THE STUDY OF MEANING EXTENSION OF COMPOUND BOY
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
NINA MEGAWATI Student Number: 06 4214 087
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
i
THE STUDY OF MEANING EXTENSION OF COMPOUND BOY
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
NINA MEGAWATI Student Number: 06 4214 087
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
iv
MOTTO
YOUR WORKS SPEAK FOR YOU
LABOR OMNIA VINCIT
,
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writer believes that she would not be able to finish this undergraduate thesis if there were no supports from others. She is very glad to express her gratitude to those who have been so kind to her during her study in the college. She would like to dedicate her gratitude to particular names below.
First of all, she thanks God for all blessings and balance goodness and badness to learn the writer about life and how to appreciate them all.
She thanks her advisor Dra. B. Ria Lestari, M.S, for all kindness and patience in guiding her in the process of finishing this thesis, for the advice to develop her analysis, and for the information on the reference books. She would also express gratitude to her co-advisor Linda Valentina Budiman, S.S., M.Hum for her willingness to read and review this thesis. She thanks also to Drs. Hirmawan Wijanarka M.Hum, Ni Luh Putu Rosiandani S.S, M.Hum, RM. Hary Susanto S.J and all of her lecturers and also USD staffs who always support and guide her during her study in Sanata Dharma University.
vii
She would like to thanks all friends; Sukma, Gali, Yesti, Paul, Lisa, Jonathan Brown, Christine Brown, Mando, Anton, Leni, Wayne, Ank, Andien, Anggie, KKR Family and Bintang Family, for all loves, supports and kindness in many ways.
Finally, she would like to express her gratitude to all co workers, bosses, companies that have been giving her lots of opportunities to work and at the same time motivate her to finish the duty that she has started, her study.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE
PAGE
i
APPROVAL PAGE
ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE
iii
MOTTO PAGE
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
vi
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
viii
TABLE OF TABLES
x
ABSTRACT
xii
ABSTRAK
xiii
CHAPTER
I:
INTRODUCTION
1
A.
Background
of
the
Study
1
B.
Problem
Formulation
4
C.
Objectives
of
the
Study
4
D.
Definition
of
Terms 4
CHAPTER
II:
THEORETICAL
REVIEW
6
A.
Review
of
Related
Studies
6
B.
Review
of
Related
Theories 8
ix
CHAPTER
III:
METHODOLOGY
17
A.
Object
of
the
Study 17
B.
Approach
of
the
Study
19
C.
Method
of
the
Study 21
CHAPTER
IV:
ANALYSIS
24
A. Semantic Features of Lexicon
Boy
24
B. The Additional Semantic Features of Lexicon
Boy
in
the
Field
of
Profession
31
C. Meaning Extension Development of Lexicon
Boy
56
CHAPTER
V:
CONCLUSION
66
BIBLIOGRAPHY
69
APPENDICES
72
Appendix 1 The Definitions of Each Compound Words
Boy
x
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 4.1.Semantic Features of Lexicon
Boy
25
TABLE 4.2.Conceptual Meaning of
Boy
28
TABLE
4.3.
Barrow
boy
29
TABLE
4.4.Bus
boy
31
TABLE
4.5.Cabin
boy 32
TABLE
4.6.Office
Boy 34
TABLE
4.7.Paperboy
35
TABLE
4.8.Bell
boy
37
TABLE
4.9.Delivery
boy
39
TABLE
4.10.Cowboy
42
TABLE
4.11.Plough
Boy
43
TABLE
4.12.Ball
boy
45
TABLE
4.13.Waterboy 47
TABLE
4.14.House
boy
49
xi
TABLE
4.16.Pin
boy
53
TABLE
4.17.Grocery
boy
54
TABLE 4.18.Classification of Job & Profession (Occupation)
62
xii
ABSTRACT
NINA MEGAWATI. The Study of Meaning Extension of Compound Boy Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2011
This thesis presents a componential analysis of the semantic features and shifting meanings of the lexicon boy. Boy is defined as a very young man. The shifting meaning of boy can be seen after it is compounded and formed into new compound words. These compound words include: barrow boy, bus boy, cabin boy, office boy, paperboy, delivery boy, house boy, bell boy, cowboy, plough boy, water boy, grocery boy, pin boy.
This research has three objectives. Firstly, to show the semantic features of lexicon boy. Secondly, this research attempts to show semantic features that result from compounding boy in various fields of profession, as well as the shifted features of age from [-adult] into [±adult] that extend its meaning. Thirdly, this research compares compounding words containing boy and man based on findings about the etymology of boy and the development of its meaning from past to present.
The writer applies Linguistic theories that cover the theory of word meaning, the theory of synonym and componential analysis theory to support the data analysis. The writer uses Mentalistic Aprroach by Ogden and Richard in the form of a table with semantic component compositions; reference as the common concept assumed by people, referent is the description of symbol (word) that is shown in a form of picture and componential analysis to support the analysis and its findings.
xiii
ABSTRAK
NINA MEGAWATI. The Study on Meaning Extension of Compounds Boy Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Sanata Dharma University, 2011
Skripsi ini membahas tentang analisis komponen fitur semantis dan pergeseran makna kata boy dimana secara independen kata boy berarti anak laki-laki dan man laki-laki dewasa. Pergeseran makna kata boy dapat dilihat pada saat kata boy disandangkan dengan beberapa kata lain sehingga terbentuk kata majemuk baru. Kata-kata majemuk tersebut adalah back room boy, barrow boy, bus boy, cabin boy, office boy, paperboy, delivery boy, house boy, bell boy, cowboy, plough boy, water boy, grocery boy and pin boy
Penelitian ini memiliki tiga tujuan. Pertama adalah untuk menunjukkan temuan perbedaan fitur semantis kata dasar boy sehingga dapat terlihat perbedaan mendasarnya. Kedua, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menunjukkan temuan hasil analisis fitur semantis kata boy setelah disandangkan dengan kata-kata baru dan membentuk kata majemuk dibidang profesi serta perubahan fitur semantis usia yang menimbulkan pergeseran makna kata boy dari [-adult] menjadi [+adult].Yang ketiga adalah menunjukan perbandingan kata-kata majemuk profesi yang disandangkan dengan kata boy berdasarkan temuan definisi dasar makna kata boy dan sejarah perkembangannya dari masa lalu dan perkembangannya hingga masa kini.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of Study
Interaction and socialization has been preserved as one of basic needs of
human beings. They need to communicate with others to deliver their ideas and
understand each other. Language is one of the media to deliver the ideas. Human
being needs to know and understand what language is and how it works. Aitchison
defines language as the specialized sound signaling system which seems to be
genetically programmed to develop in humans to communicate (Aitchison,
2003:13). This definition is also supported by Ronald Wardhaugh as he defines as
a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Wardhaugh,
1977:3).
Language and meaning are inseparable and connected to each other. The
basic similar understanding of meaning is required to achieve a good way of
communication. Therefore, people have to learn about meaning and it can be
developed. Kreidler stated that Language is creative, the communication is not
restricted to a fixed set of topic; human being constantly produce and understand
new messages in response to new situations and new experiences (Kreidler,
1998:7). It means that language has always undergone the improvement in line
People learn that there are three parts of language to be learned through;
phonology, syntax, and semantics. Phonology is the study of sound pattern.
Syntax is the study of the arrangement and the forms of words. Semantics is the
study of meaning. (Aitchison, 1982:17)
The writer studies semantics because the writer is interested to examine the
meaning as the basic knowledge and to observe the meaning development from
past to present. In this research, the writer analyzed the list of words that
compounded with the lexicon boy. It is interesting because the meaning was shifted from time to time and it influences the sense of the word boy till nowadays. Lexically, the word boy means a young man. In semantic features it will be determined as [-adult]. However, after the word boy was compounded, such as paperboy for example, the meaning is shifted become [+adult]. The word boy undergoes the significant derogatory changes. This thought arouse based on the
finding of the fact about some elder people who were working as paperboy
discussed in an article in New York Times which is titled Men and Women Replacing the Paperboy Tradition on March 1, 1992. The writer found an interesting part about a 40-year-old-man working as a paperboy. Though adults work as paperboy, the term does not change into paper-man or paper-seller for example. Based on this finding the writer starts to question and find the reason
how does the meaning shift and how does it develop. This fact has guided the
writer to find the reason why it happens. Hopefully this study will be useful for
The writer used semantic features to identify the features and compare the
differences of both lexicon boy. Componential analysis is also applied to compare the lexicon as the root and after the lexical boy is compounded. To analyze the components relations of lexicon boy, the writer used the study of synonyms. Synonyms are words that have one or more meaning in common and are
interchangeable within certain context (Dees, 2003: 3). The synonymous words
share the common meaning.
The writer decided to limit the problems to avoid broadened problems. The
writer selected the basic definitions of lexicon boy in the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. It states that the meaning of the word boy is a young male person (Hornby, 1995:131) and the word man is an adult male human being (Hornby, 1995:711). The writer decided to analyze fifteen selected words
B. Problem Formulation
As guidance, the writer has formulated three problems in order to reach
deeper understanding about the compounding words boy and the meaning extension.
1. What are the semantic features of the lexicon boy?
2. What are the additional semantic features of lexicon boy in the field of profession?
3. How does the meaning of the lexicon boy extend?
C. Objectives of the Study
The objectives of study of the semantic analysis are to answer the
problems formulated. First, is to show the semantic feature of the lexicon boy before compounded and second is to show the additional semantic features of the
D. Definition of Terms
This research uses several terms to examine the problems and support the
findings. Some terms are defined below.
1) Compound Word In Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, Richard, Platt and Weiber defined it as a combination of two or more words which functions as a
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
This chapter contains the review of related studies and the review of
related theories. The reviews of related studies present the studies that had been
done by the previous writers and it is related to the study of semantics. The review
of related theories presents the list of theories that applied to support the writer’s
analysis.
A. Review of Related Studies
1. An undergraduate thesis written by Sigid Bintoro entitled The Semantic Features of English Words Meaning “Good Looking”.
Bintoro did the study of semantic features of English words meaning “Good
Looking”. The objectives of his study were to find the definitions of the English
adjective meaning and the semantic features of the words.He found fifteen words
Bintoro’s study emphasizes his analysis on the synonym of ‘good looking’.
His study contributed the writer to analyze other different words with more
various data. It is about the semantic features. In this thesis, the writer attempts to
examine the compounding boy. He used componential analysis approach to guide the analysis. The writer of this thesis also uses componential analysis for the
approach to examine the semantic features and the meaning extension.
There are some differences between Bintoro’s study and this thesis. First, the
writer of this thesis attempts to analyze the words by comparing both lexicon boy meanings before and after compounded then examine the meaning extension
based on the semantic features shift, while Bintoro’s study only analyze ‘good
looking’ synonymous term without examining the meaning extension.
2. An undergraduate thesis written by Dwi Ratri Indriyana entitled The Semantics and Syntactic Features of the Intransitive Verb Related to Visual Sense.
Indriyana in this thesis focuses her analysis on the semantic features of the
intransitive verb related “to visual senses”. Her objectives were to find out the
words denoting visual sense, to find the semantic properties of these words and to
know the syntactic properties of the verbs. In her thesis, she finds sixty three verbs
denoting visual activities that twenty four of them are in the intransitive verb
squint, stare, and watch. She used four dictionaries to define these verbs; Meriam Webster’s College Dictionary Unabridged, Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture, Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary. She also used these dictionaries to find the semantic features of each verb. Besides, she also used the
syntactic features to show the similarities and the differences that were owned by
the verbs.
In her thesis, Indriyana focuses on the intransitive verbs related “to visual
senses” to be analyzed and finds the denotative visual sense. This analysis
contributes the writer of this thesis to analyze the compounding boy using the semantic features and componential analysis.
There are several differences between Indriyana’s study and this thesis
study. First, this thesis analyzes the lexicon boy before and after it is compounded and the meaning extension, while Indriyana emphases her analysis on the
synonymous words.
B. Review of Related Theories
The writer applied several theories that relate to the thesis topics and to
support the analysis on this thesis. The theories applied can be explained in the
1. Theory on Linguistic Meaning.
Semantics is the study of meanings. Fromkin, Blair, and Collins states that
semantics concerns with the meaning of words, and the meaning relationships
among words, phrasal, or sentential meaning. (2000:151).
a. Theory on Word Meaning
Richard, Platt, and Weiber define word as the smallest linguistic units
which can occur on its own in speech or writing (1985:311). This statement is also
supported by Nida as she states that a single word may have a number of quiet
different meanings. However, in most instances, a word has central meaning from
which a number of other meanings are derived. There will be a connection
between each of these meanings and the apparent central meaning (1975:11).
The same word may have different meanings, and different words may
have closely related meanings. For instances, the adjectives beautiful, pretty, and
graceful have the same meaning as good looking (Bintoro, 2007:31). There are
four types of relations between related meanings of different terms according to
Nida. They are: inclusion, overlapping, complementation, and contiguity
(1975:15). Inclusion is the meaning of one word that is included into meaning of
another word. For example, the meaning of poodle is included into the meaning of dog; the meaning of dog is included into meaning of animal. Overlapping is the meaning of one word that can be substituted with other words in certain context
without significant change in the conceptual content of an utterance, for example,
opposite meaning with another word meaning, such as good/bad, beautiful/ugly, much/little, and many/few. Contiguity is the components/features of meaning that represent the relations between closely related meanings. It means that although a
word has similar meaning with others, there is a distinct feature to differentiate
with others. For example, walk, run, hop and skip (1975:18). These verbs share the features of movement by an animate being by using the parts of body but they are
different in the number of part of body that is used and the order of movement.
i. Theory on Synonym
Words that have the same meaning in a given context are called synonym. In
another word, the words are called synonym when they have the same value for all
of their semantic features, for example man and boy, big and large.
There are three kinds of synonym in language system; near synonymy,
partial synonymy, and absolute synonymy. Near synonymy are the expressions
that are more or less similar but not identical in meaning (Lyons, 1995:60). In
other words, near synonym is the words that have the same concepts but it cannot
substitute each other for examples, mist and fog, stream and brook, dive and plunge, man and boy. Man and boy both refer to male human. The meaning of boy includes the additional semantic properties ‘youth’ and the meaning of ‘man’
includes the semantic properties ‘adult’. Partial synonymy is the expressions that
have a part of meaning because there is a shifting of meaning. It means two words
that have similar meaning. Sometimes both can be used in certain context such as
expression identical in all their condition, semantically equivalent on all
dimensions of meaning, descriptive and non descriptive, and synonymous in all
contexts (Lyons, 1995:61). For example, the word sofa and couch both refer to the same object and both have the same semantic properties.
ii. Theory on Componential Analysis
Kempson mentions that “componential analysis is used to give an explicit
representation of the systematic relation between words, not as unitary concepts
but as complexes made up of components meaning” (1989:18). For example,
spinster has the components [+FEMALE], [+NEVER MARRIED], [+ADULT], [+HUMAN]. This kind of analysis is used to account for the kinship terminology
in various cultures. However, componential analysis is not limited to kinship
terms; it can be applied in many areas of the vocabulary. It is used to contrast the
component. For example, the differences of the word murder and kill (1989:18). Murder has the component of [+intention], [+causation], and [+death]. Kill has the component of [+causation] and [+death]. Besides, there is another component that
can be shared. The word murder has another component of [+human].
To establish a word meaning, some ways can be conducted, including by
looking at its semantic features. Semantic features itself, according to Radford,
Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen, and Spencer, in Linguistics: An Introduction, should be decomposable (1999:200). It means that the meaning of a word should be
separated or broken up into constituent parts, especially as parts that build up the
fundamental distinction lies on the gender, whether it is male or female, and the maturity, whether it is adult or non-adult. Thus the semantic features of these
words are ram –[male,adult…], ewe –[female,adult…], lamb –[none, adult….].
These features express the semantic relation between different lexical items that
have different main meaning.
To understand the degree of similarity between words, it can be easily
measured by the number of features they have in common. According to Parker in
Linguistics for Non-Linguists, Lexical decomposition is a method that is used to
characterize the sense/meaning of words (1986:30). There are several advantages
of using lexical decomposition. It is easy to characterize the meaning of additional
words by adding features and it can explain the intuitions as English speaker such
as man and boy (1986: 30). Both are more closely related than the meaning of man and girl, man and boy have the same value [+male]. Meanwhile, man and girl do not have the same value. Although the linguists have used lexical decomposition,
they cannot account exactly how many and which features constitute the universal
set of semantic features.
Nida states that componential analysis does not attempt to describe in detail
all the various features or characteristics of each type of related event, but only to
point out the distinctive contrast which serve to separate one meaning or set of
meanings from the others (1975:60-61). For example, the English words whisper, murmur (1975:61). The verb whisper has semantic features [+verb,-musical pitch, - voices] and the verb murmur has semantic features [+verb,-musical
because both words still produce the voice. Thus, the right component is
[±loudness].
iii. Theory on Meaning Extension
Adrian Akmajian, Richard A. Demers, Robert M. Harnish in Morphology and Semantic Theories, state that speakers often take an existing one and extend its meaning in a recognizable way when a language does not seem to have just the
right expression for certain purposes. The language does not add a new word as
such, but since a word is being used in a new way, the language has been
improved, as if a new word has been added.
According to Akmajian, meaning extension can be classified into three parts;
Metaphorical Extension, Broadening, and Narrowing. Metaphorical Extension
dealing with some certain objects, ideas, or events from one situation but it is
described with words from a different situation of objects ideas and events. For
example, such as: Let me chew on these ideas for a while. The word chew is not literally defined as we are eating and chew foods with our teeth. However, the word chew is indeed taken from the literal meaning of chewing activity. The other samples are: They just wouldn’t swallow that idea. 3) She’ll give us time to digest that idea (86:1984).
Metaphorical extension is not the only instrument that can be put to new uses
jazz musicians and referred to a specific artistic style of jazz. As the time changes,
the word can be applied to another thing, not just music; and it is not only refers to
a certain music genre or style, but it is a general term that indicate the approval of
the thing being questioned. (87:1984)
Conversely, the use of a word can narrow as well. A typical example is the word meat. At one time in English it meant any solid consumable food (a meaning that persists in the word nutmeat), but now it is used to refer only to the edible solid flesh of animals. (87:1984)
b. Theory of Phrasal Meaning
i. Theory of Compounding
Adrian Akmajian, Richard A. Demers, Robert M Harnish in Morphology and Semantic Theories states that “new words can be formed from already existing words by a process known as compounding, in which individual words
can be “joined together” to form a compound word” (71: 1984). For example, the
noun ape can be joined with the noun man to form the compound noun ape-man; the adjective sick can be joined with the noun room to form the compound noun sick-room; the adjective red can be joined with the adjective hot to form the compound adjective red-hot.
Generally speaking, Akmajian states that the part of speech of the whole
compound, which is also called as the head of the compound (Selkirk, 1982). For example if (the “head”) of the compound high chair is a noun (the noun chair) then the whole compound high chair is also a noun. If the member of the compound overdo is a verb (the verb do); therefore the whole compound is also a verb”. (71: 1984)
Heinz J. Giegerich in Lexical strata in English: morphological causes, phonological effects argues that the difference between compounding and noun phrase can be seen on the stress. Fore-stressed is indicated as compounding related
to the semantic attribution and end-stressed is indicated as noun phrase that related
to the syntactic attribution. Giegerich stated that NN compounds are said to have
fore-stress, NN phrases end-stress. His statement was also supported by
Bloomfield (1933: 228). For example: paper boy (‘pеΙpə(r)bοΙ) and bellboy (‘belboΙ). Both are considered as compound because they are fore-stressed.
Giegerich stated that NN compounds are said to have fore-stress, NN phrases
end-stress. His statement was also supported by Bloomfield (1933: 228)
C. Theoretical Framework
The objectives of this thesis are to show the meaning of the lexicon boy before and after compounded and to analyze the meaning of the compounded
word boy and man and see how the meanings are extent.
Three questions presented in problem formulation are the main guideline for
before compounded which can be seen through the semantic features analysis. The
second question is to examine the additional semantic features of the word boy in the field of profession after compounded and the third is to explain the
development of the shifted meaning of the words boy. The writer attempted to apply theories on linguistic meaning that consist of word meaning, componential
analysis and theory on meaning extension to answer the questions in problem
formulation.
The writer applies the theory on word meaning, componential analysis to
examine the first and second problem formulations and also theory on
compounding to determine the meaning of the lexicon boy before and after it compounded. To explain the third question, the writer applies the theory meaning extension, the theory of semantic change and theory of word formation to see how
the meaning of lexicon boy is extent.
The review of related studies is functioned as the ground for further analysis
to describe the semantic features of English lexicon containing meaning boy. The review of related studies has also functioned as the guideline to direct the writer to
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This chapter consists of three parts including the object of the study, the
approach of the study, and method of the study. The object of the study discusses
the object being analyzed, which are the lexicon boy. The approach of the study contains the approach that is used to analyze the object and the method of study
presents data collection and data analysis.
A. Object of The Study
The data in this study are the lexicon boy and the compounds. They are 15 compounds; barrow boy, bus boy, cabin boy, office boy, paperboy, delivery boy, bell boy, cowboy, plough boy, errand boy, groceries boy, ball boy, water boy, house boy, pin boy.
. Therefore, only these lexicons are analyzed. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary states the meaning of boy as “a young male person” (Hornby AS, 1995:131) and man as “an adult male human being (Hornby AS, 1995:711). This
definition is also supported by other definitions. Collins COBUILD English Dictionary for Advanced Learners third edition states a boy is a child who will grow up to be a man (2001:174) and a man is an adult human being (2001:940).
a male servant, especially a personal servant; often used of Orientals or Africans.
(1996:160) and Man as: 1) a member of the genus, Homo (family hominidae class
mammalia), the most highly developed of the primates, 2) the human race, 3) an
adult male of the human kind (1996:772). This definition is also closely related to
the definition of the word boy found in Webster’s Third New International Dictionary which defined boy as; a) a male servant, b) one who does light work especially in the service fields, c) a male member of a race felt to be inferior
(1976: 264). In Random House Webster’s College Dictionary also stated that boy as: 1) a male child, from birth to full growth. 2) a young man who lacks maturity,
judgment (2001:160) and man as: 1) an adult male person, as distinguished from a
boy or a woman (2001: 805). To examine the sense changes from past to present,
the writer also consider the definition based on the terminology. In The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology the word boy is defined as male servant; youth or man of low estate; ‘fellow’, ‘knave’ XIII; young male child XIV; native servant,
negro slave XVII. (1966:112). The definitions are limited to lexicon boy and some
other words compounded with it.
The change in meaning sense instantly influences the meaning shift
resulting from the changes of semantic features. The complete definitions show
the distinctive elements more clearly, since both words share the similar semantic
features and they are relatively closed, such as [+HUMAN], [+ANIMATE],
[+MALE]. There is only one component significantly different which is the
when they are applied in some various contexts. It can be seen from the
compound boy.
The writer used The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Compass to collect the data in a form of CD software and compiled them in a list. The writer also uses
the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Collins COBUILD English Dictionary for Advanced Learners third edition, the new International Webster’s Comprehensive Dictionary of the English Language, Random House Webster’s College Dictionary because they are effectively used for learners and easier to understand.
B. The Approach of the Study
This thesis focuses its subject on semantics which is the study of meaning.
Therefore, the writer applies semantics as the approach, specifically Mentalistic
approach. Wagiman Adisutrisno in Semantics and Introduction to the Basic Concepts explains that the Mentalistic approach to meaning in language views meaning as concepts, ideas, images, and associations which are stored in the
long-term memory of the human brain; meaning is inside the brain. According to
Carroll (1986:257), concept, ideas, images, and associations are derived from
mentalese-the mental representation of world reality. (2008: 8)
The mentalistic approach to the study of meaning in language centers on
human brain. Ogden and Richards (in Parmer, 1986; in Kreidler, 1998) describe
their mentalistic approach to meaning in the following diagram.
Reference
Symbol Referent
Between the symbols and its referent in the world there is mediation of
concept in the human mind which is called reference. According to the Mentalistic approach to meaning in language, meaning involves the relationship among the
words in the language, their referents in the real world, and their references in the
long-term memory of the human brain. (2008: 10-11)
This approach is suitable to analyze the data since it is related to meaning
that closely related to the symbol and the referent such as providing pictures as the
symbol of each compounding words and determine the semantic features to show
the reference (concept) and the referent (word).
The data, in this case the compounding words, are analyzed further after
finding the components: reference (concept), referent and the symbol (word) then
compare it with the definition. From this examination, the writer finds the
meaning of each word and the finding guides the writer to analyze how are the
C. Method of the Study
1. Data Collection
In writing this thesis, the writer conducts some relevant procedures or
steps. The first step defines the lexicon boy based on dictionaries. The second step selects the compound boy from The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Compass. The writer only selects some of relevant compounding as the data. Only those
which are related to the analysis are chosen. The writer conducts double checking
to make sure that the lexical definitions are correct and compare them with
peoples’ ideas to define those words, because most of language case shows that
what preserve on peoples’ mind sometimes can be different. Therefore, the writer
consider this case as one of the first assumption as the bridge to guide into
problem formulations. To select the lexicon, the writer defined each of lexical by
finding at Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Compass. Based on that selection, the writer can decide which word could be considered. The third step,
the writer uses five dictionaries to define the nouns and compares them. They are;
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Collins COBUILD English Dictionary for Advanced Learners third edition, the new International Webster’s Comprehensive Dictionary of the English Language, Random House Webster’s College Dictionary. The writer decides to use those five dictionaries because they are commonly used by the learners, the words are easier to find and to understand, and
also the definitions complete each other. Based on the definitions, the writer is
able to conclude the features, the writer also examines carefully the sentences used
from dictionaries and articles in website. The destination websites that are used
were www.nytimes.com and www.yahoonews.com. They include the articles as the examples and evidence.
2. Data Analysis
In analyzing the data and answering those three problem formulations, the
writer conducts the following steps. First problem formulation contains the
description of semantic features of the lexicon boy. To answer that first question, the writer applies the componential analysis to show the semantic features of
lexicon boy. The second problem formulation contains the description of additional semantic features of lexicon boy in the field of profession. To answer the second problem formulation, the writer examines the list of compounding boy, by applying the componential analysis to re-identify the semantic features. All of
the compounds form some lexicon in the field of profession such as paperboy, office boy, bellboy, etc. By applying componential analysis for both problem formulations, the writer can show the semantic features changes of lexical boy. The changes explain how the meaning can be extent. Therefore it answers the
third problem formulation which is how the meaning of the word boy isextent.
In relation to the method described above, it can be concluded four things:
First, the objects of this study are some lexicons compounded with the word boy. There are fifteen lexicons that are selected and analyzed which compounded with
Third, the collection of data was taken from the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Compass. The writer selects the lexicon boy and attempt to examine the meaning shift through the data gathered based on the dictionaries. Next, the writer attempts to find the definitions of selected lexicons based on five
dictionaries followed with finding out the semantic features and finally describing
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS
This chapter is divided into three sub parts. First, it contains the semantic
features of English lexicon boy. Second, it consists of the examination of some lexicon compounded with boy. It shows some significant changes mainly on the semantic features. The findings on semantic features guide the writer into deeper
analysis related to the development of the meaning from past to present and how it
influences the meaning of compound boy. The details are analyzed more on the third sub chapter. On the third sub chapter, the writer describes more about the
meaning shift of lexical boy based on the etymology and how it is used recently.
A. Semantic Features of Lexicon Boy
Through decades, people distinguish the idea of Boy based on the aspect of age. People will spontaneously restore their ideas with the picture or
representation of a young man who are believed less than 20 years old, immature,
and still living with parents when someone mentions the lexical boy. Most of the representations are to indicate the physical or biological distinction. However, in
some linguistic cases it does not always work that way, for example when the
To give more explicit representation of lexicon boy, we can use componential analysis to examine the semantic features of lexicon boy. Componential analysis is used to give an explicit representation of the systematic
relation between lexicons, not as unitary concepts but as complexes made up of
components meaning. (Kempson, 1989:18) This kind of analysis is used to
account for the kinship terminology in various cultures as presented in the form of
table below.
No Lexicals
Semantic Features
1 Boy
[+human] [+male] [-adult] [-mature]
Table 4.1. Semantic Features of the Lexicon Boy
Based on the table 4.1 above, it is shown that the lexical boy share components such as [HUMAN], [MALE], but they do not share the [ADULT] and
[MATURE] components. Those components are general ideas that represent the
lexical boy on peoples’ minds. However, some other aspects such as social constructions or history may influence the meaning of the lexicon. People believe
that boy is a human being, the biological or physical sex is identified as male, it is believed that most boys age are less than 20 years old. That is the reason why they
are not called as adult, which implies that they have lack of maturity. There is no
specific numeral limit to determine on what certain age a boy is supposed to be
In Merriam-Webster’s Medical Dictionary, adult is defined as 1) one that has arrived at full development or maturity especially in size, strength, or
intellectual capacity, 2) a human male or female after a specific age (as 18 or 21)
and in Collins English Dictionary – Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition is defined as 1) a person who has attained maturity; a grown up, 2) a mature fully
grown animal or plant, 3) law compare infant a person who has attained the age of legal majority (18 years for most purposes).
Based on those definitions, being ‘adult’ is legally started from the age 18
or 21. It means that a [human], [male] under that age is identified as boy. Nevertheless, in the development of the meaning of boy, social construction may influence the meaning shift through some processes. The additional meanings of
boy can be seen based on the definitions gathered from dictionaries.
Lexically, the word boy means a young man. In semantic features it is determined as [-adult]. In the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, it is stated that the meaning of the word boy is a young male person (Hornby, 1995:131) and the word man is an adult male human being (Hornby, 1995:711). This definition is also supported by other definitions. Collins COBUILD English Dictionary for Advanced Learners third edition states a boy is a child who will grow up to be a man (2001:174) and A man is an adult human being (2001:940). The new International Webster’s Comprehensive Dictionary of the English Language defines boy as: 1) a male child; lad; youth; son 2)comrades; fellows 3) A male
servant, especially a personal servant; often used of Orientals or Africans.
mammalia), the most highly developed of the primates, 2) the human race, 3) An
adult male of the human kind (1996:772). This definition is also closely related to
the definition of the word boy found in Webster’s Third New International Dictionary which defined boy as; a) a male servant, b) one who does light work especially in the service fields, c) a male member of a race felt to be inferior
(1976: 264). In Random House Webster’s College Dictionary also states that boy as: 1) A male child, from birth to full growth. 2) a young man who lacks maturity,
judgment (2001:160) and man as: 1) an adult male person, as distinguished from a
boy or a woman (2001: 805). To examine the sense changes from past to present,
the writer also consider the definition based on the terminology and etymology. In
The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology the word boy is defined as male servant; youth or man of low estate; ‘fellow’, ‘knave’ XIII; young male child XIV;
native servant, negro slave XVII. (1966:112).
Those definitions mentioned above develop the meaning of boy and man. In the real world they form a universal concept of referent that a boy is an animate, human being, immature, very young, dependent, unemployed, less than 18 years old and a man is an animate, human being, mature, adult, independent, employed, more than 25 years old. Those referents are universally accepted and mostly the same all over the world as represented more detail in the Conceptual Meaning
Table 4.2 Conceptual Meaning of Boy
Based on table 4.2 above, we can also see the differences from the
description of referent and the reference of boy. From the referent or picture provided above we can identify the physical appearance differences between boy such as height, weight, length, etc.
The examination on table 4.2 above represents the literal meaning of
lexicon boy. The real meaning is known as denotative meaning. If denotative meaning of Boy presented the universal concept as mentioned on table 4.2 above, connotative meaning of both lexicon Boy may change from one time to another and it may also differ from one society to another. This meaning shift also
happened to the lexicon boy when it is compounded with other lexicon and forms some new compound words such as paper boy, office boy, bell boy, etc. Most of the compound forms the compounding words in the field of profession. The
meaning shift of compounding words causes significant influence of the changing
B. The Additional Semantic Features of the Lexicon Boy in the Field of Profession.
As mentioned on the previous sub chapter, the meaning of the lexical boy can change after it is compounded and it may also influence the changing of
semantic features of boy itself. There are 15 compounds of boy that are selected to be analyzed using componential analysis. They are barrow boy, bus boy, cabin boy, office boy, paperboy, delivery boy, house boy, bell boy, cowboy, plough boy, water boy, ball boy, errand boy, grocery boy and pin boy.
In this analysis, componential analysis analyzes four categories. They are
definitions, referent, reference, and semantic features that are presented in form of tables.
1. Barrow Boy
The compounding word Barrow boy in Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary is defined as a man or boy who sells things from a barrow in the street. Therefore the semantic features are
Referent Reference Semantic Features
Human being,
Table 4.3 above shows a sample picture or referent of compounding word
Barrow boy shares the components [+human], [+male], [±adult]. Barrow boy shows similar change on a component of the lexicon boy after it is compounded, from [-adult] shifted into [±adult] which means there is a significant
development of the adults that obtain this job. The shifted feature of the
compounding word barrow boy also influences the broadened sense of lexicon boy. The changes can be shown on the references that headline the general idea of some profession compounded with lexical boy in this part is barrow boy. The general ideas of some profession compounded with lexicon boy depicted from the reference (table 4.3) are; male, both young and adult, working on the roadside, it
is assumed as not prestigious job, conducting simple task job, it is not academic
qualifications job therefore mostly lower educated, lower waged, lack of official
status, outdoor job. The distinctive feature of compounding word barrow boy compare to the other compounds is base on the field of profession such as working
at the barrow on the roadside which also represent the category of outdoor job.
Based on the explanations above it is concluded that Barrow boy is included as less prestigious job because the job require less qualification such as
an academic certificate or specific expertise to obtain the job and producing low
salary.
2. Busboy
The compounding word Busboy is defined as; 1. a waiter's helper in a restaurant or other public dining room. It is believed the origin of word is about
1910–1915. In American society the word bus short for omnibus waiter's helper.
defined as a waiter’s assistant. This term is also used in Canada. Therefore, the
semantic features are
Referent Reference Semantic Features
Human being,
Table 4.4 above shows a sample picture or referent of compounding word
Bus boy. The compound word bus boy shares several referents such as; human being, male, both young and adult, working at the restaurant or café, waitress
assistant.
Bus boy shares the components [+human], [+male], [±adult], [+working at restaurant], [+waitress assistant]. Similar with compounding words barrow boy, it is shown that there is a semantic feature change on a component of the lexicon boy after it is compounded, from [-adult] shifted into [±adult] which means there is a
significant development of the adults that obtain this job.
compounding word bus boy compare to the other compounds is base on the field of profession such as working in a restaurant or a café which means it is classified
as an indoor job. Based on the overall explanations it is concluded that Bus boy is included as less prestigious typical indoor job one. It is concluded as less
prestigious job because the job requires less skill to do the job. It does not need an
academic certificate or specific expertise to obtain the job and offer low salary.
3. Cabin boy
The compounding word cabin boy in Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary is defined as a boy or young man who works as a servant on a ship. Therefore, the semantic features are
Referent Reference Semantic Features
Human being, male, both young and adult, working in a ship as a servant
[+human] [+male] [±adult]
[+working in a ship] [+servant]
Table 4.5 Cabin boy
Table 4.5 above shows a sample picture or referent of compounding word
cabin boy. The compounding word cabin boy shares several referents such as; Animate, human being, male, both young and adult, working in a ship as a servant.
Cabin boy shares the components [+human], [+male], [±adult]. Based on the data analysis on the table above, it is shown that there is a semantic feature
shifted into [±adult] which means there is a significant development of the adults
that obtain this job.
The shifted feature of the compounding word cabin boy also influences the sense. The shifted feature broadens the sense of lexicon boy. It can be shown on the references that headline the general idea of some professions compounded
with lexicon boy in this case cabin boy.
The general ideas of some professions compounded with lexicon boy depicted from the reference table are; male, both young and adult, working in a
ship as a servant. The distinctive feature of compounding word cabin boy compare to the other compounds is base on the field of profession such as working on the
ship and conducted outdoor on the sea as a servant. Based on the overall
explanations it is concluded that cabin boy is included as less prestigious job. Based on the analysis above it is concluded that cabin boy is included as less prestigious job because the job require less skill to do the simple task. It does
not need an academic certificate or specific expertise to obtain the job and it offers
lower salary.
4. Office boy
Referent Reference Semantic Features
Table 4.6 above shows a sample picture or referent of compounding word
Office boy. The compounding word Office boy shares several referents such as; male, both young and adult, working at office, conducting simple task job.
Office boy shares the components [+human], [+male], [±adult], [+simple task job], [+working at office]. Office boy shows similar change on a component of the lexical boy after it is compounded, from [-adult] shifted into [±adult] which means there is a significant development of the adults that obtain this job. Based
on the analysis on the table above, it is shown that there is a semantic feature
change on a component of lexicon boy after it is compounded, from [-adult] (table 4.2) shifted into [+adult] (table 4.6) of compounding word Office boy.
The shifted feature of the compounding word Office boy also influences the senses. The result of the shifted feature shows significant changes that
broadened the senses. It can be shown on the references that headline the general
idea of some profession compounded with lexicon boy in this case Office boy. The general ideas of some profession compounded with lexicon boy depicted from the reference table are; male, both young and adult, working at office, conducting
The distinctive feature of compounding word office boy compare to the other compounds is base on the field of profession. In this case is less prestigious
profession, such as working at the office as cleaning service. Though this job is
conducted in office, the office boy has simple task or job description such as cleaning the room, coffee making, and turn on the lights, some works that does not
require any expertise or high intellectual capacity.
Based on the overall explanations it is concluded that Office boy is included as less prestigious job because the job require less qualification, such as
an academic certificate or specific expertise to obtain the job.
5. Paperboy
The compounding word paperboy in Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary is defined as a boy who delivers newspapers to people’s houses. Therefore the
semantic features of the compounding are
Referent Reference Semantic Features
human being, male, both young and adult, working in a daily newspaper, delivering newspaper
[+human] [+male] [±adult]
[+delivering newspaper]
Table 4.7 Paperboy
Table 4.7 above shows a sample picture or referent of compounding word
Paper boy shares the components [+human], [+male], [±adult], [+delivering newspaper]. Paper boy shows similar change on a component of the lexicon boy after it is compounded, from [-adult] shifted into [±adult] which means there is a significant development of the adults that obtain this job. Based
on the analysis on the table above, it is shown that there is a semantic feature
change on a component of the lexicon boy after it is compounded, from [-adult] (table 4.7) shifted into [+adult] (table 4.3) of compounding word paper boy.
The shifted feature of the compounding word paper boy also influences the senses of lexicon boy. The result of the shifted feature shows significant changes that the sense is broadened. It can be shown on the references that headline the
general idea of some profession compounded with lexicon boy in this case paper boy. The general ideas of some profession compounded with lexicon boy depicted from the reference table are; male, both young and adult, working in daily
newspaper, delivering newspaper to houses.
The distinctive feature of compounding word paper boy compare to the other compounds is base on the field of profession, in this case less prestigious
profession, such as delivering newspaper to houses which also categorized as
outdoor job. The component of outdoor job and doing simple task indicates the
category of less prestigious job. Most of the outdoor job does not require physical
performance such as neatness, clean, dandy, or fashionable outfits such as
Based on the overall explanations it is concluded that paper boy is included as less prestigious job because the job require less qualification, such as
an academic certificate or specific expertise to obtain the job.
6. Bellboy
The compounding word bellboy is defined as a bellhop, which it is originally used since 1830–1840 till now on. Based on the Random House Dictionary 2010,
Bellboy is also called bellhop, a man or boy employed in a hotel, club, etc, to
carry luggage and answer calls for service page; porter. Based on Collins English
Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009, the compounding word
bellboy consist of bell + boy which is originally known in 1851 as a ship's bell-ringer and later on 1861 it develop into a hotel page based on the Online
Etymology Dictionary. Therefore the semantic features are
Referent Reference Semantic Features
Animate, human
Table 4.8 above shows a sample picture or referent of compounding word
both young and adult, working in a hotel or club, carrying luggage and answer
calls for service page.
Bell boy shares the components [+human], [+male], [±adult],[+working in a hotel], [+carrying luggage], [+answer calls]. Bell boy shows similar change on a component of the lexicon boy after it is compounded, from [-adult] shifted into [±adult] which means there is a significant development of the adults that obtain
this job. Based on the analysis on the table above, it is shown that there is a
semantic feature change on a component of the lexicon boy after it is compounded, from [-adult] (table 4.8) shifted into [+adult] (table 4.3) of
compounding word bell boy.
The shifted feature of the compounding word bell boy also influences lexicon boy senses. The result of the shifted feature shows significant changes that broadened the senses. It can be shown on the references that headline the general
idea of some profession compounded with lexicon boy in this case bell boy. The general ideas of some profession compounded with lexicon boy depicted from the reference table are; male, both young and adult, working at hotel, not prestigious
job, simple task job, not an academic qualifications job, lower educated, lower
waged, lack of official status, indoor job.
The distinctive feature of compounding word bell boy compare to the other compounds is base on the field of profession, in this case less prestigious
profession, such as working on the hotel and conduct simple task such as carrying
guests’ suitcases and parking the guests’ cars. The components provide above
prestigious job because the job requires less qualification, such as an academic
certificate or specific expertise to obtain the job.
7. Delivery boy
The compounding words Delivery boy is defined as a boy or youth who delivers merchandise for a store, as to the homes or offices of customers. Based on the
Random House Dictionary, Delivery boy is defined as someone employed to make deliveries.
Referent Reference Semantic Features
human being, male, both young and adult, working in a restaurant, delivering meals
[+human] [+male] [±adult]
[+working in a restaurant] [+delivering meals]
Table 4.9 Delivery boy
Table 4.9 above shows a sample picture or referent of compounding word
Delivery boy. The compounding word Delivery boy shares several referents such as;male, both young and adult, working in a restaurant, delivering ordered meals.
Delivery boy shares the components [+human], [+male], [±adult], [+working in a restaurant], [+delivering meals]. Delivery boy shows similar change on a component of the lexicon boy after it is compounded, from [-adult] shifted into [±adult] which means there is a significant development of the adults
that obtain this job. Based on the analysis on the table above, it is shown that there
compounded, from [-adult] (table 4.9) shifted into [+adult] (table 4.3) of
compounding word Delivery boy.
The shifted feature of the compounding word delivery boy also influences senses. The result of the shifted feature shows significant changes that broadened
the senses. It can be shown on the references that headline the general idea of
some profession compounded with lexicon boy in this case delivery boy. The general ideas of some profession compounded with lexicon boy depicted from the reference table are; male, both young and adult, working in a restaurant, delivering
ordered meals.
The distinctive feature of compounding word delivery boy compare to the other compounds is base on the field of profession, in this case less prestigious
profession, such as delivering pizza or other meals to customers’ houses which
also categorized as outdoor job. The component of outdoor job indicates the
category of less prestigious job and also conducting simple task.
Most of the outdoor jobs do not require physical performance such as
neatness, clean, dandy, or fashionable outfits such as business suits.
Based on the overall explanations it is concluded that delivery boy is included as less prestigious job because the job require less qualification, such as
an academic certificate or specific expertise to obtain the job.
8. Cowboy
about most of his work on horseback, 2) a man who exhibits the skills attributed to
such cowboys, especially in rodeos, 3) Chiefly Northeastern United States a
reckless or speedy automobile driver. 4) Informally used to address a reckless or
irresponsible person, especially a show-off or one who undertakes a dangerous or
sensitive task heedlessly for example; they put foreign policy in the hands of
cowboys. 5) During the American Revolution, the compounding words cowboy is also used to address a member of a pro-British guerrilla band that operated
between the American and British lines near New York City. Based on the
Random House Dictionary 2010, compounding words cowboy is known in 1725, which is defined as "boy who tends to cows," from cow + boy. Sense in Western
U.S. is from 1849; fig. use by 1942 for "brash and reckless young man" as an
adjective meaning "reckless," from 1920s. In Online Etymology Dictionary,
Cowhand is first attested 1852 in American English. Cow poke in 1881. It was
originally restricted to the cowboys who prodded cattle onto railroad cars with
long poles. In Dictionary of American Slang and Colloquial Expressions by
Richard A. Spears Fourth Edition, the compounding word cowboy is defined as a reckless and independent man, a reckless driver. Also a term of addressing, for
example: “Come on, cowboy, finish your coffee and get moving”. Therefore the
Referent Reference Semantic Features
Table 4.10 above shows a sample picture or referent of compounding word
cowboy. The compounding word cowboy shares several referents such as;male, both young and adult, working on the ranch or farm, prodded cattle.
Cowboy shares the components [+human], [+male], [±adult], [+working at the ranch], [+prodded cattle]. Cowboy shows similar change on a component of the lexical boy after it is compounded, from [-adult] shifted into [±adult] which means there is a significant development of the adults that obtain this job. Based
on the analysis on the table above, it is shown that there is a semantic feature
change on a component of the lexical boy after it is compounded, from [-adult] (table 4.10) shifted into [+adult] (table 4.3) of compounding word cowboy.
The shifted feature of the compounding word cowboy also influences senses. The result of the shifted feature shows significant changes that broadened
the senses. It is shown on the references that headline the general idea of some
profession compounded with lexicon boy in this case cowboy. The general ideas of some profession compounded with lexicon boy depicted from the reference table are; male, both young and adult, working in a ranch and prod the cattle.
profession, such as working at the ranch and tend cattle which also categorized as
outdoor job. The component of outdoor job indicates the category of less
prestigious job. Most of the outdoor jobs do not require physical performance such
as neatness, clean, dandy, or fashionable outfits such as business suits.
Based on the overall explanations it is concluded that cowboy is included as less prestigious job because the job require less qualification, such as an
academic certificate or specific expertise to obtain the job.
9. Plough boy
The compounding word plough boy in Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition is defined as 1. a boy who guides the animals drawing a plough. In WordNet by Princeton University it is defined as a boy who leads the
animals that draw a plow. It is also synonymous with plowboy. Therefore the semantic features of compounding word Plough boy are
Referent Reference Semantic Features
Animate, human being, male, both young and adult, working in farm , drawing a plough
[+human] [+male] [±adult]
[+working in a farm] [+drawing a plough]
Table 4.11 Plough boy
Table 4.11 above shows a sample picture or referent of compounding word
Ploughboy shares the components [+human], [+male], [±adult], [+working in a farm], [+drawing a plough]. Plough boy shows similar change on a component of the lexical boy after it is compounded, from [-adult] shifted into [±adult] which means there is a significant development of the adults that obtain
this job. Based on the analysis on the table above, it is shown that there is a
semantic feature change on a component of the lexicon boy after it is compounded, from [-adult] (table 4.11) shifted into [+adult] (table 4.3) of
compounding word plough boy.
The shifted feature of the compounding word plough boy also influences senses. The result of the shifted feature shows significant changes that broadened
the senses. It can be shown on the references that headline the general idea of
some profession compounded with lexicon boy in this case ploughboy. The general ideas of some profession compounded with lexical boy depicted from the reference table are; male, both young and adult, working on the farm field and
drawing plough. The distinctive feature of compounding word plough boy compare to the other compounds is base on the field of profession, in this case less
prestigious profession, such as working on farming fields, planting crops and
digging the soil which also categorized as outdoor job. The component of outdoor
job indicates the category of less prestigious job. Most of the outdoor jobs do not
require physical performance such as neatness, cleanness, dandy, or fashionable
