Manajemen | Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji joeb.83.1.19-26

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Journal of Education for Business

ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20

Service Learning: Applications and Research in

Business

Christine P. Andrews

To cite this article: Christine P. Andrews (2007) Service Learning: Applications and Research in Business, Journal of Education for Business, 83:1, 19-26, DOI: 10.3200/JOEB.83.1.19-26

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/JOEB.83.1.19-26

Published online: 07 Aug 2010.

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esearchers฀ endorse฀ integration฀ of฀ service฀learning฀(SL)฀into฀higher฀ education฀as฀a฀way฀to฀improve฀the฀rel-evance฀ of฀ education฀ and฀ address฀ com-munity฀ needs฀ (Zlotkowski,฀ 1996).฀ SL฀ is฀ increasingly฀ applied฀ in฀ business฀ dis-ciplines.฀ However,฀ assimilating฀ struc-tural฀ changes฀ in฀ the฀ curriculum฀ is฀ not฀ easy,฀ and฀ an฀ examination฀ of฀ related฀ research฀ reveals฀ institutional฀ and฀ pro-gram฀characteristics฀that฀are฀associated฀ with฀successful฀SL฀implementations.฀In฀ addition,฀SL฀applications฀are฀not฀found฀ evenly฀ across฀ all฀ disciplines฀ in฀ busi-ness.฀In฀this฀article,฀I฀briefly฀summarize฀ institutional฀ and฀ program฀ characteris-tics฀ that฀ are฀ associated฀ with฀ success-ful฀ SL฀ programs฀ and฀ review฀ published฀ research฀related฀to฀SL฀implementations฀ in฀business,฀focusing฀on฀the฀discipline,฀ course,฀and฀particular฀SL฀application.฀I฀ conclude฀with฀suggestions฀about฀where฀ SL฀ implementation฀ may฀ fit฀ best฀ in฀ a฀ business฀curriculum.

SL฀ has฀ a฀ broad฀ basis฀ of฀ support฀ in฀ the฀ United฀ States.฀ The฀ presidents฀ of฀ Brown฀ University,฀ Stanford฀ University,฀ Georgetown฀University,฀and฀the฀Educa-tion฀ Commission฀ of฀ the฀ United฀ States฀ started฀Campus฀Compact฀in฀an฀effort฀to฀ create฀service฀opportunities฀for฀students฀ and฀address฀the฀perceived฀moral฀decline฀ of฀ college฀ students฀ (Morton฀ &฀Troppe,฀ 1996).฀ Campus฀ Compact฀ and฀ its฀ Proj-ect฀ on฀ Integrating฀ Service฀ With฀ Aca-demic฀Study฀has฀grown฀from฀an฀initial฀

membership฀ of฀ 23฀ schools฀ in฀ 1985฀ to฀ over฀1,000฀two-year฀and฀four-year฀col-leges฀and฀universities฀at฀the฀present฀time฀ (Campus฀Compact,฀2006).฀SL฀educators฀ use฀experiential฀education฀that฀engages฀ students฀ in฀ a฀ curriculum฀ connected฀ to฀ their฀community.

Combining฀ community฀ service฀ and฀ academic฀ courses฀ and฀ successfully฀ accomplishing฀ service฀ goals฀ while฀ achieving฀ learning฀ outcomes฀ is฀ chal-lenging,฀ particularly฀ in฀ undergraduate฀ business฀courses฀whose฀curriculum฀con- tent฀is฀frequently฀technical฀and฀standard-ized.฀Integration฀into฀business฀curricula฀ is฀also฀challenging฀because฀institutions’฀ achievement฀of฀academic฀goals฀is฀criti- cal฀to฀maintaining฀their฀business฀accred-itation฀ and฀ enabling฀ them฀ to฀ succeed฀ with฀ the฀ requisite฀ technical฀ skills฀ in฀ placing฀ students฀ in฀ professional฀ posi-tions.฀Accomplishment฀of฀service฀goals฀ can฀ come฀ at฀ the฀ sacrifice฀ of฀ learning฀ outcomes฀ and฀ vice฀ versa.฀ The฀ authors฀ of฀studies฀referred฀to฀in฀this฀article฀fre- quently฀offer฀creative฀strategies฀for฀inte-grating฀ SL฀ into฀ business฀ curricula฀ and฀ accomplishing฀course฀goals.฀

Institutional฀and฀Program฀ Characteristics

Theoretical฀ research฀ can฀ be฀ related฀ to฀ institutional฀ characteristics,฀ instruc-tional฀methods,฀personal฀development,฀or฀ academic฀ outcomes฀ in฀ SL.฀Institutional฀

Service฀Learning:฀Applications฀and฀

Research฀in฀Business

CHRISTINE฀P.฀ANDREWS฀

FLORIDA฀GULF฀COAST฀UNIVERSITY฀ FORT฀MYERS,฀FLORIDA฀

R

ABSTRACT.฀Researchers฀have฀described฀

service฀learning฀as฀an฀ideal฀way฀to฀integrate฀ experiential฀education฀into฀coursework฀ while฀meeting฀community฀needs฀and฀imbu-ing฀students฀with฀civic฀responsibility.฀They฀ have฀advocated฀service฀learning฀in฀business฀ as฀a฀method฀to฀implement฀course฀concepts฀ and฀increase฀student฀understanding฀of฀the฀ external฀environment.฀In฀this฀article,฀the฀ author฀briefly฀summarizes฀institutional฀and฀ program฀characteristics฀that฀are฀associated฀ with฀successful฀service-learning฀programs.฀ She฀reviews฀research฀publications฀related฀ to฀service-learning฀implementations฀in฀ business.฀The฀author฀found฀that฀the฀fields฀ of฀information฀systems,฀management,฀and฀ marketing฀have฀more฀service-learning฀ applications฀tied฀to฀course-earning฀objec-tives฀than฀have฀the฀fields฀of฀accounting฀and฀ finance.฀Further,฀she฀suggests฀that฀service฀ learning฀may฀fit฀best฀in฀business฀courses฀ where฀skilled฀interaction฀with฀users฀is฀a฀key฀ learning฀goal.฀

Keywords:฀business฀education,฀manage-ment,฀service฀learning

Copyright฀©฀2007฀Heldref฀Publications

characteristics฀ refer฀ to฀ dimensions฀ of฀ the฀institution฀that฀promote฀or฀inhibit฀the฀ integration฀ of฀ service฀ learning.฀ Instruc-tional฀ methodology฀ refers฀ to฀ character-istics฀ of฀ SL฀ implementation฀ related฀ to฀ programmatic฀ features฀ that฀ support฀ the฀ achievement฀of฀learning฀outcomes,฀but฀I฀ do฀not฀address฀that฀issue฀฀in฀this฀article.฀

Researchers฀ liken฀ building฀ an฀ engaged฀ campus฀ to฀ a฀ maturation฀ pro-cess฀ (American฀Association฀ for฀ Higher฀ Education฀[AAHE],฀2004)฀that฀involves฀ not฀ only฀ developing฀ a฀ shared฀ language฀ and฀ shared฀ learning฀ but฀ also฀ building฀ infrastructure,฀ expanding฀ collabora-tion,฀ instituting฀ policies,฀ and฀ assess-ing฀ effects.฀ Implementation฀ of฀ SL฀ into฀ universities฀ broadly฀ takes฀ one฀ of฀ three฀ forms฀ including฀ (a)฀ implementation฀ by฀ course฀ section,฀ (b)฀ creation฀ of฀ an฀ office฀of฀SL,฀or฀(c)฀formation฀of฀an฀SL฀ consortium฀ (Strand,฀ Marullo,฀ Cutforth,฀ Stoecker,฀&฀Donohue,฀2003).

Lamb,฀ Swinth,฀ Vinton,฀ and฀ Lee฀ (1998)฀ attributed฀ much฀ of฀ the฀ resis-tance฀ to฀ the฀ successful฀ integration฀ of฀ SL฀to฀the฀absence฀of฀infrastructure฀for฀ sustaining฀service฀efforts.฀They฀point-ed฀ out฀ that฀ the฀ operational฀ aspects฀ of฀ SL,฀ including฀ identifying฀ and฀ nur-turing฀ agency฀ connections,฀ assisting฀ faculty฀ with฀ designing฀ activities,฀ and฀ assisting฀ students,฀ require฀ infrastruc-ture฀ and฀ financial฀ commitment฀ from฀ the฀institution.

In฀ a฀ presentation฀ to฀ the฀ National฀ Service฀ Learning฀ Conference,฀ Andrew฀ Furco฀(2004)฀from฀the฀Service฀Learning฀ Research฀ and฀ Development฀ Center฀ at฀ the฀University฀of฀California฀at฀Berkeley฀ confirmed฀ the฀ need฀ for฀ infrastructure฀ and฀proposed฀a฀list฀of฀indicators฀of฀the฀ engaged฀campus,฀including฀institutional฀ structure,฀administrative฀support,฀finan-cial฀ and฀ development฀ support฀ for฀ fac-ulty,฀ and฀ community฀ opportunities฀ and฀ mechanisms฀ supporting฀ engagement.฀ Lamb฀ et฀ al.฀ (1998)฀ cited฀ lack฀ of฀ con-nection฀ to฀ mission฀ as฀ a฀ barrier฀ to฀ the฀ successful฀integration฀of฀SL฀into฀a฀col-lege฀of฀business.฀Battaglia฀(1995)฀found฀ that฀the฀degree฀of฀community฀develop-ment฀ was฀ correlated฀ with฀ institutional฀ mission฀ in฀ a฀ study฀ of฀ 2-year฀ colleges.฀ Morton฀and฀Troppe฀(1996)฀summarized฀ survey฀ results฀ of฀ SL฀ implementations฀ that฀ indicated฀ that฀ campuses฀ achieved฀ the฀ most฀ success฀ when฀ SL฀ was฀

con-TABLE฀1.฀Publications฀on฀Conceptual฀and฀General฀Business฀Service฀ Learning฀(SL)

Authors Year Organization Comment Godfrey,฀Illes,฀&฀

Berry 2005 Brigham฀Young฀University Illustrates฀how฀SL฀broadens฀business฀education,฀focusing฀ on฀its฀holistic,฀problem-solving฀nature. Godfrey 1999 Brigham฀Young฀

University Makes฀an฀argument฀for฀compassionate฀citizenry. Kolenko฀et฀al. 1996 Kennesaw฀State฀

College,฀Rutgers฀ University,฀ University฀of฀West฀ Florida,฀Marymount฀ Manhattan฀College

Analyzes฀curriculum฀issues,฀ barriers,฀and฀faculty฀issues฀ related฀to฀teaching฀SL.

Lamb฀et฀al. 1998 Montana฀State฀

University Describes฀SL฀integration฀throughout฀4-year฀education. Lester฀et฀al. 2005 University฀of฀

Wisconsin–Eau฀ Clair,฀Simmons฀ School฀of฀ Management

Uses฀empirical฀data฀to฀ evaluate฀SL฀for฀students,฀ recruiters,฀and฀community฀ by฀using฀structural฀equation฀ modeling.

Papamarcos 2002 St.฀John’s฀

University Advocates฀the฀use฀of฀team-based฀projects฀in฀SL฀ for฀client฀organizations฀ illustrating฀key฀people,฀proj-ect,฀and฀process฀issues. Papamarcos 2005 St.฀John’s฀

University Reexamines฀experiential฀ learning฀advocating฀univer-sity–community฀partnerships฀ and฀student฀leadership. McCarthy฀&฀

Tucker 2002 University฀of฀Baltimore,฀Ohio฀ University

Uses฀empirical฀data฀to฀ measure฀the฀likelihood฀of฀ involvement฀in฀community฀ service฀after฀participation฀in฀ SL฀in฀business฀classes. Morton฀&฀Troppe 1996 Providence฀College,฀

Campus฀Compact฀ Providence

Provides฀history฀of฀SL฀and฀ discussion฀of฀effects฀on฀stu-dent฀values.

Rama฀et฀al. 2000 Texas฀A&M฀ International฀ University,฀Iowa฀State฀ University,฀Wolcott฀ Lynch฀Associates,฀ Bentley฀College

Summarizes฀academic฀and฀ personal฀student฀SL฀out-comes฀and฀how฀accounting฀ researchers฀can฀contribute.

Salimbene฀et฀al. 2005 Bentley฀College Describes฀Bentley’s฀Service฀ Learning฀Center,฀their฀Alli-ance฀for฀Ethics฀and฀Social฀ Responsibility,฀and฀SL฀inte-gration.

Taylor 2005 University฀of฀

Missouri Interviews฀experienced฀SL฀experts฀who฀have฀insights฀ based฀on฀research฀and฀ experience.

Zlotkowski 1996 Bentley฀College Advocates฀use฀of฀SL฀to฀ broaden฀student฀perspectives฀ and฀increase฀understanding฀ of฀external฀environment.

gruent฀ with฀ a฀ broadly฀ understood฀ and฀ accepted฀mission฀and฀was฀articulated฀in฀ the฀language฀of฀the฀campus.

Several฀ researchers฀ have฀ demon-strated฀ that฀ faculty฀ are฀ reluctant฀ to฀ participate฀ in฀ SL.฀ SL฀ courses฀ typically฀ take฀more฀time฀to฀manage฀than฀do฀tra-ditional฀ courses.฀ Morton฀ and฀ Troppe฀ (1996)฀found฀that฀faculty฀viewed฀course฀ development฀grants฀and฀release฀time฀as฀ the฀ most฀ important฀ means฀ for฀ motivat-ing฀ faculty฀ to฀ undertake฀ SL.฀ Berman฀ (1999),฀ Bergkamp฀ (1996),฀ and฀ Euster฀ and฀ Weinbach฀ (1994)฀ also฀ emphasized฀ the฀importance฀of฀faculty฀reward฀in฀suc-cessful฀ implementation฀ of฀ SL฀ partner-ships.฀ Kolenko,฀ Porter,฀ Wheatley,฀ and฀ Colby฀ (1996)฀ advocated฀ the฀ use฀ of฀ SL฀ in฀teaching฀business฀ethics฀and฀provided฀ an฀ analysis฀ of฀ curriculum฀ and฀ faculty฀ issues฀relating฀to฀maximization฀of฀suc-cess.฀ Although฀ some฀ of฀ those฀ issues฀ may฀still฀influence฀faculty฀participation,฀ the฀ continued฀ growth฀ of฀ SL฀ and฀ the฀ absence฀ of฀ more฀ current฀ publications฀ regarding฀ faculty฀ issues฀ could฀ indicate฀ decreased฀ importance฀ of฀ the฀ issue฀ as฀ faculty฀explore฀the฀ability฀of฀SL฀to฀help฀ them฀accomplish฀course฀objectives.

Research฀on฀SL฀in฀Business

The฀literature฀on฀SL฀reflects฀its฀inter-disciplinary฀ nature฀ and฀ is฀ a฀ relatively฀ recent฀integration฀into฀business฀research.฀ Some฀ disciplines฀ have฀ little฀ or฀ no฀ pub-lished฀ research฀ relative฀ to฀ SL฀ in฀ their฀ field.฀ If฀ faculty฀ are฀ not฀ reading฀ general฀ business฀ journals,฀ then฀ it฀ is฀ highly฀ like-ly฀ that฀ they฀ know฀ nothing฀ about฀ appli-cations฀ of฀ SL฀ in฀ business.฀ I฀ compiled฀ researches฀ cited฀ in฀ this฀ review฀ from฀ a฀ search฀for฀words฀“business”฀and฀“service฀ learning”฀in฀Proquest—an฀online฀search฀ engine.฀ I฀ also฀ conducted฀ a฀ review฀ of฀ online฀resources฀available฀from฀Campus฀ Compact,฀ the฀ Corporation฀ for฀ National฀ and฀Community฀Service,฀and฀the฀Nation-al฀ Service฀ Learning฀ Clearinghouse.฀ I฀ scanned฀ the฀ bibliographies฀ of฀ relevant฀ research฀ articles฀ on฀ business฀ and฀ SL.฀ I฀ read฀the฀articles฀in฀their฀entirety฀to฀obtain฀ detailed฀information฀on฀SL฀implementa-tion.฀It฀is฀important฀to฀note฀that฀there฀is฀ a฀ large฀ body฀ of฀ research฀ related฀ to฀ atti-tudes,฀behavior,฀and฀learning฀that฀is฀not฀ business฀ specific,฀ and฀ I฀ do฀ not฀ address฀ those฀issues฀in฀this฀article.

TABLE฀2.฀฀Publications฀on฀Service-Learning฀(SL)฀Applications฀in฀฀ Business฀Core฀Areas฀

(table฀continues)

Authors Year Organization Comment ฀฀฀฀Accounting

Gujarathi฀&฀

McQuade฀ 2002 Bentley฀College Uses฀optional฀SL฀assign-ment฀in฀an฀intermediate฀ accounting฀course. McPhail฀ 2005 University฀of฀

Glasgow Uses฀a฀visit฀to฀unemploy- ment฀and฀community฀cen- ters฀to฀demonstrate฀account-ing฀pro฀bono฀services฀an฀ introduction฀to฀the฀profes-sion฀seminar.฀

Rose,฀Rose,฀&฀

Norman฀ 2005 Lincoln฀University,฀Southern฀Illinois฀ University,฀Virginia฀ Commonwealth฀ University

Reports฀result฀of฀experi-ment฀in฀graduate฀accounting฀ information฀systems฀course฀ using฀SL฀as฀the฀independent฀ variable.

Strupeck฀&฀Whit-ton฀ 2004 Indiana฀University฀Northwest,฀Purdue฀ University฀North฀ Central

Reviews฀use฀of฀Volunteer฀ Income฀Tax฀Assistance฀ program฀for฀both฀for-credit฀ elective฀course฀and฀noncredit฀ volunteer฀opportunity. Tschopp฀ 2004 Damien฀College

Non-course-based฀require-ment฀to฀design฀a฀business฀ plan฀for฀community฀project฀ using฀AICPA฀core฀compe-tencies฀for฀a฀framework.

฀฀฀฀฀฀฀Finance

Dahlquist฀ 1998 St.฀Mary’s฀University Illustrates฀use฀of฀a฀SL฀proj-ect฀in฀finance฀course.

Information฀Systems

Lazar฀&฀Lidtke฀ 2002 Towson฀University Describes฀several฀SL฀appli- cations฀in฀information฀sys-tems฀curriculum.

Preiser-Huey฀&฀

Navarette฀ 2006 California฀State฀Polytechnic฀฀ University

Uses฀a฀case-study฀SL฀appli- cation฀in฀a฀Web-based฀sys-tems฀development฀course.

฀฀฀Management

Angelidis,฀Tomic,฀

&฀Ibrahim฀ 2004 St.฀John’s฀฀University,฀Augusta฀ State฀University

Provides฀comprehensive฀stra-tegic฀analysis฀of฀community฀ business฀or฀organization฀in฀a฀ strategic฀management฀course. Crowe฀ 2003 St.฀Louis฀University Develops,฀through฀empirical฀

research,฀an฀assessment฀pro-tocol฀for฀SL฀in฀management฀ education.

Kenworthy-U’Ren฀ 2005 Bentley฀College Provides฀discussion฀by฀ experts฀on฀crossdisciplinary฀ issues฀with฀SL฀and฀their฀ impact฀on฀management฀ education.

Madsen฀&฀Turn-bull฀ 2006 Utah฀Valley฀State฀College Measures฀effect฀of฀SL฀project฀ on฀student฀learning฀in฀com-pensation฀and฀benefits฀course.

In฀ this฀ article,฀ I฀ group฀ and฀ summa-rize฀ SL฀ business฀ research฀ into฀ one฀ of฀ four฀groups:฀(a)฀conceptual฀and฀general฀ business฀SL,฀(b)฀SL฀applications฀in฀busi-ness฀core฀courses,฀(c)฀SL฀applications฀in฀ graduate฀ business฀ courses,฀ and฀ (d)฀ SL฀ applications฀ in฀ courses฀ related฀ to฀ busi-ness฀programs.

Tables฀1–4฀follow฀a฀discussion฀of฀the฀ articles฀in฀each฀group.฀I฀conclude฀with฀a฀ vision฀for฀SL฀in฀business.

Conceptual฀and฀General฀Business฀ Research

Theoretical฀ or฀ conceptual฀ research฀ on฀ business฀ethics฀published฀in฀business฀jour- nals฀appeared฀earliest฀(see฀Table฀1).฀Zlot-kowski฀(1996)฀advocated฀the฀use฀of฀SL฀to฀ broaden฀student฀perspectives฀while฀dem-onstrating฀course฀concepts฀and฀providing฀ a฀link฀to฀the฀external฀environment.฀Rama,฀ Ravenscroft,฀ Wolcott,฀ and฀ Zlotkowski฀ (2000)฀ provided฀ a฀ summary฀ of฀ research฀ on฀academic฀and฀personal฀student฀SL฀out-comes฀ that฀ was฀ drawn฀ primarily฀ from฀

research฀ from฀ outside฀ of฀ business฀ disci-plines฀but฀provided฀valuable฀information฀ on฀the฀effect฀of฀SL฀on฀student฀academic฀ and฀personal฀outcomes.฀Other฀researchers฀ emphasized฀ the฀ problem-solving฀ nature฀ of฀ SL฀ projects฀ (Godfrey,฀ Illes,฀ &฀ Berry,฀ 2005)฀and฀advocated฀the฀use฀of฀university-community฀projects฀(Papamarcos,฀2005).

฀ I฀ have฀ included฀ research฀ articles฀ whose฀ authors฀ provided฀ descriptions฀ of฀ SL฀ integration฀ at฀ their฀ universities.฀ Business฀ educators฀ at฀ Montana฀ State฀ University฀ integrate฀ SL฀ in฀ the฀ busi-ness฀ curriculum฀ throughout฀ all฀ 4฀ years฀ (Lamb฀ et฀ al.,฀ 1998).฀ Bentley฀ College฀ has฀a฀comparatively฀long฀history฀of฀SL,฀ and฀ Salimbene,฀ Buono,฀ LaFrage,฀ and฀ Nurick฀(2005)฀have฀provided฀an฀excel-lent฀ description฀ of฀ Bentley฀ College’s฀ Alliance฀for฀Ethics฀and฀Social฀Respon-sibility฀ and฀ SL฀ integration฀ throughout฀ the฀ campus.฀ Bentley฀ College฀ (2006)฀ now฀ offers฀ a฀ service-learning฀ certifi-cate,฀which฀includes฀an฀SL฀notation฀on฀ student฀ diplomas฀ attesting฀ to฀ student฀ leadership฀and฀community฀engagement.฀

Those฀examples฀of฀SL฀implementations฀ are฀great฀starting฀points฀for฀learning฀from฀ the฀experts.฀Conceptual฀SL฀researchers฀ in฀ business฀ addressed฀ the฀ same฀ issues฀ found฀ in฀ SL฀ in฀ general,฀ emphasizing฀ the฀opportunity฀to฀(a)฀put฀business฀skills฀ into฀ practice,฀ (b)฀ strengthen฀ ties฀ with฀ the฀ community,฀ and฀ (c)฀ capitalize฀ on฀ experiential฀education.฀In฀the฀discussion฀ that฀ follows,฀ I฀ address฀ SL฀ applications฀ in฀business฀core฀areas.฀

SL฀Applications฀in฀Business฀Core฀Areas

Educators฀achieve฀curriculum฀integra- tion฀such฀as฀that฀found฀at฀Bentley฀Col-lege฀ and฀ the฀ Montana฀ State฀ University฀ after฀ many฀ years฀ of฀ investment.฀ Most฀ integrations฀start฀with฀an฀SL฀application฀ in฀ a฀ specific฀ course.฀ The฀ majority฀ of฀ researchers฀describe฀how฀SL฀gives฀them฀ an฀opportunity฀to฀apply฀course฀concepts฀ and฀ provide฀ community฀ service.฀ In฀ the฀ present฀discussion,฀I฀focus฀on฀what฀areas฀ in฀ the฀ business฀ core฀ areas฀ are฀ report-ing฀ SL฀ implementations฀ and฀ how฀ SL฀ is฀ implemented.฀ Accounting,฀ finance,฀ management,฀ marketing,฀ and฀ informa-tion฀ systems฀ report฀ SL฀ applications.฀ I฀ review฀each฀of฀these฀areas฀separately.

A฀quick฀scan฀of฀the฀publication฀years฀ in฀accounting฀indicates฀a฀relatively฀recent฀ integration฀ into฀ accounting฀ curriculum฀ (see฀ Table฀ 2).฀ In฀ addition,฀ the฀ major-ity฀ of฀ the฀ SL฀ implementations฀ are฀ not฀ course฀based.฀Using฀an฀optional฀assign- ment฀(Gujarathi฀&฀McQuade,฀2002),฀vis-iting฀an฀unemployment฀center฀(McPhail,฀ 2005),฀ providing฀Volunteer฀ Income฀ Tax฀ Assistance฀ for฀ elective฀ credit฀ (Strupeck฀ &฀Whitton,฀2004),฀and฀designing฀a฀busi-ness฀plan฀as฀part฀of฀a฀non-course-based฀ requirement฀ (Tschopp,฀ 2004)฀ are฀ not฀ related฀ to฀ classic฀ accounting฀ learning฀ objectives.฀ Those฀ experiences฀ instead฀ provide฀ excellent฀ opportunities฀ to฀ involve฀students฀in฀extracurricular฀activi-ties฀ of฀ value฀ to฀ the฀ accounting฀ profes-sion.฀ Rose,฀ Rose,฀ and฀ Norman฀ (2005)฀ reported฀an฀improvement฀in฀the฀achieve-ment฀of฀learning฀objectives฀from฀the฀use฀ of฀ an฀ SL฀ experience฀ in฀ an฀ accounting฀ information-systems฀ course.฀ The฀ rich-ness฀ and฀ complexity฀ introduced฀ by฀ a฀ live฀client฀in฀an฀accounting฀information-฀ systems฀ course฀ vividly฀ demonstrates฀ a฀ major฀ learning฀ objective฀ of฀ systems฀ development.฀ The฀ accounting฀ examples฀

TABLE฀2.฀(Continued)

Author Year Organization Comment Salimbene฀et฀al.฀ 2005 Bentley฀College Summarizes฀experience฀in฀

integrating฀SL฀and฀reports฀ on฀the฀application฀of฀man-agement฀concepts฀to฀social฀ problems.

Weber฀&฀Sleeper฀ 2003 St.฀Cloud฀State฀

University Describes฀SL฀approaches฀in฀organizational฀behavior฀and฀ legal฀environment฀courses. ฀฀฀฀฀Marketing

Easterling฀&฀

Rudell฀ 1997 Bentley฀College,฀Iona฀College Describes฀SL฀integration฀possibilities฀in฀marketing,฀ including฀learning฀out-comes.

Hagenbuch 2006 Messiah฀College Describes฀a฀SL฀sales฀proj- ect฀in฀a฀nonprofit฀organiza- tion฀and฀the฀positive฀ben-efits฀for฀both฀students฀and฀ the฀organization.

Klink฀&฀Athaide฀฀ 2004 Sellinger฀School฀of฀ Business฀and฀ Management,฀ Loyola฀College

Provides฀an฀SL฀implementa- tion฀for฀a฀principles฀of฀mar- keting฀course฀with฀assess-ment฀outcomes.

Petkus฀ 2000

Boise฀State฀Uni-versity Provides฀examples฀of฀SL฀ applications฀to฀several฀mar-keting฀courses.฀Emphasizes฀ importance฀of฀marketing฀to฀ nonprofits.

may฀ indicate฀ that฀ faculty฀ feel฀ less฀ free฀ to฀ experiment฀ with฀ alternative฀ learning฀ strategies฀when฀course฀content฀is฀closely฀ tied฀ to฀ a฀ national฀ exam.฀ Alternatively,฀ the฀ majority฀ of฀ students฀ in฀ an฀ account-ing฀class฀may฀not฀have฀gained฀sufficient฀ technical฀skills฀to฀be฀useful฀in฀a฀live฀set-ting฀and฀may฀actually฀create฀liability฀for฀ the฀ institution฀ or฀ require฀ an฀ inordinate฀ amount฀of฀training฀by฀the฀company.฀

Finance฀is฀conspicuous฀for฀a฀compara-tive฀lack฀of฀SL฀implementations฀and,฀like฀ accounting,฀ may฀ represent฀ the฀ depth฀ of฀ knowledge฀ required฀ for฀ a฀ student฀ to฀ be฀ useful฀as฀a฀professional.฀Achievement฀of฀ finance-course฀ learning฀ objectives฀ may฀ not฀be฀well฀served฀by฀SL฀experience.฀

Information-systems฀SL฀applications฀ are฀ also฀ relatively฀ recent฀ and฀ derive฀ the฀same฀benefits฀as฀do฀the฀accounting฀ information฀ systems฀ explained฀ earlier.฀

The฀researchers฀included฀systems฀analy-sis,฀design฀and฀implementation฀projects฀ (Lazar฀&฀Lidtke,฀2002)฀and฀Web฀design฀ (Preiser-Huey฀ &฀ Navarette,฀ 2006).฀ In฀ the฀latter฀two฀SL฀applications,฀SL฀had฀a฀ positive฀and฀direct฀effect฀on฀the฀achieve-ment฀of฀a฀major฀learning฀objective.

Management฀ also฀ has฀ a฀ variety฀ of฀ recent฀SL฀applications.฀Experiential฀learn-ing฀ appears฀ to฀ support฀ achievement฀ of฀ management฀learning฀objectives.฀Angeli-dis,฀Tomic,฀and฀Ibrahim฀(2004)฀reported฀ on฀the฀use฀of฀SL฀to฀provide฀experience฀in฀ preparing฀a฀strategic฀analysis฀for฀a฀com-munity฀business฀or฀organization.฀Madsen฀ and฀ Turnbull฀ (2006)฀ illustrated฀ an฀ SL฀ application฀in฀a฀compensation฀and฀bene-fits฀course.฀Other฀applications,฀including฀ application฀ of฀ management฀ concepts฀ to฀ social฀problems฀(Salimbene฀et฀al.,฀2005)฀ and฀ SL฀ approaches฀ used฀ in฀

organiza-tional฀behavior฀(Weber฀&฀Sleeper,฀2003)฀ are฀ good฀ examples฀ and฀ perhaps฀ more฀ appropriate฀for฀students฀taking฀introduc-tory฀ courses฀ in฀ their฀ major.฀ Use฀ of฀ SL฀ to฀provide฀a฀strategic฀analysis฀would฀be฀ appropriate฀ for฀ a฀ capstone฀ experience,฀ requiring฀a฀variety฀of฀skills฀learned฀over฀ the฀years฀in฀college.

Last,฀reported฀marketing฀implementa- tions฀appear฀to฀benefit฀from฀the฀experi-ential฀aspect฀of฀SL.฀In฀1997,฀Easterling฀ and฀ Rudell฀ provided฀ several฀ possible฀ opportunities฀ for฀ integration฀ of฀ SL฀ in฀ marketing฀ courses.฀ Klink฀ and฀ Athaide฀ (2004)฀ provided฀ an฀ SL฀ application฀ in฀ an฀ introductory฀ marketing฀ course฀ on฀ developing฀ a฀ marketing฀ plan฀ for฀ non-profit฀ organizations.฀ Several฀ of฀ those฀ researchers฀emphasized฀the฀importance฀ of฀marketing฀to฀nonprofit฀organizations฀ and฀ how฀ this฀ skill฀ is฀ frequently฀ under-represented฀in฀employees฀of฀nonprofits. Overall,฀the฀results฀of฀published฀stud-ies฀indicate฀that฀SL฀applications฀improve฀ the฀achievement฀of฀learning฀objectives฀in฀ information฀ systems,฀ management,฀ and฀ marketing.฀SL฀in฀these฀settings฀may฀bet-ter฀address฀an฀important฀course฀goal฀not฀ easily฀covered฀in฀the฀classroom.฀The฀SL฀ applications฀ in฀ accounting฀ were฀ related฀ to฀peripheral฀skills฀and฀were฀not฀direct-ly฀ tied฀ to฀ core฀ coursework฀ in฀ account-ing.฀ I฀ identified฀ only฀ one฀ application฀ in฀ finance.฀At฀this฀level,฀interpersonal฀skills฀ are฀ more฀ highly฀ ranked฀ in฀ information฀ systems,฀ management,฀ and฀ marketing฀ than฀in฀finance฀and฀accounting.

SL฀Applications฀in฀Graduate฀Business฀ Courses

Several฀ SL฀ applications฀ appeared฀ in฀ 1996,฀ including฀ (a)฀ Master฀ of฀ Business฀ Administration฀ (MBA)฀ team฀ projects฀ to฀ improve฀ the฀ living฀ conditions฀ in฀ low-income฀communities฀(Collins,฀1996),฀(b)฀ community฀service฀as฀leadership฀(Fried-man,฀1996),฀(c)฀a฀strategic฀management฀ capstone฀ course฀ that฀ addresses฀ a฀ com-munity฀need฀(Graham,฀1996),฀and฀(d)฀an฀ action-oriented฀ learning฀ model฀ (Mercer,฀ 1996).฀ In฀ another฀ research฀ application,฀ Brown฀ (2000)฀ discussed฀ project฀ man-agement฀ for฀ low-income฀ seniors.฀ Last,฀ Wittmer฀(2004)฀discussed฀one฀more฀core฀ MBA฀course฀in฀which฀there฀is฀a฀“Values฀ in฀Action”฀SL฀component.

On฀ the฀ basis฀ of฀ this฀ list,฀ I฀ conclude฀ that฀SL฀applications฀got฀off฀to฀a฀strong฀

TABLE฀3.฀Publications฀on฀Service-Learning฀(SL)฀Applications฀in฀ Graduate฀Business฀Courses฀

Author Year Organization Comment Bies 1996 Georgetown฀

University Describes฀graduate฀SL฀proj-ect฀that฀focused฀on฀social฀ reality฀of฀powerlessness.฀ Brown 2000 University฀of฀

Washington MBA฀students฀learn฀project฀management฀skills฀while฀ managing฀development฀ projects฀for฀low-income฀ seniors.

Collins 1996 University฀of฀

Wisconsin–Madison Describes฀MBA฀team฀projects฀in฀business฀and฀ society฀ethics฀class฀aimed฀at฀ improving฀living฀conditions฀ in฀low-income฀communities. Friedman 1996 Wharton฀School,

University฀of฀ Pennsylvania

Describes฀graduate฀team฀ projects฀including฀commu-nity฀service฀in฀a฀leadership฀ course

Graham 1996 Loyola฀University฀

Chicago฀ Describes฀strategic-manage-ment฀capstone฀course฀in฀ which฀students฀prepare฀a฀ business฀plan฀to฀address฀a฀ community฀need. Mercer 1996 University฀of฀

Michigan Describes฀2-day฀action-learning฀model฀applied฀ during฀orientation฀in฀which฀ students฀worked฀on฀commu-nity฀projects.

Wittmer 2004 University฀of฀

Denver Core฀MBA฀course฀known฀as฀Values฀in฀Action฀connects฀ SL฀to฀ethics,฀law,฀and฀pub-lic฀policy.฀Assessment฀also฀ included.

start฀in฀business฀and฀then฀either฀tapered฀ off฀ or฀ stayed฀ flat.฀ However,฀ my฀ exam-ination฀ of฀ three฀ university฀ Web฀ sites฀ revealed฀ impressive฀ activity.฀ Stanford฀ University’s฀ Graduate฀ School฀ of฀ Busi-ness฀ includes฀ the฀ Center฀ for฀ Social฀ Innovation.฀The฀instructors฀at฀the฀center฀ engage฀students฀and฀alumni฀in฀social฀and฀ environmental฀issues฀(Stanford฀Univer-sity฀Graduate฀School฀of฀Business,฀2007)฀ and฀ encompasses฀ thought฀ leadership,฀ student฀ engagement,฀ and฀ community฀

engagement฀in฀the฀School฀of฀Business.฀ Harvard฀ Business฀ School฀ offers฀ a฀ full-immersion฀ program฀ (Harvard฀ Business฀ School฀Immersion฀Program,฀2007)฀that฀ includes฀a฀New฀Orleans฀Service฀Immer-sion฀ that฀ focuses฀ on฀ education,฀ rede-velopment,฀ and฀ rebuilding,฀ and฀ gives฀ students฀ a฀ chance฀ to฀ use฀ management฀ skills.฀The฀focus฀of฀Colorado฀State฀Uni-versity’s฀College฀of฀Business฀Center฀for฀ Business฀Ethics฀and฀Social฀Issues฀is฀on฀ the฀ application฀ of฀ marketing฀ principles฀

and฀techniques฀to฀social฀problems฀(Col- orado฀State฀University฀College฀of฀Busi-ness,฀ 2007).฀ Although฀ publications฀ on฀ integration฀ of฀ SL฀ are฀ not฀ readily฀ avail-able฀in฀business฀literature,฀the฀important฀ innovations฀of฀some฀of฀the฀universities฀ that฀were฀mentioned฀earlier฀may฀reflect฀ a฀ shift฀ in฀ business฀ education฀ and฀ an฀ integration฀of฀SL฀into฀the฀curriculum฀at฀ a฀program฀level฀(see฀Table฀3).

SL฀Applications฀in฀Business-Related฀ Courses

I฀ found฀ many฀ SL฀ applications฀ in฀ courses฀ related฀ to฀ business,฀ including฀ business฀communications฀(Dallimore฀&฀ Souza,฀ 2002;฀ Fielding,฀ 2003;฀ Stevens,฀ 2001;฀and฀Tucker,฀McCarthy,฀Hoxmeier,฀ &฀ Lenk,฀ 1998),฀ ethics฀ (Fleckenstein,฀ 1997;฀Kohls,฀1996),฀and฀other฀areas฀(see฀ Table฀ 4).฀ Communication฀ is฀ a฀ good฀ fit฀ for฀ SL฀ projects฀ because฀ of฀ the฀ oppor-tunities฀ it฀ provides฀ students฀ to฀ explore฀ cross-cultural฀ issues฀ and฀ build฀ social฀ skills.฀ Ethics฀ is฀ also฀ a฀ good฀ choice฀ for฀ SL฀ applications฀ because฀ those฀ experi-ences฀can฀offer฀students฀an฀opportunity฀ to฀exercise฀ethical฀judgment.

Vision฀of฀SL฀in฀the฀Business฀ Curriculum

Integration฀of฀SL฀in฀the฀business฀cur-riculum฀ can฀ help฀ universities฀ and฀ col-leges฀ achieve฀ their฀ objectives.฀ SL฀ can฀ create฀stronger฀ties฀between฀school฀and฀ community฀ and฀ provide฀ students฀ with฀ experiential฀learning฀and฀an฀opportunity฀ to฀ exercise฀ new฀ skills.฀ My฀ examina- tion฀of฀published฀literature฀on฀SL฀indi-cated฀ that฀ SL฀ is฀ not฀ integrated฀ evenly฀ throughout฀ the฀ business฀ curriculum.฀ Some฀content฀areas฀appeared฀to฀be฀able฀ to฀accommodate฀an฀SL฀application฀with฀ greater฀facility฀than฀others฀were.฀There-fore,฀ coordination฀ of฀ SL฀ implementa-tion฀at฀the฀college฀level฀may฀be฀the฀best฀ way฀ to฀ derive฀ maximum฀ benefits฀ from฀ SL฀ experiences.฀ The฀ question฀ is฀ what฀ learning฀ objectives฀ do฀ faculty฀ and฀ col-leges฀ hope฀ to฀ achieve฀ and฀ what฀ is฀ the฀ best฀way฀to฀achieve฀them.

Leaders฀in฀this฀area฀(Stanford฀Univer- sity’s฀Center฀for฀Social฀Innovation,฀Uni-versity฀of฀California฀at฀Berkley’s฀Service฀ Learning฀ Research฀ and฀ Development฀ Center,฀ Colorado฀ State฀ University฀ Col-lege฀ of฀ Business’s฀ Center฀ for฀ Business฀

TABLE฀4.฀Publications฀on฀Service-Learning฀(SL)฀Applications฀in฀฀ Business-Related฀Courses

Authors Year Organization Comment Dallimore฀&฀

Souza 2002 Northeastern฀University,฀ Humboldt฀State฀ University

Pedagogical฀issues฀related฀ to฀use฀of฀SL฀in฀business฀ communications฀class. Fielding 2003 Penn฀State฀

University Describes฀assignments฀that฀integrated฀cross-cultural฀and฀ socially฀conscious฀issues฀ into฀business฀communica-tions฀and฀advanced฀business฀ writing฀courses.฀

Fleckenstein 1997 Catholic฀University Argues฀for฀use฀of฀SL฀peda-gogy฀to฀educate฀students฀in฀ business฀ethics.

Hogner 1996 Florida฀International฀

University Reports฀on฀business฀envi-ronment฀project฀feeding฀ homeless฀that฀has฀spread฀ across฀the฀university. Kenworthy 1996 Bentley฀College Summarizes฀SL฀projects฀

involving฀over฀25%฀of฀ business฀faculty฀and฀3,000฀ students.

Kohls 1996 Gonzaga฀University Describes฀the฀use฀of฀student฀ reflection฀in฀student฀journals฀ in฀an฀ethics฀course.

Middleton 2005 Texas฀A&M฀

University Uses฀an฀SL฀project฀to฀dem- onstrate฀leadership฀charac-teristics.

Smith 1996 North฀Central฀

College Describes฀service฀intern-ship฀to฀demonstrate฀ethical฀ values.

Stevens 2001 University฀of฀

Michigan Describes฀use฀of฀SL฀as฀joint฀project฀between฀ American฀and฀Russian฀ students฀assisting฀nonprofit฀ organizations฀in฀organiza-tional฀communications. Tucker฀et฀al. 1998 Ohio฀University,฀

University฀of฀ Baltimore,฀Colorado฀ State฀University

Describes฀use฀of฀commu-nity฀SL฀in฀communications฀ course฀to฀improve฀student฀ social฀skills฀and฀communi-cations฀skills.

Ethics฀ and฀ Social฀ Issues)฀ create฀ enti-ties฀ with฀ broad฀ umbrellas฀ that฀ provide฀ focus฀and฀coordination,฀supporting฀par-ticipants฀and฀serving฀as฀liaisons฀between฀ the฀ campus฀ and฀ community.฀ Educators฀ at฀the฀Colorado฀State฀University฀College฀ of฀ Business’s฀ Center฀ for฀ Business฀ Eth-ics฀ and฀ Social฀ Issues฀ conduct฀ research,฀ training,฀and฀service฀projects฀that฀address฀ social฀ issues.฀ This฀ center฀ operates฀ as฀ more฀ than฀ an฀ umbrella฀ for฀ SL฀ imple-mentation฀ and฀ provides฀ very฀ specific฀ strategic฀ focus฀ and฀ direction.฀ Many฀ of฀ the฀ center’s฀ researchers฀ focus฀ on฀ social฀ marketing฀ to฀ unsell฀ ฀ harmful฀ behaviors฀ (Colorado฀State฀University,฀2007).฀Those฀ unifying฀concepts฀serve฀as฀a฀framework,฀ with฀the฀objective฀of฀engaging฀students฀ and฀alumni฀in฀social฀and฀environmental฀ issues.฀ The฀ goal฀ is฀ the฀ development฀ of฀ people฀ who฀ are฀ engaged฀ in฀ their฀ com-munity฀and฀world.฀Although฀interesting฀ innovations฀ can฀ arise฀ from฀ individual฀ course฀ SL฀ applications,฀ SL฀ implemen-tations฀ may฀ not฀ be฀ evenly฀ effective฀ or฀ applicable฀ across฀ business฀ disciplines;฀ therefore,฀ coordination฀ of฀ SL฀ efforts฀ at฀ the฀ college฀ level฀ can฀ provide฀ strategic฀ direction฀ to฀ assist฀ the฀ achievement฀ of฀ desired฀student฀outcomes฀and฀coordinate฀ SL฀experiences฀in฀the฀college.

SL฀ has฀ increased฀ because฀ it฀ provides฀ desired฀academic฀and฀personal฀outcomes.฀ However,฀researchers฀and฀educators฀have฀ to฀determine฀where฀SL฀best฀applies฀and฀ how฀ it฀ should฀ be฀ implemented.฀ Addi-tional฀ research฀ to฀ determine฀ the฀ vari- ables฀critical฀for฀successful฀implementa-tion฀ and฀ learning฀ objectives฀ best฀ served฀ by฀ SL฀ experience,฀ and฀ additional฀ study฀ about฀ the฀ relationship฀ of฀ SL฀ to฀ the฀ col-lege฀as฀a฀whole,฀would฀help฀clarify฀and฀ strengthen฀the฀role฀of฀SL฀in฀business.฀

NOTES

Dr.฀Christine฀P.฀Andrews’฀research฀focuses฀on฀ the฀relation฀between฀business฀process฀knowledge฀ and฀evaluation฀and฀accounting฀for฀environmental฀ impacts.

Correspondence฀ concerning฀ this฀ article฀ should฀ be฀addressed฀to฀Dr.฀Christine฀P.฀Andrews,฀College฀ of฀Business,฀Florida฀Gulf฀Coast฀University,฀10501฀ FGCU฀Blvd.,฀S.,฀Fort฀Myers,฀FL฀33965.

E-mail:฀candrews@fgcu.edu

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From Higher Aims to Hired Hands

The Social Transformation of American Business Schools and the Unfulfilled Promise of Management as a Profession

Rakesh Khurana

Is management a profession? Should it be? Can it be? This major work of social and intellectual history reveals how such questions have driven business education and shaped American management and society for more than a century. The book is also a call for reform. Rakesh Khurana shows that university-based business schools were founded to train a professional class of managers in the mold of doctors and lawyers but have effectively retreated from that goal, leaving a gaping moral hole at the center of business education and perhaps in management itself. The time has come, he concludes, to rejuvenate intellectually and morally the training of our future business leaders.

“This is a wonderful and important book for anyone interested in business education. . . . In providing a sociological understanding of the origins of business education and the professionalization of management, this book prompts deep reflection about the state of management today and offers real insight into the challenges of elevating the standards of this particular profession.”

—Joel Podolny, dean of Yale School of Management

Cloth $35.00 978-0-691-12020-1

800.777.4726 press.princeton.edu