Yin Che o ng Che ng The kno wle dge base fo r re -e ngine e ring sc ho o ls: multiple func tio ns and inte rnal e ffe c tive ne ss
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 5 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 0 3 –2 2 4
d ecen t r a liza t ion t o t h e s it e-level w it h ou t s u p p or t of m or e s op h is t ica t ed k n ow led ge a n d t ech n ology of m a n a gem en t a n d ed u ca -t ion , -t h e effec-t s of -t h ese r efor m s a r e of-t en p r oblem a t ic (Ch en g a n d Ch eu n g, 1997). H ow ca n a s ch ool b e r e-en gin eer ed t o m a xim ize it s in ter n a l effect iven es s in s ch ool p r ocess in a con t ext of d iffer en t t y p es of con st r a in t s a n d m a xim ize it s ex ter n a l effect iven es s in a ch iev in g m u lt ip le s ch ool fu n ct ion s in a ch a n gin g ed u ca t ion a l en v ir on m en t ? T h es e t wo q u es t ion s a r e r ea lly cr u cia l t o t h e for m u la t ion a n d im p lem en t a t ion of s ch ool r efor m s t o en h a n ce sch ool effect iven es s a n d ed u ca t ion a l q u a lit y. Bu t t h eir a n sw er s d em a n d a n ew s et of p r in cip les t o r e-en gin eer ou r sch ools in st ea d of fr a gm en t a r y r em ed ia l m ea s u r es. Ba s ed on m y r ecen t r es ea r ch a n d t h in k in g on s ch ool effect iven es s a n d s ch ool-b a s ed m a n a gem en t (Ch en g, 1996a , 1996ool-b, 1996d , 1997a ), a fr a m ewor k ca n b e p r op os ed for d evelop in g a n ew k n ow led ge b a s e of s ch ool fu n ct ion s a n d in t er n a l p r ocess for en gin eer in g sch ools in b ot h H on g Kon g a n d in t er n a t ion a l con t ext s.
T h is fr a m ewor k is com p os ed of t wo s u b -fr a m ewor k s: k n ow led ge -fr a m ewor k of m u lt i-p le sch ool fu n ct ion s a n d k n ow led ge fr a m e-wor k of in t er n a l p r ocess. T h ey a r e exp la in ed in t h e follow in g p a r t s of t h e p a p er.
Knowledge framework of multiple
school functions
Bor r ow in g t h e k n ow led ge fr om d iscip lin es s u ch a s p sych ology, s ociology, p olit ica l s cien ce, econ om ics, fu t u r ism , a n d or ga n iza -t ion a l s-t u d ies, -t h e p o-t en -t ia l sch ool fu n c-t ion s m ay b e cla ss ifi ed in t o fi ve t y p es, p a r t icu la r ly in t h e n ew cen t u r y : t ech n ica l/ econ om ic fu n t ion s, h u m a n / socia l fu n ct ion s, p olit ica l fu n c-t ion s, cu lc-t u r a l fu n cc-t ion s, a n d ed u ca c-t ion a l fu n ct ion s, a t t h e in d iv id u a l, in st it u t ion a l, com m u n it y, societ a l, a n d in t er n a t ion a l levels, a s s h ow n in Ta ble I ( Ch en g, 1996a ).
New knowledge of technical/ economic functions
In p la n n in g sch ool r efor m , w e n eed t h e n ew k n ow led ge a b ou t w h a t sch ools ca n con t r ibu t e t o t h e t ech n ica l or econ om ic d evelop m en t s a n d n eed s a t d iffer en t levels. We ca n exp ect s ch ools t o h elp st u d en t s t o a cq u ir e k n ow led ge a n d s k ills n ecessa r y t o s u r v ive a n d com p et e in a com p et it ive econ om y, a n d p r ov id e s t a ff w it h job t r a in in g a n d op p or t u n it y. Sch ools a r e s er v ice or ga n iza t ion s p r ov id in g q u a lit y s er v ice; a ls o t h ey s er ve a s a life p la ce or wor k p la ce for s t a ff a n d a ll t h os e con cer n ed . Also, s ch ools s er ve t h e econ om ic or in s t r u m en t a l n eed s of t h e loca l com m u n it y, s u p p ly q u a lit y
la b or for ces t o t h e econ om ic sy st em , m od ify or sh a p e econ om ic b eh av ior s of st u d en t s (McM a h on , 1987), a n d con t r ibu t e t o t h e d evel-op m en t a n d st a b ilit y of t h e m a n p ow er st r u c-t u r e of c-t h e econ om y (H in ch cliffe, 1987). Ac-t c-t h e in t er n a t ion a l level, s ch ool ed u ca t ion su p p lies t h e h igh q u a lit y for ces n ecessa r y in in t er n a -t ion a l com p e-t i-t ion s, econ om ic coop er a -t ion , ea r t h p r ot ect ion , a n d t ech n ology a n d in for -m a t ion exch a n ge.
New knowledge of human/ social functions We n eed t h e n ew k n ow led ge a b ou t t h e con t r i-bu t ion of s ch ools t o h u m a n d evelop m en t s a n d socia l r ela t ion sh ip s a t d iffer en t levels of soci-et y. Sch ools ca n b e exp ect ed t o h elp st u d en t s t o d evelop t h em selves p s ych ologica lly, socia lly, a n d p h y sica lly, a n d h elp t h em d evelop t h eir p ot en t ia l a s fu lly a s p ossible. A sch ool is a socia l en t it y or socia l sy st em com -p osed of d iffer en t h u m a n r ela t ion sh i-p s. Also sch ools s er ve t h e socia l fu n ct ion s of t h e loca l com m u n it y, su p p or t socia l in t e gr a t ion of m u lt ip le a n d d iver s e con st it u en cies of societ y, fa cilit a t e socia l m ob ilit y w it h in t h e exist in g cla s s st r u ct u r e, select a n d a lloca t e com p et en t p eop le t o a p p r op r ia t e r oles a n d p osit ion s, a n d con t r ibu t e t o socia l ch a n ge a n d d evelop m en t in t h e lon g r u n (Ch en g, 1995). It is p ossible t h a t sch ools r e p r od u ce t h e exist in g socia l cla s s st r u ct u r e a n d p er p et u a t e socia l in eq u a l-it y (Bla ck led ge a n d H u n t , 1985). Du e t o t h e gr ow in g glob a l con sciou sn ess (Bea r e a n d Sla u gh t er, 1993), sch ools a r e exp ect ed t o p lay a n im p or t a n t r ole in p r e p a r in g st u d en t s for in t er n a t ion a l h a r m on y, socia l coop er a t ion , glob a l h u m a n r ela t ion sh ip, a n d elim in a t ion of n a t ion a l, r e gion a l, r a cia l, a n d gen d er b ia ses a t t h e in t er n a t ion a l level.
[
Knowledge of technical/ Knowledge of human/ Knowledge of Knowledge of cultural Knowledge of educational
economic functions social functions political functions functions functions
Individual (students, • Knowledge and skills training • Psyc hologic al developments • Development of c ivic attitudes • Ac c ulturation • Learning how to learn
staff, etc.) • Career training • Soc ial developments and skills • Soc ialization with values, and develop
• Job for staff • Potential developments norms, and beliefs • Learning how to teac h and help
• Professional development
Institutional • As a life plac e • As a soc ial entity/ system • As a plac e for politic al • As a c entre for c ultural • As a plac e for learning • As a work plac e • As a human relationship soc ialization transmission and and teac hing • As a servic e organization • As a politic al c oalition reproduc tion • As a c entre for
• As a plac e for politic al disc ourse • As a plac e for c ultural disseminating knowledge or c ritic ism re-vitalization and integration • As a c entre for educ ational
c hanges and developments
Community • Serving the ec onomic or • Serving the soc ial needs of • Serving the politic al needs • Serving the c ultural needs • Serving the educ ational instrumental needs of the the c ommunity of the c ommunity of the c ommunity needs of the c ommunity c ommunity
Society • Provision of quality labor • Soc ial integration • Politic al legitimization • Cultural integration and c ontinuity • Development of the forc es • Soc ial mobility/ soc ial c lass • Politic al struc ture • Cultural reproduc tion educ ation professions • Modific ation of ec onomic perpetuation maintenanc e and c ontinuity • Produc tion of c ultural c apital • Development of educ ation
behavior • Soc ial equality • Democ rac y promotion • Cultural revitalization struc tures
• Contribution to the • Selec tion and alloc ation • Fac ilitating politic al developments • Dissemination of knowledge manpower struc ture of human resourc es and reforms and information
• Soc ial development and c hange • Learning soc iety
International • International c ompetition • Global village • International c oalition • Apprec iation of c ultural diversity • Development of global • Ec onomic c ooperation • International friendship • International understanding • Cultural ac c eptanc e ac ross educ ation
• International trade • Soc ial c ooperation • Peac e/ against war c ountries/ regions • International educ ation • Tec hnology exc hange • International exc hanges • Common interests • Development of global c ulture exc hanges and c ooperation • Earth protec tion • Elimination of national/ • Elimination of c onflic ts • Educ ation for the whole • Sharing information regional/ rac ial/ gender biases world
Yin Che o ng Che ng The kno wle dge base fo r re -e ngine e ring sc ho o ls: multiple func tio ns and inte rnal e ffe c tive ne ss
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 5 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 0 3 –2 2 4
s ch ool ed u ca t ion t o in t er n a t ion a l u n d er st a n d in g, glob a l com m on in t er es t , in t er n a t ion a l coa lit ion s, p ea ce m ovem en t s a ga in s t w a r, a n d elim in a t ion of con fl ict s b et w een r e gion s a n d n a t ion s.
New knowledge of cultural functions Th e sch ool r e-en gin eer in g n eeds t h e n ew k n ow ledge of t h e con t r ibu t ion of sch ools t o t h e cu lt u r a l t r a n sm ission a n d developm en t a t differ en t levels of societ y. Sch ools a r e expect ed t o h elp st u den t s t o develop t h eir cr ea t ivit y a n d a est h et ic aw a r en ess a n d t o be socia lized w it h t h e su ccessfu l n or m s, va lu es, a n d beliefs of societ y. Sch ools a ct a s a pla ce for syst em a t ic cu lt u r a l t r a n sm ission t o a n d r epr odu ct ion of t h e n ext gen er a t ion , cu lt u r a l in t e gr a t ion a m on g t h e m u lt iple a n d diver se con st it u en -cies, a n d cu lt u r a l r e-vit a liza t ion fr om t h e ou t da t ed poor t r a dit ion s. Also sch ools oft en ser ve a s a cu lt u r a l u n it ca r r yin g t h e explicit n or m s a n d expect a t ion s of t h e loca l com m u -n it y, t r a -n sm it a ll t h e im por t a -n t va lu es a -n d a r t ifa ct s of t h e societ y t o st u den t s, in t e gr a te t h e diver se su bcu lt u r es fr om differ en t ba ck -gr ou n d, a n d r evit a lize t h e st r en gt h s of t h e exist in g cu lt u r e. Bu t it is a lso possible t h a t sch ools r epr odu ce a n d per pet u a t e cu lt u r a l in equ a lit y w it h in t h e societ y (Apple, 1982; Ch en g, 1995; Collin s, 1971; Gir ou x, 1981). Sch ools ca n be expect ed t o en cou r a ge a ppr eci-a t ion of cu lt u r eci-a l diver sit y eci-a n d eci-a cce pt eci-a n ce of differ en t n or m s, t r a dit ion s, va lu es, a n d beliefs in differ en t cou n t r ies a n d r e gion s, a n d fi n a lly con t r ibu t e t o t h e developm en t of globa l cu l-t u r e l-t h r ou gh in l-t e gr a l-t ion of differ en l-t cu ll-t u r es.
New knowledge of education functions T r a d it ion a lly, sch ools a r e a s s u m ed t o p lay t h e m a jor r ole a s ed u ca t ion p r ov id er. In ev it a b ly, t h e n ew k n ow led ge a b ou t t h e con t r ibu t ion of s ch ools t o t h e d evelop m en t a n d m a in t en a n ce of ed u ca t ion a t t h e d iffer en t levels of societ y is n ecess a r y for s ch ool r efor m . Du e t o t h e r a p id d evelop m en t a n d ch a n ge in n ea r ly ever y a s p ect of t h e wor ld , p eop le b e gin t o a cce p t ed u ca t ion in it self a s a n im p or t a n t va lu e or goa l (Ch a p m a n , 1996). Sch ools a r e exp ect ed t o h elp st u d en t s t o lea r n h ow t o lea r n a n d h elp t ea ch er s t o lea r n h ow t o t ea ch . Also, fa cilit a t in g t ea ch er s' p r ofes sion a l d evel-op m en t is on e of t h e k ey ed u ca t ion fu n ct ion s. Sch ools s er ve a s a p la ce for s y s t em a t ic lea r n -in g, t ea ch -in g, a n d d is s em -in a t -in g k n ow led ge, a n d a s a cen t r e for s y s t em a t ica lly exp er i-m en t in g a n d ii-m p lei-m en t in g ed u ca t ion a l ch a n ges a n d d evelop m en t s (Cou sin s, 1996). Sch ools p r ov id e s er v ice for d iffer en t ed u ca -t ion a l n eed s of -t h e loca l com m u n i-t y, fa cili-t a -t e d evelop m en t s of ed u ca t ion p r ofes sion s a n d ed u ca t ion st r u ct u r es, d iss em in a t e k n ow led ge a n d in for m a t ion t o t h e n ext gen er a t ion , a n d
con t r ibu t e t o t h e for m a t ion of a lea r n in g societ y. In or d er t o en cou r a ge m u t u a l u n d er -st a n d in g a m on g n a t ion s a n d bu ild u p “a glob a l fa m ily ” for t h e you n ger gen er a t ion , sch ools ca n con t r ibu t e t o t h e d evelop m en t of glob a l ed u ca t ion , in t er n a t ion a l exch a n ge a n d coop er a t ion in ed u ca t ion .
Knowledge of long-term and short-term functions
In for m u la t in g policy on sch ool r efor m , we n eed t o k n ow wh a t t im e spa n t o be u sed in con sider in g sch ool fu n ct ion s. T h e a bove sch ool fu n ct ion s m ay be fu r t h er divided in t o t wo t ypes: lon g-t er m fu n ct ion s a n d sh or t -t er m fu n ct ion s. Lon g-t er m fu n ct ion s r efer t o t h e con t r ibu t ion s or effect s of sch ools t h a t h a ppen a n d con t in u e in a lon g t im e (e.g., m or e t h a n a few yea r s). T h ese fu n ct ion s a r e oft en ver y im por t a n t even t h ou gh t h ey m ay n ot be so obviou s t o people’s per cept ion . Sh or t -t er m fu n ct ion s r efer t o t h ose con t r ibu t ion s or effect s of sch ools t h a t occu r explicit ly in a sh or t t im e (e.g., a few m on t h s or less t h a n a few yea r s). In gen er a l, for ea ch t ype of t h e t ech n ica l/ econ om ic, h u m a n / socia l, polit ica l, cu lt u r a l, edu ca t ion a l fu n ct ion s, t h er e m ay exist bot h lon g-t er m a n d sh or t -t er m fu n ct ion s. Th e k n ow ledge of bot h lon gt er m a n d sh or t -t er m sch ool fu n c-t ion s a n d -t h eir r ela -t ion s, pa r t icu la r ly in a ch a n gin g en vir on m en t , is n ecessa r y in con sider in g t h e pr ior it ies, st r a te-gies a n d policies for sch ool r efor m s.
Knowledge about diverse emphasis on school functions
To d iffer en t p eop le or con st it u en cies, t h e exp ect a t ion s of sch ool fu n ct ion s a r e oft en d iffer en t a n d d iver se. Som e p eop le m ay b e m or e con cer n ed w it h t h e t ech n ica l a n d eco-n om ic fu eco-n ct ioeco-n s bu t ot h er s m or e w it h t h e p olit ica l fu n ct ion s. Som e p eop le m ay p ay a t t en t ion t o t h e fu n ct ion s a t t h e in d iv id u a l levels bu t ot h er s m ay focu s m or e on t h e fu n c-t ion s a c-t c-t h e com m u n ic-t y level or sociec-t y level. E ven t h ou gh in t h e p a st yea r s sch ool fu n c-t ion s a c-t c-t h e in c-t er n a c-t ion a l level m igh c-t n oc-t a t t r a ct m u ch a t t en t ion , t h er e seem s t o b e a gr ow in g con cer n a b ou t it in r ecen t yea r s (Bea r e a n d Sla u gh t er, 1993). T h e u n d er st a n d -in g of t h e d iver se em p h a ses on sch ool fu n c-t ion s a m on g sch ool sc-t a k eh old er s ca n p r ov id e a k n ow led ge b a se n ecessa r y for d evelop in g st r a t e gies a n d p olicies t o m a n a ge t h e p ot en -t ia l con fl ic-t s a n d d ilem m a s fr om d iver se in t er est s a n d t h e p ot en t ia l r es ist a n ces fr om d iver s e con st it u en cies in sch ool r efor m s.
Interdisciplinary knowledge about school functions
Yin Che o ng Che ng The kno wle dge base fo r re -e ngine e ring sc ho o ls: multiple func tio ns and inte rnal e ffe c tive ne ss
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 5 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 0 3 –2 2 4
m ay b e d iffer en t , t oo. For exa m p le, s ch ool fu n ct ion s a t t h e in d iv id u a l level m ay r eceive m or e a t t en t ion in ed u ca t ion a l p s ych ology. For sociology of ed u ca t ion , sch ool fu n ct ion s a t t h e s ociet y level, p a r t icu la r ly t h os e r ela t ed t o socia l m ob ilit y, eq u a lit y a n d cla s s s t r a t ifi ca -t ion , m ay a -t -t r a c-t m or e con cer n . Obv iou s ly, econ om ics of ed u ca t ion oft en focu ses on t h e econ om ic fu n ct ion s of sch ools a t d iffer en t levels. In t h e fi eld of sch ool m a n a gem en t or or ga n iza t ion a l b eh av ior, s ch ool fu n ct ion s a t t h e in st it u t ion a l level a r e in ev it a b ly t h e m a jor t op ic for sch ool r efor m . Obv iou s ly, d iffer en t a ca d em ic d iscip lin es h ave d iffer en t foci w h en t h ey a r e u sed t o s u p p or t p olicy for m u la t ion for s ch ool r efor m . In or d er t o a ch ieve a com p r eh en sive k n ow led ge b a s e for u n d er s t a n d in g m u lt ip le s ch ool fu n ct ion s a n d su p p or t in g p olicy m a k in g on s ch ool r es t r u c-t u r in g, a n in c-t er d iscip lin a r y a p p r oa ch , if n oc-t m u lt ip le d is cip lin es, s h ou ld b e en cou r a ged t o d evelop k n ow led ge.
New knowledge of multiple school effectiveness and their relations In gen er a l, sch ool r es t r u ct u r in g a im s a t en h a n cin g sch ool effect iven es s for a ch iev in g exp ect ed s ch ool fu n ct ion s. T h e con ce p t a n d k n ow led ge of sch ool effect iven es s a r e r ea lly im p or t a n t t o t h e p olicy for m u la t ion on sch ool r efor m . F r om t h e a b ove s ch ool fu n ct ion s, w e m ay d efi n e s ch ool effect iven es s a s t h e ca p a c-it y of t h e s ch ool t o m a xim ize s ch ool fu n ct ion s or t h e d e gr ee t o w h ich t h e sch ool ca n p er for m sch ool fu n ct ion s, w h en given a fi xed a m ou n t of sch ool in p u t . Sin ce t h er e a r e fi ve t y p es of sch ool fu n ct ion s, sch ool effect iven es s m ay b e fu r t h er cla s s ifi ed in t o fi ve t y p es: t ech n ica l/ econ om ic effect iven es s, h u m a n / socia l effec-t iven es s, p olieffec-t ica l effeceffec-t iven es s, cu leffec-t u r a l effect iven es s, a n d ed u ca t ion a l effect iven es s. F u r t h er m or e, sin ce t h er e a r e fi ve levels of sch ool fu n ct ion s, sch ool effect iven es s m ay b e cla s sifi ed in t o fi ve levels: s ch ool effect iven ess a t t h e in d iv id u a l level, a t t h e in st it u t ion a l level, a t t h e com m u n it y level, a t t h e s ociet y level, a n d a t t h e in t er n a t ion a l level.
F r om a n in p u t -ou t p u t p er sp ect ive, w h en t h e d is cu ss ion is m a in ly in t er m s of n on -m on et a r y in p u et s or p r ocess es (e.g., n u m b er of et exet b ook s, cla s s r oom or ga n iza t ion , et c.), t h e com -p a r is on of ou t -p u t fu n ct ion t o n on -m on et a r y in p u t (or p r ocess) m ay b e ca lled “s ch ool effec-t iven es s”. If effec-t h e d iscu ssion is m a in ly in effec-t er m s of m on et a r y in p u t (e.g., 3000 d olla r s in p u t p er st u d en t , cost of b ook s, s a la r y, et c.), t h en t h e com p a r is on b et w een sch ool ou t p u t fu n ct ion a n d m on et a r y in p u t m ay b e ca lled “s ch ool efficien cy ”.
It is im p or t a n t t o p oin t ou t t h a t t h e r ela t ion -sh ip b et w een t h e fi ve t y p es of sch ool effect ive-n es s, b et w eeive-n t h e fi ve levels of sch ool
effect iven ess, a n d even b et w een effect iven ess a n d efficien cy, m ay b e ver y com p lica t ed , a n d n ot n ecess a r ily p osit ive. A s ch ool’s h igh t ech -n ica l effect ive-n ess a t t h e i-n d iv id u a l level d oes n ot n ecess a r ily p r om is e h igh t ech n ica l effec-t iven ess or socia l effeceffec-t iven ess a effec-t effec-t h e socieeffec-t y level, a lt h ou gh p eop le oft en a ss u m e t h e exis-t en ce of su ch a p osiexis-t ive r ela exis-t ion sh ip (Gr osin , 1994). F u r t h er m or e, m a n y s t u d ies fr om r a d i-ca l p er sp ect ives ch a llen ge t h e t r a d it ion a l b elief of sch ools’ “p os it ive” fu n ct ion s on socia l eq u a liza t ion by p oin t in g ou t t h a t sch ools d o n ot p r om ot e socia l eq u a lit y bu t p r ob a bly ca r r y on t h e in eq u a lit y of s ocia l cla ss (Bla ck led ge a n d H u n t , 1985; Ch en g, 1995). T h er efor e, even t h ou gh s ch ools h ave h igh er t ech n ica l effect iven ess a t t h e in st it u -t ion a l level, -t h ey d o n o-t n ecessa r ily h ave -t h e effect iven ess of p r om ot in g socia l eq u a lit y a s exp ect ed . To a gr ea t ext en t , t h e r ela t ion sh ip of t ech n ica l effect iven ess t o socia l effect ive-n ess or cu lt u r a l effect iveive-n ess is ver y coive-n t r o-ver sia l in t h e fi eld of s ociology of ed u ca t ion . Also, t h e r ela t ion sh ip b et w een t ech n ica l effect iven ess a n d t ech n ica l efficien cy m ay n ot b e sim p le. It is oft en a h ot t op ic for r esea r ch in t h e fi eld of econ om ics of ed u ca t ion (Ch en g a n d N g, 1992; P sa ch a r op ou los, 1987).
In gen er a l, en h a n cem en t of on e t y p e of sch ool effect iven ess d oes n ot n ecess a r ily p r om ise in cr ea se in t h e ot h er fou r t y p es. Sim ila r ly, in cr ea sin g sch ool effect iven ess a t on e level d oes n ot cer t a in ly r esu lt in im p r ove-m en t of effect iven ess a t t h e ot h er levels. T h er e is a la ck of exis t in g st u d ies con cer n in g t h e in t er -effect iven ess r ela t ion sh ip s. In or d er t o d evelop effect ive p olicy for sch ool r est r u c-t u r in g, c-t h er e is a n u r gen c-t n eed c-t o d evelop a n ew k n ow led ge b a se a b ou t t h e r ela t ion sh ip b et w een d iffer en t s ch ool effect iven ess.
Shift to a new knowledge base on school functions
F r om t h e a b ove con ce p t ion of sch ool effec-t iven es s for m u leffec-t i-fu n ceffec-t ion s a effec-t m u leffec-t i-levels, a sh ift t o a n ew k n ow led ge b a se on sch ool fu n c-t ion s p r op osed for con sid er a c-t ion in fu c-t u r e r esea r ch , p olicy -m a k in g a n d p r a ct ice ca n b e su m m a r ized in Ta ble II.
T r a d it ion a lly, t h e d is cu ss ion of sch ool r est r u ct u r in g is oft en b a sed on t h e s im p list ic con ce p t ion of sch ool fu n ct ion s, in volv in g t ech n ica l/ econ om ic effect iven ess a n d socia l effect iven es s a t t h e in d iv id u a l or
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cu lt u r a l a n d ed u ca t ion a l d im en s ion s. Als o, n ot on ly t h e is su es a t t h e in d iv id u a l a n d in s t i-t u i-t ion a l levels a r e s i-t r on gly em p h a s ized , bu i-t t h ose a t t h e com m u n it y, s ociet y a n d in t er n a t ion a l levels s h ou ld r eceive su fficien t a t t en -t ion . T r a d i-t ion a lly, -t h e s h or -t --t er m effec-t ive-n es s is oft eive-n t h e m a jor focu s of sch ool r efor m s. In t h e n ew k n ow led ge b a s e, b ot h t h e s h or t -t er m a n d lon g-t er m effect s of s ch ool s h ou ld b e im p or t a n t for s ch ool r efor m s.
In t h e t r a d it ion a l k n ow led ge b a s e, p eop le u su a lly em p h a s ize m a in ly t h e t ech n ica l/ econ om ic or h u m a n / socia l effect iven es s a n d a s s u m e n o b ig d iffer en ce in exp ect a t ion s of d iffer en t con s t it u en cies a t d iffer en t levels
(e.g., p a r en t s, st u d en t s, t ea ch er s, a d m in ist r a -t or s, com m u n i-t y, econ om ic s ec-t or, socia l ser v ice sect or, p olicy -m a k er s, t h e p u blic, et c.). T h ey h ave ign or ed t h e p ot en t ia l d ilem m a s fr om d iffer en ces in t h e con st it u en cies’ exp ec-t a ec-t ion s on effecec-t iven ess. If w e a gr ee ec-t h a ec-t sch ools h ave m u lt ifu n ct ion s a n d t h e con -st it u en cies a t d iffer en t levels h ave d iver se exp ect a t ion s, w h a t k in d of m a n a gem en t sh ou ld w e em p loy t o en h a n ce s ch ool effect ive-n ess? T h e st u dy a ive-n d m a ive-n a gem eive-n t of t h ese d ilem m a s sh ou ld b e on e of t h e k ey con cer n s in cu r r en t m ovem en t s of s ch ool r efor m s. Obv iou sly, h ow t o d ecr ea se t h ese d ilem m a s a n d a llow s ch ools a cq u ir e t h e gr ea t est Table II
Ne w kno wle dge frame wo rk and traditio nal kno wle dge frame wo rk o f sc ho o l e ffe c tive ne ss in sc ho o l re fo rms
New knowledge framework on school Traditional knowledge framework on function and effectiveness school function and effectiveness Nature of • Based on multiple c onc eption of sc hool • Biased on simplistic c onc eption of school functions func tions: tec hnic al, soc ial, politic al, sc hool func tions, partic ularly on and effectiveness c ultural and educ ational tec hnic al and soc ial func tions only
• Conc eption at five levels: individual, • Conc eption only at one to two levels, institutional, c ommunity, soc iety and partic ularly at the individual or
international institutional levels
• Both short-term and long-term c onsiderations • Mainly short-term c onsideration
Expectation of • To different c onstituenc ies, different types • Emphasizing mainly tec hnic al or soc ial school of sc hool effec tiveness are expec ted effec tiveness, assuming no big
effectiveness • Dilemmas exist differenc es in expec tations
• Dilemmas are ignored
Assumption about • Complic ated relationships between types • Positive relationships between types relationships • Complic ated relationships between levels • Positive relationships between levels
• Complic ated relationships between • Positive relationships between effec tiveness and effic ienc y effec tiveness and effic ienc y • Between-relationships not nec essarily • No strong need to study and manage
positive, need to be studied and managed between-relationships
Disciplinary • Interdisc iplinary c ooperation and • Mainly single disc ipline is used;
knowledge to be efforts are needed separate efforts are made
used in reform
Focus of school • Multi-types of effec tiveness • Separate/ single type of effec tiveness reform effort • Multi-levels of effec tiveness • Separate/ single level of effec tiveness
• Relationships between types • Relationships between levels
· • Relationships between effec tiveness
and effic ienc y
Implications for • To maximize effec tiveness in • Mainly to maximize effec tiveness in management and multi-types at multi-levels separate types at single level
policy in school • To maximize effic ienc y in multi-types • Mainly to maximize effic ienc y in separate
reform at multi-levels types at single level
• Need to ensure c ongruenc e between • No need to ensure c ongruenc e between
types and between levels types and levels
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con gr u en ce b et w een levels a n d b et w een ca t e-gor ies of effect iven ess is a cr u cia l iss u e in t h is n ew k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k .
T h e t r a d it ion a l k n ow led ge b a s e oft en a s su m es t h a t t h er e is a p os it ive r ela t ion sh ip b et w een ca t e gor ies of effect iven es s, b et w een levels of effect iven ess, or b et w een effect ive-n es s a ive-n d efficieive-n cy, a ive-n d it is ive-n ot ive-n ecess a r y t o m a n a ge t h ese in t er -r ela t ion sh ip s in t h e p r oces s of p olicy m a k in g a n d sch ool r es t r u ct u r in g. As w e h ave d iscu s s ed , ct h is a ss u m p t ion is ver y p r oblem a t ic. T h e in t er r ela t ion sh ip s m ay b e ver y com p lica t ed , n ot n ecess a r -ily p os it ive. T h e in cr ea sed s ch ool effect ive-n es s iive-n oive-n e ca t e gor y d oes ive-n ot p r om is e t h e ot h er. T h er efor e in t h e n ew k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k , it is im p or t a n t t o s t u dy t h es e in t er -r ela t ion s h ip s if w e w a n t t o m a k e s en sible effor t s in p u r su in g sch ool effect iven es s. T r a -d it ion a lly, sch ool r efor m m ay in volve m a in ly on e s in gle d iscip lin e (e.g., ed u ca t ion a l p s y -ch ology ), or d e p en d on s e p a r a t e effor t of ea -ch d is cip lin e. Obv iou sly it is n ot s u fficien t for u n d er s t a n d in g t h e com p lexit y of s ch ool fu n c-t ion a n d effecc-t iven es s a n d s u p p or c-t in g p olicy for m u la t ion on sch ool r es t r u ct u r in g. In t h e n ew k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k , w e sh ou ld en cou r a ge in t er -d is cip lin a r y coop er a t ion (e.g., in volv in g ed u ca t ion a l p s ych ology, eco-n om ics of ed u ca t ioeco-n , sociology of ed u ca t ioeco-n , a n t h r op ology, or ga n iza t ion a l t h eor ies, et c.) a n d effor t s t o u n d er s t a n d in g a n d en h a n cin g sch ool effect iven es s. T h e focu s of sch ool r efor m s sh ou ld in clu d e m u lt i-ca t e gor ies of effect iven es s a t m u lt i-levels, r ela t ion sh ip b et w een ca t e gor ies, r ela t ion sh ip b et w een levels, a n d r ela t ion sh ip b et w een effect iven es s a n d efficien cy. Mea n w h ile, w e n eed t o d evelop a com p r eh en sive t h eor y t o exp la in ea ch in t er -r ela t ion s h ip a n d p -r ov id e p -r a ct ica l gu id elin es for t h e en h a n cem en t of s ch ool effect iven es s.
In t h e t r a d it ion a l k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k , on ly s om e ca t e gor ies of s ch ool effect iven es s or efficien cy a t on e or t wo levels a r e s t r es s ed , t h e r est a r e n e glect ed , a n d lit t le is k n ow n a b ou t t h e im p or t a n ce of in t er level con gr u -en ce a n d t h e con gr u -en ce b et w e-en effect ive-n es s a ive-n d efficieive-n cy. N o woive-n d er m a ive-n y p olicy effor t s s eem n ot t o b e s o su cces sfu l for en h a n cin g sch ool effect iven es s, bu t r a t h er en d in fa ilu r e. Wh en w e u n d er st a n d t h a t t h er e is a m u lt ip licit y in sch ool effect iven es s, t h e fu t u r e d ir ect ion for s ch ool r e-en gin eer in g sh ou ld a im t o m a xim ize s ch ool effect iven es s a n d efficien cy of m u lt ca t e gor ies a t m u lt i-levels. H ow t o en su r e con gr u en ce a m on g ca t e gor ies, levels, a n d b et w een effect iven es s a n d efficien cy, h ow t o en h a n ce t h e over a ll sch ool effect iven es s a t a ll levels w it h ou t st r ess in g a p a r t icu la r ca t e gor y, a n d h ow t o solve t h e d ilem m a s fr om t h e d iffer en t exp ec-t a ec-t ion s of va r iou s con sec-t iec-t u en cies s h ou ld b e
cr it ica l issu es in t h e cu r r en t m ovem en t s of sch ool r efor m s for fu r t h er in vest iga t ion in t h e n ew k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k .
Knowledge framework of internal
school process
As m en t ion ed p r ev iou sly, “H ow ca n t h e in t er -n a l sch ool p r oces s b e r e-e-n gi-n eer ed so t h a t t h e sch ool a s a w h ole ca n p lay t h e a b ove m en -t ion ed fu n c-t ion s a n d r oles?” is a n o-t h er b a sic q u est ion in t h e for m u la t ion a n d im p lem en t a -t ion of s ch ool r efor m p olicy. T h e a n sw er -t o t h is q u est ion n eed s a n ew k n ow led ge b a se a b ou t t h e in t er n a l sch ool p r oces s t h a t ca n in for m h ow a sch ool ca n m a xim ize t h e u se of in t er n a l r esou r ces t o a ch ieve op t im a l con d it ion s for op er a it ion a n d con it in u ou s d evelop -m en t in -m a n a ge-m en t , t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g a n d h ow a sch ool ca n r ecogn ize t h e m u lt ip le sch ool fu n ct ion s a n d effect iven ess a n d su c-cess fu lly m ob ilize a ll p oss ible effor t s t o a ch ieve t h em in su ch a ch a n gin g en v ir on -m en t p a r t icu la r ly in t h e n ew cen t u r y. T h er e is a n eed for k n ow led ge a b ou t h ow sch ools ca n con t in u ou sly d evelop t h em selves, p u r su e w id e a n d n ew sch ool fu n ct ion s, a n d en h a n ce effect iven ess t o ser ve t h e n eed s of d evelop -m en t of in d iv id u a ls, loca l co-m -m u n it y, societ y, a n d in t er n a t ion a l com m u n it ies.
In t e gr a t in g m y r ecen t r esea r ch a n d t h in k -in g on s ch ool effect iven ess a n d sch ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t (Ch en g, 1996a , 1996b, 1996d , 1997a ), t h e follow in g n ew k n ow led ge fr a m e-wor k of in t er n a l sch ool p r ocess ca n b e p r o-p osed t o gu id e sch ool r e-en gin eer in g, fr om w h ich sch ools in H on g Kon g a n d ot h er con -t ex-t s ca n fa cili-t a -t e con -t in u ou s lea r n in g a n d d evelop m en t of st u d en t s, st a ff a n d
t h em s elves, in cr ea se su p p or t of p a r en t s a n d com m u n it y, im p r ove t ech n ology in ed u ca t ion a n d m a n a gem en t , a n d p u r su e n ew fu n ct ion s a n d m ea n in gs m or e effect ively in t h e r a p id ly ch a n gin g ed u ca t ion en v ir on m en t .
T h is n ew k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k of in t er n a l sch ool p r ocess in clu d es t h e follow in g t y p es of k n ow led ge, a s su m m a r ized in Ta ble III: 1 Kn ow led ge of s ch ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t 2 Kn ow led ge of s ch ool h ea lt h y fu n ct ion in g
p r ofi le
3 Kn ow led ge of s t r a t e gic m a n a gem en t 4 Kn ow led ge of m u lt i-level self m a n a gem en t
in sch ool
5 Kn ow led ge of dy n a m ic p r oces s 6 Kn ow led ge of layer m a n a gem en t 7 Kn ow led ge of con gr u en ce in sch ool 8 Kn ow led ge of t ot a l h om es ch ool colla b or a
-t ion a n d com m u n i-t y su p p or -t
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Table III
A kno wle dge frame wo rk o f inte rnal sc ho o l pro c e ss fo r re -e ngine e ring sc ho o ls
The new knowledge framework Key elements to be achieved of internal school process in school re-engineering
1. Knowledge of • Princ iple of equifinality • Sc hool autonomy and self-initiative school-based • Princ iple of dec entralization
management • Princ iple of self-managing system • Princ iple of human initiative
2 Knowledge of • A positive profile on: • Healthy and smooth sc hool func tioning healthy school – Sc hool mission
profile – Nature of sc hool ac tivities – Management strategies – Use of resourc es – Roles
– Human relations – Quality of administrator – Evaluation of effec tiveness • Monitoring educ ation quality in sc hool
3 Knowledge of • Inc luding c ritic al c omponents: • Continuous organizational learning and
strategic – Environmental analysis sc hool development
management – Planning and struc turing – Staffing and direc ting – Implementing
– Monitoring and evaluating – Partic ipation and leadership
• A c yc lic proc ess of c ontinuous learning, ac tion and development
4 Knowledge of • Sc hool self-management • Human initiative of individuals, groups, multi-level self- • Group self-management and the sc hool
management • Individual self-management
• Self-learning and development of individuals and groups
• Mutual influenc e and support among individuals, groups, and the sc hool
5 Knowledge of a • Awareness of unbalanc ed situation • Multiple effec tiveness on five sc hool dynamic process • Adaptability and flexibility to set up priority func tions
for multiple school • Maximizing effec tiveness on multiple effectiveness func tions in a long run
6 Knowledge of • Matrix of sc hool proc ess • Holistic sc hool educ ation and maximum layer • Layers: administrator, teac her and student opportunity for teac hing and learning management • Layer as c omprehensive unit
• Management, teac hing, and learning as holistic proc esses
• Development c yc les on layers
7 Knowledge of • Congruenc e in sc hool proc ess: • Reduc ing internal wastage, inc reasing congruence in – Ac ross ac tors, domains, and levels synergy and maximizing effec tiveness school process – Between-layer
– Within-layer
• Congruenc e in tec hnology: – Between-types
– Within-types • Congruenc e in c ulture:
– Between-types – Within-types
8 Knowledge of • Total parental involvement in sc hool • Provision of nec essary resourc es,
home-school educ ation ideas, and legitimac y in educ ation and
cooperation and • Total family educ ation as a strong partner management community support • Community support
9 Knowledge of • Shift to transformational leadership • Driving forc e for developing members transformational • Shift to multi-dimensions of leadership: and re-engineering sc hool
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Knowledge of school-based management Sch ool-b a s ed m a n a gem en t is on e of s a lien t wor ld -w id e ed u ca t ion r efor m s. Sch ool-b a s ed m a n a gem en t m ea n s t h a t t h e s ch ool m a n a gem en t t a s k s a r e s et a ccor d in g t o t h e ch a r a ct er -is t ics a n d n eed s of t h e s ch ool it self a n d t h er e-for e sch ool m em b er s a n d s ch ools h ave a m u ch gr ea t er a u t on om y a n d r es p on s ib ilit y for t h e u s e of r es ou r ces t o solve p r oblem s a n d ca r r y ou t effect ive ed u ca t ion a ct iv it ies, for t h e lon g-t er m d evelop m en t of t h e s ch ool. Sch ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t a n d t r a d it ion a l ext er n a l con t r ol m a n a gem en t r efl ect d iffer en t m a n -a gem en t p r in cip les u sed by t h e cen t r -a l a u t h or it y t o m a n a ge t h e s ch ool sy s t em (Ca ld -w ell a n d Sp in k s, 1988; M u r p h y a n d Beck , 1995; Moh r m a n et a l., 1994). T h e m a jor d iffer en ces in k n ow led ge b a s e a b ou t ed u ca t ion a n d m a n -a gem en t -a r e s u m m -a r ized in T-a ble IV (Ch en g, 1993).
Assumptio ns abo ut e duc atio n
In s ch ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t , ed u ca t ion a l goa ls a r e a s s u m ed a s m u lt ip le b a s ed on t h e exp ect a t ion s of m u lt ip le s ch ool con s t it u en -cies, a n d t h e ed u ca t ion a l en v ir on m en t is b elieved t o b e com p lex a n d ch a n gin g. T h er e-for e ed u ca t ion a l r ee-for m s or ch a n ges in s ch ool a r e in ev it a bly n eed ed t o a d a p t t o t h e ch a n gin g
en v ir on m en t , t o en h a n ce effect iven ess, a n d a ch ieve m u lt ip le ed u ca t ion a l goa ls. Princ iple o f e quifinality
Sch ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t is b a s ed on t h e p r in cip le of eq u ifi n a lit y, a ssu m in g t h a t t h er e m ay b e d iffer en t w ay s t o a ch ieve goa ls. F lexi-b ilit y is em p h a sized a n d sch ools h ave a m p le sp a ce t o m ove, d evelop a n d wor k ou t t h eir u n iq u e s t r a t e gies t o t ea ch a n d m a n a ge t h eir sch ools effect ively.
Princ iple o f de c e ntralizatio n
In t h e ch a n gin g ed u ca t ion en v ir on m en t , sch ool m a n a gem en t a n d t ea ch in g a ct iv it ies in ev it a bly h ave d ifficu lt ies a n d p r oblem s. T h er efor e, s u p p or t ed by t h e p r in cip le of d ecen t r a liza t ion , sch ools s h ou ld b e given t h e p ow er a n d r esp on sib ilit y t o solve p r oblem s effect ively w h er e t h e p r oblem s h a p p en a s soon a s p ossible a n d m a k e a gr ea t er con t r ibu t ion t o t h e effect iven ess of t ea ch in g a n d lea r n -in g a ct iv it ies.
Princ iple o f se lf-managing syste m
Wit h t h e su p p or t of t h e a b ove p r in cip les, it is n eces sa r y t o let sch ools b ecom e a self-m a n a g-in g sy st em u n d er s om e m a jor p olicies a n d st r u ct u r es, p oss essin g con sid er a ble a u t on om y t o d evelop t ea ch in g ob ject ives a n d m a n -a gem en t st r -a t e gies, d ist r ibu t e m -a n p ow er -a n d
Table IV
The kno wle dge base o f sc ho o l-base d manage me nt: ne w princ iple s
Knowledge base of Knowledge base of external
school-based management control management
Assumptions • Multiplic ity of educ ational goals • Unific ation of educ ational goals about • Complex and c hanging educ ational • Simple and nearly static educ ational
education environment environment
• Need for educ ational reforms • No need for educ ational reforms • Effec tiveness and adaptation-oriented • Standardization and stability-oriented
• Pursuit of quality • Pursuit of quantity
Principles used Princ iple of equifinality: Princ iple of standard struc ture: to manage • Many different ways to ac hieve goals • Standard methods and proc edures to
schools • Emphasizes flexibility ac hieve goals
• Emphasizes generalizability
Princ iple of dec entralization: Princ iple of c entralization:
• Problems are inevitable, should be • Things big or small are c arefully c ontrolled solved at where they happen in time to avoid problems
• Looks for effic ienc y and problem-solving • Pursues proc edural c ontrol
• Princ iple of self-managing system: Princ iple of implementing system:
• Self-managing • Externally c ontrolled
• Ac tively exploitative • Passively rec eptive
• Responsible • Not ac c ountable
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r es ou r ces, s olve p r oblem s a n d a ccom p lish goa ls a ccor d in g t o t h eir ow n con d it ion s. Princ iple o f human initiative
Du e t o t h e exist in g m u lt ip licit y a n d com p lexit y of ed u ca t ion wor k , lexit is im p os s ible t o p u r s u e n ew s ch ool fu n ct ion s a n d en h a n ce ed u ca -t ion q u a li-t y w i-t h ou -t -t h e in i-t ia -t ive a n d cr e-a t iv it y of s ch ool m em b er s. T h er efor e, sch ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t a im s a t ool-bu ild in g u p a s u it a ble en v ir on m en t for s ch ool m em b er s t o p a r t icip a t e w id ely, d evelop t h eir p ot en t ia l, a n d con t r ibu t e t h eir in it ia t ive a n d com p e-t en ce e-t o ed u ca e-t ion q u a lie-t y a n d s ch ool d evel-op m en t .
T h e k n ow led ge of sch ool-b a s ed m a n a ge-m en t p r ov id es a n ew s et of p r in cip les t h a t ca n b e u s ed t o r efor m sch ools a n d h elp t h em t o s h ift fr om t h e ext er n a l con t r ol m a n a gem en t m od e t o t h e sch ool-b a s ed m a n a gem en t m od e w it h t h e a im of p r ov id in g t h e n eces sa r y con -d it ion s or p olicy fr a m ewor k for en cou r a gin g s ch ool a u t on om y a n d s elf-in it ia t ive t o p u r su e effect iven ess on m u lt ip le s ch ool fu n ct ion s in a ch a n gin g en v ir on m en t .
Knowledge of school healthy functioning profile
T h e n ew s ch ool r efor m s sh ou ld d r aw h eav ily fr om t h e st r en gt h s of n ew k n ow led ge a n d t ech n ology. In r efor m s, sch ools s h ou ld b e en cou r a ged t o d evelop a n d a ch ieve h ea lt h y fu n ct ion in g in m a n a gem en t a n d ed u ca t ion . Accor d in g t o t h e a dva n ces in r es ea r ch a n d k n ow led ge of ed u ca t ion a n d m a n a gem en t , t h e ch a r a ct er is t ics of h ea lt h y s ch ool fu n ct ion in g p r ofi le ca n b e s u m m a r ized in t er m s of s ch ool m is s ion , n a t u r e of a ct iv it ies, m a n a gem en t s t r a t e gies, u se of r es ou r ces, r oles of d iffer en t con st it u en cies, h u m a n r ela t ion sh ip, q u a lit y of a d m in ist r a t or s, a n d eva lu a t ion in d ica t or s, a s s h ow n in Ta ble V (Ch en g, 1993, 1996a ). T h is p r ofi le ca n p r ov id e a n ew k n ow led ge b a s e t o gu id e ch a n ges of som e im p or t a n t fea t u r es of in t er n a l s ch ool p r ocess.
In s ch ool r efor m s, sch ools s h ou ld b e s u p -p or t ed t o h ave a clea r sch ool m is sion , s t r on g or ga n iza t ion a l cu lt u r e a n d s ch oolb a s ed ed u -ca t ion a ct iv it ies. In t h es e s ch ools, m a n a gin g s t r a t e gies en cou r a ge p a r t icip a t ion a n d give fu ll p lay t o m em b er s ’ in it ia t ive. T h er e is a ls o con sid er a ble a u t on om y of u s in g a n d p r ocu r -in g r es ou r ces. T h e r ole of p eop le con cer n ed is a ct ive a n d d evelop m en t a l. H u m a n r ela t ion -s h ip i-s op en a n d coop er a t ive w it h m u t u a l com m it m en t . T h e a d m in is t r a t or s sh ou ld b e of h igh q u a lit y a n d a lw ay s w illin g t o lea r n . E va lu a t ion of sch ool effect iven es s a n d m on i-t or in g eq u a lii-t y s h ou ld in clu d e m u li-t i-level a n d m u lt i-fa cet in d ica t or s of in p u t , p r ocess a n d ou t p u t in or d er t o h elp t h e sch ool lea r n t o im p r ove.
Recen t ly, t h er e is a s t r on g em p h a sis on t h e d evelop m en t a n d a p p lica t ion of k n ow led ge a n d t ech n ology t o m on it or a n d eva lu a t e ed u ca t ion a l q u a lit y in sch ools w it h n o con sid er a -t ion of -t h e p u r p oses of s ch ool a ccou n -t a b ili-t y or d evelop m en t . Ma cBea t h et a l., (1997) a n d Ch en g (1997b, 1997c, 1997d ) ca n p r ov id e exa m -p les of a com -p r eh en sive fr a m ewor k of u sin g in d ica t or s t o eva lu a t e a n d m on it or d iffer en t a sp ect s of sch ool fu n ct ion in g. T h e effect ive u se of m on it or in g a n d eva lu a t in g t ech n ology w ill b r in g ou t t h e n ecess a r y in for m a t ion a n d k n ow led ge t o d evelop a n d a ssu r e t h e h ea lt h y p r ofi le of sch ool p r ocess. T h er efor e, t h e k n ow led ge of m on it or in g a n d eva lu a t in g sh ou ld b ecom e n eces sa r y in sch ool r efor m s.
Knowledge of strategic management In fa cin g ch a llen ges fr om t h e r a p id ly ch a n g-in g en v ir on m en t g-in t h e n ew cen t u r y, it is im p or t a n t in sch ool r efor m s t o cr ea t e con d i-t ion s for sch ools i-t o b e r esp on sive i-t o i-t h e ch a n gin g in t er n a l a n d ext er n a l
en v ir on m en t s, t o d evelop a n d a ch ieve t h eir goa ls a n d t o h ave or ga n iza t ion a l d evelop m en t a n d lea r n in g. T h er efor e, t h er e is a n im p or -t a n -t n eed of k n ow led ge of s-t r a -t e gic m a n a ge-m en t in ed u ca t ion a l r efor ge-m s t o h elp sch ools est a blish a m a n a gem en t sy st em t o su p p or t t h eir con t in u ou s or ga n iza t ion a l lea r n in g a n d d evelop m en t . T h e st r a t e gic m a n a gem en t p r ocess ca n b e illu st r a t ed a s sh ow n in F igu r e 1. It is a cyclic p r ocess w h ich con sis t s of fi ve st a ges: en v ir on m en t a l a n a ly sis, p la n n in g a n d st r u ct u r in g, st a ffin g a n d d ir ect in g, im p le-m en t in g, a n d le-m on it or in g a n d eva lu a t in g (Ch en g a n d N g, 1994; Ch en g, 1996d ). P a r t icip a -t ion a n d lea d er sh ip a r e n eces sa r y a n d cr u cia l t o in it ia t in g a n d m a in t a in in g of t h e w h ole st r a t e gic m a n a gem en t p r ocess.
T h e st r a t e gic m a n a gem en t sy st em ca n su p p or t con t in u ou s lea r n in g a n d d evelop -m en t of t h e w h ole sch ool t o fa ce ch a llen ges a n d p u r su e m u lt ip le sch ool fu n ct ion s in a ch a n gin g en v ir on m en t . In ot h er wor d s, it p r ov id es a n ecessa r y lin k a ge b et w een in t er -n a l sch ool p r ocess a -n d ext er -n a l e-n v ir o-n m e-n t , a n d fa cilit a t es a n d a d a p t s in t er n a l sch ool p r ocess t o a ch ieve m u lt ip le s ch ool fu n ct ion s a t d iffer en t levels. T h er efor e, in sch ool r efor m s, t h er e sh ou ld b e a clea r k n ow led ge of st r a t e gic m a n a gem en t for h elp in g s ch ools t o est a blish t h e n ecess a r y m ech a n is m t o b e r es p on sive t o t h e ch a n gin g en v ir on m en t , t o lea r n , a n d t o d evelop.
Yin Che o ng Che ng The kno wle dge base fo r re -e ngine e ring sc ho o ls: multiple func tio ns and inte rnal e ffe c tive ne ss
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Table V
Kno wle dge o f sc ho o l func tio ning pro file s
Characteristics of Profile based on new Profile based on
internal functioning knowledge traditional knowledge
School • Mission c lear, shared, developed and willingly • Mission unc lear, given by outside, not
mission ac tualized by members developed and ac c epted by members
• Emphasize partic ipation in developing • Emphasize keeping and implementing
educ ational mission external mission
• Strong and unique organizational • Weak and vague organizational c ulture
c ulture exits exists
Nature of • Sc hool-based ac tivities: managing and • Non sc hool-based ac tivities: c ontent and school educ ating ac c ording to c harac teristic s style of educ ation and management
activities and needs of a sc hool determined by external authority
M anagement strategies
Concept of • Theory Y • Theory X
human nature • Complex man • Rational ec onomic man
• Partic ipation and development regarded • Supervision and c ontrol regarded as
as important important
Concept of • Sc hool is a plac e students, teac hers and • Sc hool is a tool, teac her is employee, school administrators live, everybody has the kept when needed, out when not
organization right for development needed
Style of • Dec entralization • Centralization
decision-making • Partic ipation of teac hers, parents and • Administrators make dec isions even students
Leadership style • Multi-level leadership: symbolic , c ultural • Low level leadership: mainly and educ ational leadership in addition to tec hnic al and human leadership tec hnic al and human leadership
Use of power • Mainly expert and referenc e power • Mainly legitimate, reward and c oerc ive power
M anaging • Sophistic ated sc ientific tec hniques • Simple tec hniques or experienc es techniques
Use of resources • Autonomy; self-budgeting • Tightly restric ted by the c entral • Ac c ording to sc hool needs • Ac c ording to external rules • In time to solve problems • Apply and wait for permission • Tend to broaden sourc es of educ ation • Tend to avoid troublesome proc edures
resourc es for more resourc es
Role differences
Role of school • Ac tive-developing style: exploit all • Passive-rec eptive style: implement possibilities for development of the sc hool, c entralized mission, follow administration
teac hers, and students proc edure
• Problem-solving • Avoid making mistakes
Role of central • Supporter and advisor • Stric t supervisor and c ontroller authority
Role of • Goal developer and leader • Watc her of static goals administrator • Manpower starter and c oordinator • Personnel supervisor
• Resourc es developer • Resourc es c ontroller
Role of teacher • Partner • Employee
• Dec ision maker • Follower
• Developer • Order rec eiver
• Implementer • Implementer
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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 5 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 0 3 –2 2 4
(Ch eu n g a n d Ch en g, 1996). Un d er t h e m a jor fr a m ewor k of sch ool p olicy, in d iv id u a l st a ff a n d gr ou p s ca n h ave a p p r op r ia t e a u t on om y t o p la n , m a n a ge, a n d ca r r y ou t t h eir wor k . M u lt i-level s elf-m a n a gem en t is a n im p or t a n t a p p r oa ch t o en cou r a gin g a n d d evelop in g t h e n eces sa r y h u m a n in it ia t ive for t h e p u r su it of s ch ool effect iven es s a n d ed u ca t ion q u a lit y. T h er efor e t h e k n ow led ge of m u lt i-level s elf-m a n a geelf-m en t is n ecess a r y t o cu r r en t sch ool r es t r u ct u r in g m ovem en t s in d iffer en t p a r t s of t h e wor ld .
T h e over v iew of m u lt i-level s elf-m a n a ge-m en t in s ch ool is s u ge-m ge-m a r ized in Ta ble VI. T h e gr ou p s elf-m a n a gem en t p r ocess, lik e s t r a t e gic m a n a gem en t a t t h e s ch ool level, in clu d es en v ir on m en t a l a n a ly sis, p la n n in g a n d s t r u ct u r in g, st a ffin g a n d d ir ect in g, im p lem en t in g, m on it or in g a n d eva lu a t in g. For t h e in d iv id u a l self-m a n a gem en t , t h e p r oces s is on ly s ligh t ly d iffer en t in “p la n n in g a n d a ffilia t in g” a n d “d evelop in g a n d d ir ect -in g”. Wit h -in t h e fr a m ewor k of s ch ool st r a t e-gic m a n a gem en t , b ot h in d iv id u a l a n d gr ou p s elf-m a n a gem en t p r ocess es p r ov id e a p p r op r i-a t e i-a u t on om y i-a n d i-a s y st em i-a t ic i-a n d cyclic p r oces s for in d iv id u a ls a n d gr ou p s t o r efl ect on t h eir en v ir on m en t , p la n t h eir wor k , a llo-ca t e t h eir h u m a n r es ou r ces, d evelop t ea m s,
coop er a t e w it h collea gu es, m on it or a n d eva l-u a t e t h eir ow n p r ogr ess a n d ol-u t p l-u t . Dl-u r in g t h ese cycles, in d iv id u a ls a n d gr ou p s ca n lea r n a n d d evelop t h em selves con t in u ou sly a n d ca r r y ou t t h eir wor k effect ively even in a ch a n gin g en v ir on m en t .
T h er e m ay b e m u t u a l in fl u en ce a n d su p p or t a m on g self-m a n a gem en t a t in d iv id u a l, gr ou p, a n d s ch ool levels. On on e h a n d , t h e st r a t e gic m a n a gem en t a t t h e sch ool level ca n a ffect t h e q u a lit y of s elf-m a n a gem en t a t t h e gr ou p a n d in d iv id u a l levels. On t h e ot h er h a n d , in d iv id -u a l self-m a n a gem en t ca n b e t h e p r im a r y bu ild in g block for gr ou p self-m a n a gem en t w h ich in t u r n is t h e cor n er s t on e of selfm a n -a gem en t or st r -a t e gic m -a n -a gem en t -a t t h e sch ool level. As a w h ole, t h r ou gh con t in u ou s lea r n in g a n d d evelop m en t in self-m a n a ge-m en t a t ge-m u lt i-levels, t h e n eces sa r y h u ge-m a n in it ia t ive, com p et en ce, a n d com m it m en t ca n b e d evelop ed for t h e p u r su it of m u lt ip le sch ool fu n ct ion s a n d effect iven ess.
Knowledge of a dynamic process for multiple effectiveness
A sch ool m ay t r y t o b e effect ive on m u lt ip le fu n ct ion s for it s su r v iva l. Sin ce t h e ava ila ble r es ou r ces a r e oft en lim it ed , it is ver y d ifficu lt for a sch ool t o m a xim ize t h e effect iven ess on Table V
Characteristics of Profile based on new Profile based on
internal functioning knowledge traditional knowledge
Role of parent • Rec eiver of quality servic es • Rec eiver of quantity servic es • Partner: positive partic ipation and • Outsider: not eligible for partic ipation
c ooperation and c ooperation
• Sc hool supporter
Human relations • Partnership • Hierarc hic al
• Team spirit, open and c ooperative • Superior – subordinates, c losed and
• Shared c ommitment defensive
• Organizational c limate: c ommitment style • Conflic t of interest
• Organizational c limate: headless disengagement, or c ontrol style
Quality of • Possess knowledge/ tec hniques • Possess c onsiderable administrative
administrator of modern management experienc e
• Continue to learn and grow, disc over and • Work ac c ording to ordinanc es and rules,
solve problems avoid problems
• Open-minded • Familiar with c urrent ordinanc es
Evaluating • Multi-leveled and multiple, inc luding input, • Pay muc h attention to ac ademic effectiveness and proc ess and output; ac ademic ac hievement ac hievement or a few final outc omes, monitoring quality being only one of them neglec t the proc ess and development • Evaluation is a learning proc ess • Evaluation is a means of administrative
for sc hool improvement supervision
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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 5 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 0 3 –2 2 4
a ll fu n ct ion s a n d a ch ieve a ll t h e goa ls a t t h e sa m e t im e. A sch ool m ay exp er ien ce d iffer en t p r es s u r es fr om t h e m u lt ip le a n d con fl ict in g en v ir on m en t a l con st r a in t s a n d con st it u en -cies in t h e p r ocess of p u r s u in g m u lt ip le fu n c-t ion s. Accor d in g c-t o c-t h e s c-t r en gc-t h s of c-t h ese p r es s u r es, it d evelop s d iffer en t p r ior it ies for fu n ct ion s a n d goa ls t o b e p u r s u ed . T h e im p or -t a n ce a n d p r ior i-t y of fu n c-t ion s m ay va r y w i-t h t im e a n d a cr oss cir cu m st a n ces. A sch ool m ay b e a s su m ed t o b e effect ive if it is aw a r e of
d iffer en t p r es su r es fr om in t er n a l a n d ext er -n a l e-n v ir o-n m e-n t s a -n d ca -n sh ow a d a p t a b ilit y a n d fl exib ilit y t o set u p a n ew p r ior it y for fu n ct ion s t o b e p u r su ed in t h e com in g t im e. It p u r su es dy n a m ic effect iven ess a m on g t h e m u lt ip le a n d con fl ict in g p r essu r es. E ven t h ou gh it ca n n ot m a xim ize t h e effect iven ess on a ll sch ool fu n ct ion s or cr it er ia a t t h e sa m e t im e, it ca n d o it in t h e lon g r u n if it h a s a st r a t e gic m a n a gem en t sy st em a n d lea d er sh ip w it h in t h e fr a m ewor k of sch oolb a sed m a n -a gem en t .
T h e dy n a m ic p er sp ect ive of m a xim izin g effect iven ess on m u lt ip le sch ool fu n ct ion s su p p or t s t h e im p or t a n ce of s ch ool’s or ga n iza -t ion a l lea r n in g a n d d evelop m en -t in a ch a n g-in g en v ir on m en t (Ch a p m a n , 1996). T h er efor e, t h e k n ow led ge of a dy n a m ic p r ocess for m a xi-m izin g xi-m u lt ip le sch ool effect iven ess sh ou ld b e d evelop ed a n d a p p lied t o u n d er st a n d in g a n d m a n a gin g t h e com p lica t ed a n d lon git u d i-n a l i-n a t u r e of sch ool b eh av ior ii-n com ii-n g sch ool r efor m s.
Knowledge of layer management
H olist ic ed u ca t ion is on e of t h e m a jor t en d en -cies in ed u ca t ion a l r efor m s. Recen t ly, sch ool ed u ca t ion is oft en em p h a sized a s a h olist ic p r ocess, in w h ich st u d en t s a s in d iv id u a ls a n d gr ou p s ca n r eceive m a xim u m op p or t u n it y t o lea r n a n d d evelop t h em selves t o b e a ll r ou n d p er son s. Bu t , u n for t u n a t ely, t h e con ce p t of t h e w h ole sch ool a p p r oa ch a n d h ow it ca n m a xim ize lea r n in g op p or t u n it ies a r e oft en u n clea r. T h er e is a n u r gen t n eed for n ew k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k of t h e w h ole sch ool ed u ca t ion .
T h is k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k ca n b e d evel-op ed fr om t h e con ce p t of layer m a n a gem en t p r op osed in m y p r ev iou s p a p er s (Ch en g, 1996a ; 1996b ; 1996e). T h e sch ool p r ocess m ay b e d iv id ed in t o t h e follow in g p r oces ses: m a n -a gem en t p r ocess – -a p r oces s of p r in cip -a l -a n d a d m in ist r a t or s in fl u en cin g t ea ch er s in t er m s of lea d er sh ip, m a n a gem en t , a n d st a ff d evelop -m en t ; t ea ch in g p r ocess – a p r ocess of t ea ch er s in fl u en cin g st u d en t s in t er m s of lea d er sh ip, t ea ch er -st u d en t s r ela t ion s h ip, a n d t ea ch in g st r a t e gies; a n d lea r n in g p r ocess – a p r ocess of st u d en t (s) lea r n in g in t er m s of cogn it ive, a ffect ive, a n d b eh av ior a l ch a n ge a n d d evelop -m en t . F r o-m t h is lin e of t h in k in g, sch ool p r ocess ca n b e illu st r a t ed by a m a t r ix in clu d -in g t h r ee d im en sion s : ca t e gor ies of a ct or s, levels of p r oces ses, a n d d om a in s of effect s. Ba sed on t h e m a t r ix of p r ocess, a b r oa d er con ce p t – layer m a n a gem en t – ca n b e in t r o-d u ceo-d t o m a n a ge t h e sch ool p r ocess. T h e m a t r ix of p r oces s ca n b e se p a r a t ed in t o a ct or layer s su ch a s t h e a d m in is t r a t or layer, t h e t ea ch er layer, a n d t h e s t u d en t layer, a s sh ow n in F igu r e 2. T h e m a n a gem en t u n it of sch ool Environmental Analysis
Mo nito r and Analyze the e xte rnal & inte rnal e nviro nme nts that c an influe nc e the sc ho o l
Planning:
Re fle c t o n the re sults o f an e nviro nme ntal analysis Plan strate gie s o f sc ho o l ac tio ns: Sc ho o l c harte r & plan
1 . Establish sc ho o l dire c tio n: Missio n & go als 2 . De ve lo p sc ho o l po lic ie s: Po lic y manual 3 . Establish instruc tio nal & func tio nal pro grams: Pro gram plans
4 . Budge t: Allo c atio n o f re so urc e s 5 . Se t pro c e dure s: Pro c e dure manual
Structuring:
Arrange wo rk and o rganize manpo we r to imple me nt pro gram/ sc ho o l plans & ac hie ve o bje c tive s
1 . Establish o rganizatio nal struc ture 2 . De line ate re latio nships
3 . Cre ate po sitio n de sc riptio ns 4 . Establish po sitio n qualific atio ns
Staffing:
De ve lo p c o mpe te nt staff fo r po sitio ns: Staff de ve lo pme nt 1 . Se le c t
2 . Orie nt 3 . Train 4 . De ve lo p
Directing:
Bring abo ut purpo se ful ac tio n to ward o bje c tive s 1 . De le gate
2 . Mo tivate 3 . Co o rdinate 4 . Manage diffe re nc e s
M onitoring & Evaluating:
Ensure quality & pro gre ss to ward o bje c tive s 1 . Establish Re po rting Syste ms:
Staff appraisal, program evaluation, & sc hool evaluation 2 . De ve lo p pe rfo rmanc e indic ato rs & standards 3 . Me asure re sults; Staff re po rt, pro gram re po rt,
sc ho o l pro file
4 . Take c o rre c tive o r de ve lo pme ntal ac tio ns: De ve lo pme nt plans
5 . Re ward
Imple me nting
Partic ipatio n, Le ade rship
Figure 1
[
management Process at the school level Process at the group level management Process at individual level
Environmental • Reflec t on the sc hool’ s internal and external • Reflec t on the group’ s internal and external Environmental • Reflec t on personal attributes and external
analysis environment c ruc ial to its existenc e environment c ruc ial to its existenc e analysis environment
• Foc us on its strength, weakness, opportunities and • Foc us on its strength and weakness, • Foc us on personal strength, weakness, threats as a sc hool opportunities and threats as a group opportunities and threats as a member in
the group and sc hool
Planning and • Develop sc hool mission, polic ies and ac tion plans • Develop group’ s direc tion and ac tion plans Planning and • Develop personal goals and ac tion plans
structuring • Negotiation and c ompromise in dec ision c onsistent with the sc hool’ s mission and affiliating within the frames delineated by the • Foc us on struc tural issues suc h as organizational polic ies sc hool and the group
struc ture, budgeting and alloc ation of resourc es • Negotiation and c ompromise in dec ision • Foc us on the tec hnic al aspec ts of planning • Foc us on issues like work designs, relationship and designing of educ ational programs
delineation, and c ommunic ation flows • Establish affiliation and relationship with c olleagues, students, parents and c ommunity
Staffing and • Rec ruitment and deployment of staff • Deployment of members Developing and • Develop personal professional c ompetenc e
directing • Foc us on human resourc e aspec ts of management • Foc us on professional development of directing • Alloc ate personal resourc es and attention suc h as staff development and delegation members and group learning • Foc us on self-learning
Implementing • Ensure the availability of nec essary resourc es, • Ensure the proper alloc ation of resourc es Implementing • Ensure effec tive use of alloc ated resourc es guidanc e and support • Ensure mutual guidanc e and support among • Frequent rehearsal
• Foc us on issues related to ac tual launc hing of members to fac ilitate effec tive problem solving • Foc us on personal performanc e in the all programs • Foc us on program implementation by the group program or group
M onitoring and • Set up work standards, monitor and c ontrol system • Set up work standards for members, self- M onitoring and • Set up personal performanc e standards
evaluating for groups or programs monitor and regulate work pac e of the group evaluating • Self-observation, monitor and regulate
• Monitor and regulate pac e of program implementation • Evaluate performanc e of the group as a whole personal work pac e
• Evaluate the whole sc hool performanc e • Foc us on ensuring the group performanc e in • Evaluate personal performanc e • Foc us on ensuring quality of programs delivering programs • Foc us on ensuring personal performanc e • Use information to initiate next c yc le of sc hool • Use information to initiate the next c yc le of • Use information to initiate the next c yc le
self-management group self-management of individual self-management
Yin Che o ng Che ng The kno wle dge base fo r re -e ngine e ring sc ho o ls: multiple func tio ns and inte rnal e ffe c tive ne ss
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 5 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 0 3 –2 2 4
p r oces s is b a sed on t h e layer in st ea d of t h e cell of t h e m a t r ix. T h is ca n p r ov id e a m or e com p r eh en sive u n it t o t h in k a b ou t t h e h olis -t ic n a -t u r e of -t h e s ch ool p r ocess. In or d er -t o m a xim ize t h e effect iven es s of t h e t ea ch in g p r oces s, t h e t ea ch er layer s h ou ld in fl u en ce t h e s t u d en t layer a s a w h ole (Ch en g a n d Ts u i, 1996). In ot h er wor d s, t ea ch er s a t d iffer en t levels sh ou ld in fl u en ce t h eir s t u d en t s t h r ou gh a ll t h eir b eh av ior a l, a ffect ive a n d cogn it ive p er for m a n ces. T h ey in fl u en ce n ot on ly in d iv id u a l st u d en t s bu t a lso s t u d en t s in gr ou p s a n d t h e w h ole s ch ool. T h ey in fl u en ce n ot on ly s t u d en t s’ b eh av ior s bu t a lso t h eir a ffect ive a n d cogn it ive d evelop m en t s. T h is is h olist ic t ea ch in g. Sim ila r ly, t h e a d m in is t r a -t or layer s h ou ld in fl u en ce or su p p or -t -t h e t ea ch er layer a s a w h ole in or d er t o m a xim ize t h e effect iven ess of m a n a gem en t p r ocess. Develop m en t cycle in t er m s of s t a ff d evelop -m en t p r ogr a -m s or st u d en t a ct iv it ies
p r ogr a m s ca n b e es t a blis h ed in ea ch layer t o su p p or t a d m in ist r a t or s, t ea ch er s, a n d s t u -d en t s t o lea r n a n -d -d evelop con t in u ou s ly a t
in d iv id u a l, gr ou p, sch ool levels ( Ch en g a n d Ta m , 1994).
T h e a b ove layer con ce p t ca n b e u sed a s t h e bu ild in g block for r e-en gin eer in g s ch ools t o p r ov id e h olist ic ed u ca t ion a n d m a xim ize op p or t u n it y for effect ive t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g. T h er efor e, in on goin g a n d com in g ed u ca t ion a l r efor m s, t h e k n ow led ge of layer m a n a gem en t sh ou ld b e u sefu l for sch ools t o con -d u ct h olist ic e-d u ca t ion a n -d p r ov i-d e q u a lit y ser v ices.
Knowledge of congruence inschool Co ngrue nc e in sc ho o l pro c e ss
T h e sch ool p r ocess gen er a lly in volves n u m er -ou s s t a ff a n d st u d en t s in m a n a gin g, t ea ch in g, a n d lea r n in g a t d iffer en t levels. Con gr u en ce in in t er n a l sch ool p r ocess is cr it ica l t o t h e effect iven ess of sch ool fu n ct ion in g. It ca n r ed u ce t h e in t er n a l w a st a ge a n d n e ga t ive con fl ict a n d p r od u ce t h e n ecessa r y sy n er gy t o su p p or t t h e sch ool t o d evelop a n d p u r su e n ew a n d m u lt ip le sch ool fu n ct ion s. Ma n y ed u ca -t ion a l r efor m s of-t en ign or e -t h e con gr u en ce
I
G
W
Administrator Layer
Source: Adapte d fro m Che ng, 1 9 9 6 a p.8 9 C
B
A
Managing Le ading
Teacher Layer
C
B
A
Te ac hing Le ading
I
G
W
Student Layer
C
B
A
Le arning
I
G
W
Educ atio n Outc o me
P T S
– Administrato r De ve lo pme nt Cyc le fo r Within-Laye r Co ngrue nc e
– Te ac he r De ve lo pme nt Cyc le fo r Within-Laye r Co ngrue nc e
– Stude nt De ve lo pme nt Cyc le fo r Within-Laye r Co ngrue nc e Be twe e n-Laye r Co ngrue nc e
P = Princ ipal/ administrato r A = Affe c tive Do main I = Individual Le ve l
T = Te ac he r
B = Be havio ral Do main G = Gro up Le ve l
S = Stude nt C = Co gnitive Do main W = Sc ho o l Le ve l
Figure 2
