, clause is the most
significant unit in this case.
Through the transitivity system, we can explore the clause in its
who=does=what=to=whom, who/what=is=what-who, when, where, why, or how
function. A clause can represent a process that means it can represent about what is
going on in reality: of doing, happening, feeling, or being. The what-is-going-on
process is sorted out in the semantic system of language and expressed through the
grammar of the clause. The clause is evolved in grammatical function that expresses
the reflective, experiential aspect of meaning. Thereby, the clause can be interpreted
through transitivity system.
Transitivity system specifies the different types of process that are recognized
in the language, and the structures by which they are expressed. Halliday (1985:101)
described the basic semantic framework for the representation of processes in which
a process consists of three major components. They are:
2. Participants in the process (realized by nominal group);
3. Circumstances associated with the process (realized by adverbial group or
prepositional phrase).
Those components are the basic frame to interpret human experience of what
is going on. They explain in the most general way of how phenomena of the reality is
represented as linguistic structures.
2.2.1 Process Types of Transitivity
People represent their experience of what is going on into various processes.
Halliday (1985:102-130) linguistically (grammatically) classified the various
processes into various process types which is known as the process types of
transtivity sytem. The process types is categorized into six types, as the following:
1. Material Process (process of doing: bodily, physically or materially)
2. Mental Process (process of sensing: emotionally, intelectually or sensorily)
3. Relational Process (process of being and having: equal to, or some attribute
of)
4. Behavioural Process (process of behaving: physiologically and
psychologically)
5. Verbal Process (process of saying: lingually or signalling)
6. Existential Process (process of existing: there exists)
The processes are realized by verbs in which traditionally verbs have been
defined as „doing words‟. However, some verbs are not doing words at all, but they
can also express states of being or having.
Material processes are processes of doing or happening. They express the
notion that some entity does something physically which may be done to some other
entity. In a process, it must be a participant who or which does the process. In
material process, the participant or especially the doer of the process is called actor.
Example:
Most musicians come here
Participant:
extended or directed. The entity which may be done to is the goal. „Goal‟ implies to
„directed at‟. Actually, the term patient can be used instead of the term goal which
means the one that suffers or undergoes the process. However, in the present
analysis, the term goal is commonly used. The goal is most like the direct object, that
only transitive verbs may take.
Example:
Eliza Gilkyson keeps playing concerts
Participant:
Halliday (1985:104) categorized material process into two types. They are:
1. Creative type
Creative type is also called a „bringing about‟ type. In this type, the goal is
brought about by the process or the goal is a result of the process.
The procedure called „Active MRI‟
captures multiple images
Actor Material: creative Goal
2. Dispositive type
Dispositive type is also called a „doing to‟ type. In this type, we have
doing and happening.
Example:
They have developed a new method
Actor Material: dispositve Goal
Material process also take the active voice as the examples above and the
passive voice as the examples below:
A new method has been developed by them
Goal Material: dispositive Actor
In conclusion, material process can answer the questions of what did the
actor do? what did the actor do to the goal? and what happened to the goal?.
2.2.1.2Mental Process
Mental processes are processes of sensing: feeling, thinking and perceiving.
In mental process, the participant is usually human (the one who senses: feels, thinks
or perceives and the one who is endowed consciousness). However, any object,
animate or not can be treated as conscious. For example: the empty house was
longing for the children to return. In the clause, the empty house can feel a longing,
so we regard it as endowed with consciousness. Because of that, the animate object
The participants in mental process are callled as senser and phenomenon. The
senser is a conscious being that can feel, think or see consciously. And phenomenon
is the one that is sensed, felt, thought or seen.
Example:
Mental processes are categorized into three types of process. They are:
1. Perception: the processes of perceiving through the five senses, such as
seeing, hearing, etc.
2. Affection or reaction: the processes of feeling, such as fearing, liking, etc.
3. Cognition: the processes of thinking, such as knowing, understanding, etc.
The examples below refer to mental processes:
1.
2.
3.
In relation to the tenses, mental process is commonly used in simple present
or past tense, but not commonly used in progressive form. In addition, it is a general
feature of mental processes that they can be realized in direction, senser or They see moving images of body joints
Senser Mental: perception Phenomenon
They expect further improvements
Senser Mental: affection Phenomenon
GM knew of the ignition switch problem
phenomenon which is being sensed and it can be the subject, but it still keeps the
clause in active voice.
Example:
I wonder at the waterfall
Senser Mental: Affection Phenomenon
In conclusion, mental processes are processes of feeling, thinking and seeing.
They are not kinds of doing process. So, they can not be probed or subtituted by do.
2.2.1.3Relational Process
Relational processes are processes of being and having. The central meaning
of this process is that „something is‟. Relational processes focus on being, possessing
or becoming. They can be classified according to whether they are being used to
identify something or to assign a quality of something.
The classification of relational process can be seen in the explanation below:
1. Attributive Process
Attributive processes are the processes which assign a quality. They
construct a meaning that „a is an attributive of x‟. The participants in attributive
process are carrier and attribute. Attribute is a quality or ephitet that ascribed to
the carrier, while carier means that „x is a member of the class a‟. The attribute is
realized as a nominal group which is typically but not obligatorily indefinite.
Attributive clauses are not reversible. In other words, the clauses can not
be changed into passive voice. They are probed by what? Or how?, for example:
The waterfall amazes me
what is x?, or how is x?. The common processes of attribution are: be, become,
get, turn, go, grow, starts out, turn out, end up, keep, stay, remain, seem, appear,
has, look, sound, smell, taste, and feel.
Example:
Bass player John Donnally and singer Daniel Armbruster
are confident
Carrier Relational: attributive Attribute
2. Identifying Process
Identifying clauses are processes which establish an identity. They
construct a meaning that „a is the identity of x‟. The participants in identifying
process are token (sign, name, form, holder, or occupant) and value (meaning,
referent, function, status or role). Grammatically, token is the one which stands
for what is being defined, and value is the definition.
Identifying clauses are reversible, so they can be changed into passive
voice in which token is always be the subject in active clause, and value is
always be the subject is passive clause. Identifying processes are probed by
which? or who?, for example: who is x?, or which is x?. The common processes
of identification are: be, become, equal, add up to, play (the part of), act as, call,
mean, define, represent, spell, express, form, give, constitute, imply, stand for,
symbolize, realize, indicate, signify, and betoken.
Example:
Active:
Eliza Gilkyson
is Among the local singer/songwriters who already has a well-established fan base
Passive:
Among the local singer/songwriters who already has a well-established fan base
is Eliza
Gilkyson
Value Relational: identifying Token
Relational process can be further sub-classified according to whether they
are:
1. Intensive
In intensive type, the relation between „carrier and attribute‟, or „token and
value‟ is one of sameness or in other words, the one is the other (x is a).
Example:
2. Possessive
In possessive type, the relationship between „carrier and attribute‟, or „token
and value‟ is one of ownership or in other words, one entity possesses another (x
has a).
Example:
3. Circumstancial
In circumstancial type, the relationship between „carrier and attribute‟, or
„token and value‟ is one of time, place, manner, cause, accompaniment, matter or
role (x is at a).
It is also not a competition
Carrier Attributive: intensive Attribute
We have an agreement with Israel
Example:
In
conclusion, relational processes are either attributive or identifying, and at the same
time, are either intensive, possessive or circumstancial. Gerot and Wignell (1994:68)
conclude the classification of relational processes briefly in the chart below:
2.2.1.4Behavioural Process
Behavioural processes are processes of physiological or psychological
behaviour, like breathing, dreaming, smiling, coughing, watching, listening, snoring,
and looking. These processes have one obligatory participant, the behaver. The
behaver is conscious being which is typically human, because he does the processes
of consciousness. Because of that, Halliday (1985:128) asserted that behavioural
processes are processes between material and mental processes.
Example:
She smiles nicely
Behaver Behavioural Circumstance
It comes from all over the world
Carrier Attributive: circumstancial Attribute
Attributive: Carrier, Attribute Identifying: Token, Value
Relational Processes
In behavioural processes, there is a term which is called range. Range specifies
the scope of the process. In other words, range names the behaviour enacted or the
actual processes. The term „range‟ differentiates behavioural processes with material
processes.
Example:
Behavioural Processes Material Processes
He took a nap He took the books He threw a tantrum He threw the rubbish
Behaver behavioural Range
2.2.1.5Verbal Process
Verbal processes are processes of saying, or of symbolically signalling. The
major participant of these processes is the sayer. The sayer can be anything that puts
out a signal and not require a conscious being. Frequently, these processes are
realized by two distinct clauses: the projecting clause which encodes a signal source
(sayer) and a signalling (verbal process) and the other (projected clause) which
realizes what was said.
Example:
The Indonesian Child Protection Commission (KPAI) says
Sayer Verbal
There are three other participants that are involved in verbal processes. They are:
1. Receiver: the one to whom the verbalization is addressed.
2. Verbiage: a name for the verbalization itself.
3. Target: the directed participant, or one acted upon verbally (insulted,
complimented, etc).
They told us a decision
Sayer Verbal Receiver Verbiage
They warned the demonstarotors
Sayer Verbal Target
2.2.1.6Existential Process
Existential processes are processes of existence. They represent that something
exists or happens. The clauses of existential process typically have the verb „be‟, or
some other verbs which express existence, such as exist, arise, and followed by a
nominal group which is called as existent. The existent can be a phenomena of any
kind.
Example:
There is always music
Existential Existent
Commonly, existential clauses have a circumstantial element, as the example below:
There are bands here from all over America and from as far away as Japan, South Korea and Azerbaijan
Existential Existent Circumstance: Place
2.2.2 Participants
Participant is also an important element in a clause, because it represents the
doer of the process. The different kinds of going-on processes involve different kinds
question of what is going on, so participants answer a question of who is involved in
the process. Even, a process in a clause may involve two participants.
Example:
It has not involved children as campaign participants
Participant Process Participant Circumstance
In addition, each process type of transitivity system has different terms to
represent the participants. The table below is going to show the terms which are used
in process types of transitivity.
Table 2.1 Participants List in Transitivity System
Process types Participants
Verbal Sayer Target; Receiver
Existential Existent
2.2.3 Circumstances
Circumstance in a clause is realized by adverbial group or prepositional phrase
to give information about when, where why, how, how many and as what a process
is done. Because of that, circumstances represent meanings about:
1. Time (temporal)
It tells an information about when and is probed by when? how often? how long?
2. Place (spatial)
It tells an information about where and is probed by where? how far?
Example:Joy Wave, an Indie Rock band from Rochester, New York, played at a
venue.
3. Manner
It tells an information about how, which consists of:
Means: tells an information about by what means and is probed by what with?
Example: I go to campus by public transportation.
Quality: tells an information about how and is probed by how?
Example: The patient has to lie perfectly still.
Comparison: tells an information about like what and is probed by what like?
Example: There is none like ours.
4. Cause
It tells an information about why, which consists of:
Reason: tells an information about what causes the process and is probed by
why? or how?
Example: More than 300 people have been killed in accidents because of the
problem.
Purpose: tells an information about the purposeand is probed by what for?
Example:The biggest U.S. automaker, General Motors, is recalling another 1.5
million vehicles for repairs.
Behalf: tells an information about for whose sake and is probed by for whom?
5. Accompaniment
It tells an information about with or without who or what and is probed by who or
what else?
Example: She went to my birthday party with her boyfriend.
6. Matter
It tells an information about what or with reference to what and is probed by what
about?
Example: This news talks about the turbulence in Middle East.
7. Role
It tells an information about what as and is probed by as what?
Example:It has not involved children as campaign participants.
2.3 News Item
News is any informations of any events that happen everywhere in this world
and those are felt important to be informed. Reah (1998:4) says, “News is a late
Middle English word that means tidings, new informations of recent events”. On The
other word, news is the communication of selected information on current events
which is presented by print, broadcast, internet, or words of mouth to a third-party or
mass audience.
News is delivered in a text which is called as news item. News item is a genre
which is commonly used by massmedia to share their news. It informs about the
important events of the day. Gerot and Wignell (1994:200) said that the function of
considered newsworthy or important. It means that, an event which is considered
important to be known by public, it should be published as news item.
Gerot and Wignell (1994:200) also wrote the characteristics of news item
linguistically. Based on the linguistic features, the characteristics of news item are:
1. Short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline.
2. Use of material process to retell the event.
3. Use of projecting verbal processes in source stage.
4. Focus on circumstances.
2.3.1 Schematic Structure of News Item
There are three elements that construct a news item: newsworthy event(s),
background events and sources.
Newsworthy event(s)
It is the first part of news item. It is also called as the main event which
recounts the event in summary form. In other words, this part is the main idea of
the news.
Background events
It is the second part of news item. This part is also called elaboration, because
it elaborates what happened, to whom, and in what circumstances the events did.
So, this part tells the reader about the background of an event.
Sources
It is the last part of news item. It is also called the resource of information. This
the event, as well as the authorities expert on the event. The function of this part is
to strenghten the news of the main event.
The following text is the example of news item with its schematic structure:
Earth’s Crust May Contain a Lot of Water
A tiny crystal trapped in a rough diamond, blasted from 400 kilometers below earth's surface, indicates that there may be a lot of water deep beneath our feet
In a report, published in the magazine Nature, a group of scientists say that X-ray and spectroscopic analysis of a small diamond found in magma from a Brazilian volcano showed a 40 micrometer speck of a mineral called ringwoodite. Further analysis revealed that its crystal lattice contains at least 1.4 percent water.
Ringwoodite is a variant of the mineral olivine, which makes up much of the earth's mantle. Olivine does not absorb water. Below 400 kilometers, however, the immense heat and pressure changes its crystal structure, and the resulting substances can contain as much as 2.5 percent water.
Scientists say there is a fair chance that the place where the diamond was formed contains a lot of water whose highly pressurized steam could cause volcanic eruptions.
The news above is quoted from VOA News which was published on 14th March
2.4 Relevant Studies
Guoqing (2005) in his journal entitled “The transitivity System and Genres”
found in his investigation of the occurrence and distribution of process types in his
data reveals that the narrative text as a genre is featured by a high frequency of
material processes. The major process that features descriptive text is relational
process. The choice of transitivity in text is conditioned by its communicative
purpose. He concluded that transitivity analysis provides important linguistic clues to
the identification of genres or text types.
Frismatiladanis (2009) in her thesis “Transitivity Process and The Structure of
Narrative Genre in Sellected Indonesian Folk Tales”. She analyzed the Transitivity
Process and the Structure of Narrative Genre in selected Indonesian Folk Tales by
applying Halliday‟s Systemic Functional Linguistic Theory (SFLT). The folk tales
come from the different areas in Indonesia. She found that the most dominant type of
transitivity in her analysis is material process and the complete element of narrative
genre can be found in some folk tales only.
Andriyani (2008) in her thesis “Transitivity Process in Worldview‟s Articles of
Newsweek”. She applied Halliday‟s Sytemic Functional Linguistic Theory (SFLT) in
articles talk about politic, turbulence in Iraq and China‟s nationalism. She found that
material process is the most dominant type of transitivity in those articles.
Tarigan (2009) in his thesis “A Transitivity Analysis in Selected Articles of Time
Magazine”. He analyzed the transitivity process in selected political articles of Time
Magazine. He applied Sytemic Functional Linguistic Theory (SFLT) of Halliday and
found that the most dominant type of transitivity in the articles is material process.
The four studies have a big contribution in this thesis. Guoqing‟s journal and
Frismatiladanis‟ thesis help the writer to see the relation between transitivity process
and genre (text types). Then, Andriyani and Tarigan‟s thesis help the writer to see the
transitivity process in news item and its relation to the topic of the news.
In this thesis, the writer analyzed the transitivity process in five selected news of
VOA News with different topics and identified their schematic structure which
consists of newsworthy event(s), background events and sources. The schematic
structure can be identified based on the linguistic features of news item, especially
related to the transitivity process. Then, the writer analyzed the relations between the
topics of the news and the transitivity system. Because of that, the four studies are
