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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Critical Discourse Analysis

Critical Discourse Analysis is a method of analyzing discourse based on a critical theory of language in terms of which language is seen as a social practice.

2.1.1 Fairclough’s Theory

Fairclough says that Critical Discourse Analysis analyzes real and often extended instances of social interaction which take a linguistic form, or a particularly linguistic form (Fairclough, and Wodak,1997:258).

Fairclough (1997) considers Critical Discourse Analysis as socially constitutive as well as socially shaped: (it) constitutes situations, objects of knowledge, and the social identities of and the relationship between people and groups of people. In this sense it is shaped by people and their interaction with one another while it also shapes these interactions. To use a metaphor, we can compare it to a river by pointing out that its course follows the shape and slope of the landscape while simultaneously reshaping the landscape as it meanders through it.

This notion of critical is shared by Fairclough (1992:9) when he says Critical Discourse Analysis:

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researching change in contemporary social life including current social scientific concerns such as globalization, social exclusion, shifts in governance, and so forth.

Critical Discourse Analysis primarily addresses social problems by analyzing linguistic and semantic aspects of social processes and problems. It is by its nature interdisciplinary, combining diverse disciplinary perspectives in its own analyses, and can be used to complement more standard forms of social and cultural analysis (Fairclough, 2001: 229).

Critical Discourse Analysis (henceforth CDA) has offered researchers ways of investigating language use within social contexts. By questioning the taken-for-grantedness of language and enabling explorations of how texts represent the world in particular ways according to particular interests, CDA provides opportunities to consider the relationships between discourse and society, between text and context, and between language and power (Fairclough, 2001b, Luke, 1995/1996, 2002). Nevertheless, according to Luke (2002 : 99), CDA is still considered „a fringe dweller in mainstream analysis‟.

In providing this overview of the version of CDA that tends to be associated with Fairclough, the researcher recognize to present a view based mainly on the unfolding of the approach in three book publications (see Chouliaraki & Fairclough, 1999; Fairclough, 1989, 2002). Initially, Fairclough (1989, 1992a, 1995c) identified his approach to a study of language as „critical language study‟ and reviewed a range of mainstream approaches, including

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1995c) argued that, although all of these areas had something to offer language study, they also presented limitations for a critical perspective. He criticised, for example, the positivist aspects of sociolinguistics, the individualism promoted in pragmatics, and a lack of consideration for context in conversation analysis.

In attempting to overcome these limitations, Fairclough (1989:10) identified his approach, not as just another method of language study, but as „an

alternative orientation‟. What he called „a social theory of discourse‟ (Fairclough,

1992a:92) was an attempt to „bring together linguistically-oriented discourse analysis and social and political thought relevant to discourse and language‟. Put

another way, in the stage of explanation, a critical discourse analyst accounts for the influence of social contexts in shaping a particular type of ideology. Grounding on the description and interpretation of the news texts, we will finally explain how the social cultural roots of female sexuality in women‟s magazines and the society affect the representation of women in modern society.

2.1.2 van Dijk’s Theory

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explanations at the production and "reception" or comprehension level (Boyd-Barrett, 1994). By structural analysis, van Dijk posited analysis of "structures at various levels of description" which meant not only the grammatical, phonological, morphological and semantic level but also "higher level properties" such as coherence, overall themes and topics of news stories and the whole schematic forms and rhetorical dimensions of texts.

This structural analysis, however, he claimed, will not suffice, for Discourse is not simply an isolated textual or dialogic structure. Rather it is a complex communicative event that also embodies a social context, featuring participants (and their properties) as well as production and reception processes. (van Dijk, 1988:2)

By "production processes" van Dijk means journalistic and institutional practices of news making and the economic and social practices which not only play important roles in the creation of media discourse but which can be explicitly related to the structures of media discourse. Van Dijk's other dimension of analysis, "reception processes", involves taking into consideration the comprehension, "memorization and reproduction" of news information. What van Dijk's analysis of media (1988, 1991, 1993) attempts to demonstrate is the relationships between the three levels of news text production (structure, production and comprehension processes) and their relationship with the wider social context they are embedded within. In order to identify such relationships, van Dijk's analysis takes place at two levels: microstructure and macrostructure.

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provide coherence in the text, and other rhetorical elements such quotations, direct or indirect reporting that give factuality to the news reports. Central to van Dijk's analysis of news reports, however, is the analysis of macrostructure since it pertains to the thematic/topic structure of the news stories and their overall schemata. Themes and topics are realized in the headlines and lead paragraphs.

According to van Dijk (1988), the headlines "define the overall coherence or semantic unity of discourse, and also what information readers memorize best from a news report". He claims that the headline and the lead paragraph express the most important information of the cognitive model of journalists, that is, how they see and define the news event. Unless readers have different knowledge and beliefs, they will generally adopt these subjective media definitions of what is important information about an event. (van Dijk, 1988:248).

2.1.3 Wodak’s Theory

The discourse historical approach, committed to CDA, adheres to the socio-philosophical orientation of critical theory. As such, it follows a complex concept of social critique which embraces at least three interconnected aspects, two of which are primarily related to the dimension of cognition and one to the dimension of action Wodak (2001) :

1. Text or discourse immanent critique' aims at discovering inconsistencies, (self contradictions, paradoxes and dilemmas in the text-internal or discourse-internal structures).

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of discursive practices. With socio-diagnostic critique, the analyst exceeds the purely textual or discourse internal sphere. She or he makes use of her or his background and contextual knowledge and embeds the communicative or interactional structures of a discursive event in a wider frame of social and political relations, processes and circumstances. At this point, we are obliged to apply social theories to interpret the discursive events (see below, theory of context).

3. Prognostic critique contributes to the transformation and improvement of communication (for example, within public institutions by elaborating proposals and guidelines for reducing language barriers in hospitals, schools, courtrooms, public offices, and media reporting institutions (see Wodak, 1996a) as well as guidelines for avoiding sexist language use (Kargl et al., 1997)). To summarize, and in contrast to some views on CDA, CDA is not concerned with evaluating what is `right' or `wrong'. CDA in my view should try to make choices at each point in the research itself, and should make these choices transparent. It should also justify theoretically why certain interpretations of discursive events seem more valid than others.

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of a variety of empirical data as well as background information (see for example Wodak et al., 1998 and Wodak et al., 1999).

2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.2.1 The Strengthens and The Weakness of Fairclough’s Theory

An analytical framework for CDA is represented schematically below. It is modeled upon the critical theorist Roy Bhaskar's concept of `explanatory critique' (Bhaskar, 1986; Chouliaraki and Fairclough, 1999):

1. Focus upon a social problem which has a semiotic aspect. 2. Identify obstacles to it being tackled, through analysis of

a. the network of practices it is located within

b. the relationship of semiosis to other elements within the particular practice(s) concerned

c. the discourse (the semiosis itself )

1. structural analysis: the order of discourse 2. interactional analysis

3. interdiscursive analysis

4. linguistic and semiotic analysis.

3. Consider whether the social order (network of practices) in a sense „needs‟

the problem.

4. Identify possible ways past the obstacles. 5. Reflect critically on the analysis

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positive critique in the sense of identification of hither to unrealized possibilities in the way things are for tackling the problem.

It shows that this approach to CDA is problem-based. CDA is a form of critical social science, which is envisaged as social science geared to illuminating the problems which people are confronted with by particular forms of social life, and to contributing resources which people may be able to draw upon in tackling and overcoming these problems. Of course, this begs a question: a problem for whom? Like critical social science generally, CDA has emancipatory objectives, and is focused upon the problems confronting what we can loosely refer to as the `losers' within particular forms of social life the poor, the socially excluded, those subject to oppressive gender or race relations, and so forth. But this does not provide a clearly defined and uncontroversial set of social problems. What is problematic and calls for change is an inherently contested and controversial matter, and CDA is inevitably caught up in social controversy and debate in choosing to focus on certain features of social life as `problems'.

The critique approaches the diagnosis of the problem in a rather indirect way, by asking what the obstacles are to it being tackled what is it about the way in which social life is structured and organized that makes this a problem which is resistant to easy resolution? The diagnosis considers the way social practices are networked together, the way semiosis relates to other elements of social practices, and features of discourse itself. Since the latter constitutes the particular focus of discourse analysis.

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Discourses are forms of social practice. They are also obviously texts (in the wider sense of the word). But Fairclough‟s framework adds a mediating‟

third dimension “which focuses on discourse as a specifically discursive practice”

(Fairclough, 1992: 71). Discursive practice is itself a form of social practice, and focuses on the processes of text production, distribution and consumption. This is represented diagrammatically as follows:

Figure 2.1 Fairclough‟s Three Dimensional Conception

This three dimensional conception of discourse attempt to bring together three analytical traditions, each of which is indispensable for discourse analysis. These are the tradition of close textual and linguistic analysis within linguistics, the macrosociological tradition of analyzing social practice in relation to social structures. The procedures which members use are themselves heterogeneous and contradictory, and contested in struggles which partly have a discursive nature. The part of the procedure which deals with the analysis of texts can be called „description‟ and the parts which deal with analysis of discursive

practice and with analysis of the social practice of which the discourse is a part can be called „interpretation‟, (Fairclough, 1992). From the three dimensional can

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1. Discourse as text.

The division of analytical topics between text analysis and analysis of discursive practice (and so between the analytical activities of description and interpretation) is not a sharp one. Some of the categories in the framework for text analysis appear to be oriented to language forms, while others appear to be oriented to meanings. This distinction is a misleading one, however, because in analyzing texts one is always simultaneously addressing questions of form and questions of meaning. Text analysis can be organized under four main headings; vocabulary, grammar, cohesion and text structure. These can be thought as ascending in scale: vocabulary deals with individual words, grammar deals with words combined into clauses and sentences, cohesion deals with how clauses and sentences are linked together, and text structure deals with large scale organizational properties of texts. In addition, a further three main headings which will be used in analysis of discursive practice rather than text analysis, though they certainly involve formal features of texts; the force of utterances, i.e. what sorts of speech acts (promises, requests, threats, etc) they constitute; the coherence of texts; and the intertextuality of texts. Together, these seven headings constitute a framework for analysis texts which covers aspects of their production and interpretation as well as formal properties of text. (Fairclough, 1992:75)

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the producer into a set of positions, which may be occupied by the same person or by different people. Texts are also consumed differently in different social contexts. Consumption like production may be individual or collective. Some texts have a simple distribution to the immediate context of situation in which it occurs, whereas others have a complex distribution. (Fairclough, 1992:79)

3. Discourse as Social Practice (ideology and hegemony).

Discourse related into ideology and power, and place discourse within a view of power as hegemony, and a view of the evolution of power relations as hegemonic struggle. Fairclough maintains that ideology invests language in various ways, various levels, and that we do not have to chose between different possible „locations‟ of ideology, all of which seem partly justified and none of which seem

entirely satisfactory. Hegemony is about constructing alliances, and integrating rather than simply dominating subordinate classes, through concessions or through ideological means, to win their consents. (Fairclough, 1992:92)

2.3 Ideology according to Fairclough’s Theory

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the interpreter to interpret the text in a particular way. Texts do not typically spout ideology. They so position the interpreter through their cues that she brings ideologies to the interpretation of texts - and reproduces them in the process.

There is a constant endeavour on the part of those who have power to try to impose an ideological common sense which holds for everyone. But there is always some degree of ideological diversity, and indeed conflict and struggle, so that ideological uniformity is never completely achieved. That is why we are sometimes able as interpreters to keep at arm's length assumptions which text producers put across as, commonsensical. Everyone will be familiar with one domain of ideological diversity: political ideologies. This is perhaps a good starting point, because we can all find political texts whose Ideological common sense is at odds with our own.

Ideology certainly does not give the impression of having a single fixed meaning. Indeed, it is not unusual to find words like ideology described as 'meaningless' because they have so many meanings. But the situation is not quite that desperate: ideology does have a number of meanings, but it is not endlessly variable in meaning, and the meanings it has tend to cluster together into a small number of main 'families'.

2.3.1 Liberalism

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people should have freedom to take their own decisions without control government, as well as freedoms such as free speech, free to write or free to decide whether to follow a religion people should be free to have property and use it as they wish. The people can be free to use any kind of words in public, instead of formal, colloquial or even slang and vulgarism.

Modern society is characterized by rather a high degree of integration of social institutions into the business of maintaining class domination. Correspondingly, one might expect a high degree of ideological integration between institutional orders of discourse within the societal order of discourse. There are for instance certain key discourse types which embody ideologies which legitimize, more or less directly, existing societal relations, and which are so salient in modern society that , they have 'colonized' many institutional orders of discourse. They, include advertising discourse, and the discourses of interviewing and counseling/therapy. (Fairclough, 1989:36)

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In this study, liberalism in texts indicated by the using of vulgar words contained in female sexuality articles. There were vulgarism context, the using of vulgar words, and freely told about sex activities.

2.3.2 Capitalism

Capitalism has undergone many changes since the nineteenth century. Marx identified in his economic analyses a tendency towards monopoly, towards the concentration of production in an ever-decreasing number of ever-larger units. This tendency has become more pronounced with the passage of time, and the scale of concentration is now international: a relatively small number of massive multinational corporations now dominate production in the capitalist world.

At the same time, the capitalist economic domain has been progressively enlarged to take in aspects of life which were previously seen as quite separate from production. The commodity has expanded from being a tangible 'good' to include all sorts of intangibles: educational courses, holidays, health insurance, and funerals are now bought and sold on the open market in 'packages', rather like soap powders. And an ever greater focus has been placed upon the consumption of commodities, a tendency summed up in the term consumerism. As a result, the economy and the commodity market massively impinge upon people's lives, including, especially through the medium of television, their 'private' lives in the home and the family. Another tendency which has been taking place in parallel with this is increasing state and institutional control over people through various forms of bureaucracy.

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terms of currency controls, control of inflation, constraints on wages and on the capacity of trade unions to take industrial action, and so forth. On the other hand, the reverse side of the benefits which people have gained from the welfare state is a sharp increase in the extent to which individual members of 'the public' are subjected to bureaucratic scrutiny. (Fairclough, 1989:35)

The hidden power of media discourse and the capacity of the capitalist class and other power-holders to exercise this power : depend on systematic tendencies in news reporting and other : media activities, A single text on its own is quite insignificant: the effects of media power are cumulative, working through the repetition of particular ways of handling causality and agency, particular ways of positioning the reader, and so forth. Thus through the way it positions readers, for instance, media: discourse is able to exercise a pervasive and powerful influence in social reproduction because of the very scale of the modem mass media and the extremely high level of exposure of whole populations to a relatively homogeneous output. :!;Jut caution is : necessary: people do negotiate their relationship to ideal subjects. The power of the media does not mechanically follow from their mere existence. (Fairclough, 1992:54)

In this study, capitalism indicates texts can interpret how media shows power to persuade people in women magazines especially for women readers.

2.3.3 Consumerism

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impact. Consumerism grew out of sets of economic, technological and cultural conditions which have mostly developed since the early decades of the twentieth century; although we can identify consumerist tendencies in the earlier part of this period, in the 1920s for instance, consumerism has grown in salience through the period as these three types of conditions have developed. And, indeed, it has helped to feed its own growth by contributing to these developments, particularly in the cultural sphere. The economic conditions relate, firstly, to the stage of development of capitalist commodity production. Consumerism is a product of mature capitalism when productive capacity is such that an apparently endless variety of commodities can be produced in apparently unlimited quantities. (Fairclough, 1989:199)

In this study, consumerism in the texts in female sexuality articles showed how articles can persuade the readers to buy some products, by selling promotions and the content of articles used to economical strategies.

2.4 Fairclough’s Framework for Analysis

2.4.1 Analysis of Text

This framework allows for a selection of pertinent observations to be made about the text, it is by no means claimed that this is an exhaustive analysis of features relevant to CDA. These aspects deemed less relevant to the selected text are barely touched upon.

2.4.1.1 Vocabulary

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1. Meanings of words, the emphasis is upon „key words‟ which are general or more local cultural significance; upon words whose meaning potential of a word – a panicular structuring of its meaning – as a mode of hegemony and a focus of struggle.

2. Wording of meanings , the objective is to contrast the ways meanings are worded with the ways they are worded in other (types of) text, and to identify the interpretative perspective that underlies this wording. (1992 : 237)

3. Metaphors, a word or phrase can be represented another meanings, and regarded as representative or symbolic of something else, especially something abstract.

2.4.1.2 Grammar

Fairclough (1992: 235) also lists three dimensions of grammar which may be analyzed, along with the function of language to which they correspond:

a. Transitivity, the objective is to see whether particular process types and participants are favored in the text, what choices are made in voice (active or passive), and how significant is the nominalization of processes. A major concern is agency, the expression of causality, and the attribution of responsibility. b. Theme, the objective is to see if there is a discernible pattern in the

text‟s thematic structure to the choices of themes for clauses.

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for (a) social relations in the discourse, and (b) controlling representations of reality.

2.4.1.3 Cohesion

Cohesion is looking at how clauses are linked together into sentences and how sentences are in turn linked together to form larger units in texts. Linkage is achieved in various ways; through using vocabulary from a common semantic field, repeating words, using near – synonyms, and so on; through a variety of referring and substituting devices (pronouns, definite article, demonstratives, ellipsis of repeated words, and so forth); through using conjunctive words, such as „therefore‟, and „however‟, „and‟ and„but‟.

2.4.1.4 Text Structure

Text structure also concerns the „architecture‟ of texts, and

specifically higher - level design features of different types of text : what elements or episodes are combined in what ways and what order to constitute.

2.4.2 Analysis of Discursive Practice

Discursive Practice, include processes of text production, distribution, and consumption, and the nature of these processes varies between different types of discourse according to social factors. And the analysis of discursive practice focused on force of utterances, coherence of texts and intertextuality of texts.

2.4.2.1 Force of Utterances

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or „episodes‟ of a text which consist of sentences which can be interpreted as

coherently connected. Interpretation is also characterized by predictions about the meaning of higher level units early in the process of interpreting them on the basis of limited evidence, and these predicted meanings shape the way lower – level units are interpreted.

2.4.2.2 Coherence of Texts

The concept of 'coherence' is at the centre of most accounts of interpretation. As Fairclough has already indicated, coherence is not a property of texts, but a property which interpreters impose upon texts, with different interpreters (including the producer of the text) possibly generating different coherent readings of the same text. Nor should coherence be understood in an absolute, logical sense: a coherent text hangs together sufficiently well for present purposes as far as the interpreter is concerned, which does not preclude indeterminacies and ambivalence. (Fairclough, 1992:134)

A coherent text is a text whose constituent parts (episodes, sentences) are meaningfully related so that the text as a whole 'makes sense', even though there may be relatively few formal markers of those meaningful relationships - that is, relatively little explicit 'cohesion'. The point is, however, that a text only makes sense to someone who makes sense of it, someone who is able to infer those meaningful relations in the absence of explicit markers.

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investigating for light they shed on the important ideological functions of coherence in interpreting subjects. That is, texts set up positions for interpreting subjects that are 'capable' of making sense of them and 'capable' of making the connections and inferences; in accordance with relevant interpretative principles, necessary to generate coherent readings.

2.4.2.3 Intertextuality of Texts

The concept of intertextuality sees texts historically as transforming the past - existing conventions and prior texts - into the present. This may happen in relatively conventional and normative ways: discourse types tend to rum particular ways of drawing upon conventions and texts into routines, and to naturalize them. However, this may happen creatively, with new configurations of elements of orders of discourse, and new modes of manifest intertextuality, It is the inherent historicity of an intertextual view of texts, and the way it so readily accommodates creative practice, that make it so suitable for present concerns with discursive change, though it needs to be linked to a theory of social and political change for investigation of discursive change within wider processes of cultural and social change.

2.5 Semantics

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the semantics of a language they want to lay down rules about, to become clear on what aspects of conventional meaning they dislike and which they favour). A related point is that one can know a language perfectly well without knowing its history. While it is fascinating to find out about the historical currents and changes that explain why there are similarities in the pronunciations or spellings of words that share similarities in meaning.

Semantics is descriptive, and not centrally concerned with how words came historically to have the meanings they do. Nor do semanticists aim to write encyclopedic summaries of all human knowledge. An explicated utterance (based on a declarative sentence) expresses a proposition, which can be true or false. The central kind of inference in semantics is entailment. Entailments are propositions guaranteed to be true when a given proposition is true, though we can, loosely, think of entailing as a connection between sentences. The sense of a word determines what it denotes (how it relates to the world outside of language) and the entailment possibilities that the word gives to sentences. (Griffiths, 2006:22) 2.6 Women’s Magazines

There is plenty of research conducted on women‟s magazines and how

they portray women. Magazines from Cosmopolitan to Glamour have been studied by numerous researchers and from many points of view. Caldas-Coulthard (1996: 253) divides women‟s magazines into two different categories: the

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“newer” magazines. The researcher will discuss themes relevant to the researcher

own research, and present the researcher own view of some of the related studies. 2.7 Studies on Women’s Representation as Female Sexuality

There is plenty of research conducted on women‟s magazines and how

they portray women. Magazines from Cosmopolitan to Glamour have been studied by numerous researchers and from many points of view. Caldas-Coulthard (1996: 253) divides women‟s magazines into two different categories: the

traditional ones such as Woman‟s Own and the “newer glossy ones” such as Cosmopolitan. Since the researcher target of interest is Cosmopolitan and Glamour, the researcher here going to concentrate on the analysis made on these “newer” magazines. The researcher will discuss themes relevant to the researcher

own research, and present the researcher own view of some of the related studies. 2.7.1 Contradiction

First of all, one discussion highly important to the present study is that about contradiction and coherence in women‟s magazines. Gill (2007:191-204) explains that there are continuous inconsistencies in women‟s magazines, ranging

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This debate is relevant to the study since critical discourse analysis pays particular attention to different voices in texts and attempts to give them a plausible explanation. Then, be commenting directly on this discussion as the researcher analyzes Cosmopolitan magazine and determine what, if any, distinct ideology can be found behind its articles. Gill‟s study is especially useful for me

in this work since she gives a wide overlook onto the topic and presents a great deal of important studies made in this field to support her arguments. Many researchers have come to think that the apparent contradictions in women‟s

magazines are only an illusion. For instance, Machin and Thornborrow (2003) conclude that there in fact is a very coherent ideology behind all the surface-level discrepancies in Cosmopolitan. They examined Cosmopolitan magazines from 44 different countries in order to find similarities and differences in the ideologies and representations in them. They found that despite the fact that Cosmopolitan seems to emphasize women‟s independence, the magazine actually consistently

advocates a very different view of women.

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Thornborrow (2003) found in Cosmopolitan magazine gives me a good point of comparison as I discuss my own study results.

2.7.2 Feminism

The debate over contradiction and coherence also relates to a second question relevant to me, that is whether or not women‟s magazines are feminist. Gill (2007:198-204) writes that women‟s magazines have at least some feminist ideas in them. For instance, women are naturally presumed to have the right to work and compete with men in the workplace. She (2007) continues, however, that an opposite view can also be argued for. Women‟s magazines place a strong

emphasis on women‟s appearance. In addition, no structural inequalities are

presented in the magazines; to any problems that women might have, individual transformation is offered as the solution. It can be conclude that women‟s magazines are often characterized by, among other things, a distinct emphasis on women‟s appearance and the minimization of the importance of social problems

related to womanhood. 2.7.2.1 Femininity

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2.7.2.2 Female Sexuality

Women who read sex-related magazine articles from popular women's magazines like Cosmopolitan are less likely to view premarital sex as a risky behaviour, a new study has revealed. Additionally, the women who are exposed to these articles are more supportive of sexual behaviour that both empowers women and prioritizes their own sexual pleasure. When exposed to explicit textual messages about female sexual assertiveness in women's magazines, readers regarded women's capacity to experience and act on feelings of sexual desire more favorably.

In addition to finding that the group of women exposed to the sex-related articles endorsed more risky sexual behaviour, the researchers found that white women in particular viewed premarital sex as less risky and endorsed taking on a more assertive sexual role than women of color, it suggest that the complex and sometimes conflicting representations of female sexuality proliferating in the mass media and popular culture could potentially have both empowering and problematic effects on women's developing sexual identities.

2.7.3 Addressing Woman

A fourth discussion touching the topic concerns the way women are addressed in women‟s magazines. Several researchers have concluded that women are often addressed in a friendly tone in women‟s magazines. According to Gill

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friendly, the editors tend to give their readers advice and guidance that normally might be expected from people with whom the readers have an actual relationship. Gill‟s and Talbot‟s observations give a point of comparison as the researcher

examine the tone of voice used the articles of interest to me. They also give the clues at how to interpret the tone of voice used in them.

2.8 Cultural Diversity

Cultural Diversity has moreover become a major social concern, linked to the growing diversity of social codes within and between societies. Confronted by this diversity of practices and outlooks, States sometimes find themselves at a loss to know how to respond, often as a matter of urgency, or how to take account of cultural diversity in the common interest. To contribute to the devising of specific responses, this report seeks to provide a framework for renewed understanding of the challenges inherent in cultural diversity, by identifying some of the theoretical and political difficulties that it inevitably entails. A first difficulty has to do with the specifically cultural nature of this form of diversity. Many societies have recourse to various proxies, particularly ethnic or linguistic characterizations, to take account of their cultural heterogeneity. The first challenge will therefore be to examine the different policies pursued without losing sight of our topic, which is cultural diversity and not the proxies to which it is sometimes reduced.

In Indonesia, these women‟s magazines are mostly read by high class

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about. Then, these women‟s magazines include female sexuality topics which is the culture is totally different with Indonesian culture.

2.9 Conceptual Framework

Fairclough‟s Framework for Analysis

Analysis of Discursive

Practice Ideology

Analysis of Text

Vocabulary

Grammar

Cohesion

Text Structure

Force of Utterances

Coherence of Texts

Intertextuality Liberalism

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2.10 Previous Relevant Studies

They are some studies that have been done by other researchers concerning critical discourse analysis. A thesis written by Norval (2011) entitled “Research into Women‟s Magazine and The Social Construction of Womanhood”

from University of Leeds. In his study, he investigated the relationship between women and magazines today, occupying the significant gap left in this area of study in recent decades. Building on this foundation, this research also aims to specifically examine the form and content of the „weekly glossy‟ hybrid genre

created by Grazia magazine. His study had been contributed in this research as a perspective of womanhood in the correlation into social construction. Then, his study also used women‟s magazine for the source of the data, there is Grazia

magazine, whereas in this research, women magazines also been used as a material for the data research.

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Then, a thesis written by Mearns (2013) entitled “Gender in Commercial Radio In New Zealand : A Critical Discourse Analysis of the “Secret Life of Girls” from Auckland University of Technology. This thesis is grounded

in the political economy of communication tradition and is also influence by feminist theory. Her study had been contributed to this research, where the relation of CDA and feminist theory had became an addition of information to support the ideas of this research. In her study, CDA and feminist theory was separated.

A journal written by Aoumeur (2014) entitled “Gender

Representations in Three School Textbooks, A Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis” from IMPACT: International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts

and Literature. This study is devoted to the analysis of male and female representations in three school textbooks to which children from 6 to10 years old are exposed to, in primary schools in Algeria. The methodology adopted is to connect the linguistic features in the texts (the micro) to the social factors (the macro). The Analysis reveals that despite the measures taken by the Algerian government, in general and the Ministry of education, in particular to provide high-quality education and promote gender equality, male and female representations are still „problematic‟. In general gender is still represented in a

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theory. In his case, feminist theory and critical discourse analysis were combined. This theory was affected to enrich the data information for this research.

Then the last is a journal written by Lehtonen (2007) entitled “Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis and Children‟s Fantasy Fiction – Modeling

a New Approach from University of Jyväskylä, Finland. In this study is to examine gender in children‟s fantasy fiction. There are two major aspects in

claiming that a critical linguistic, feminist approach to children‟s fantasy might be needed. This study had been contributed to this research, whereas the gender problem had been discussed then used feminist critical discourse analysis as a theory. Same as like previous study above, feminist theory and critical discourse analysis were combined. This theory was helped to this research as a major information for feminism views in the case of women magazines.

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ANALISIS PERILAKU PROSOSIAL (PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR) ANAK USIA D INI PAD A PENGELOMPOKAN USIA RANGKAP (MULTIAGE GROUPING). Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu |

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