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Journal of Education for Business
ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20
Market Meltdown: Recruiting Qualified Business
Faculty
James E. Swartz , Teresa A. Swartz & Priscilla Liang
To cite this article: James E. Swartz , Teresa A. Swartz & Priscilla Liang (2007) Market Meltdown: Recruiting Qualified Business Faculty, Journal of Education for Business, 82:6, 337-342, DOI: 10.3200/JOEB.82.6.337-342
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/JOEB.82.6.337-342
Published online: 07 Aug 2010.
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n2002,theAssociationtoAdvance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB)International,releasedoneof itsmostprofoundandalarmingreports of this generation, one that stated in nouncertaintermsthatuniversitybusi-ness programs are facing a growing dilemma concerning how to address increasing shortages of doctoral-level faculty (Management Education Task Force, 2002). In the ensuing half decade—fully one-third less time than theaverage7.6-yeartermforagraduate studenttocompleteaterminaldegreein business (Management Education Task Force)—the difficulties about which AACSB’sManagementEducationTask Forcevoicedconcernshaveonlygrown worse. This situation has prompted a newroundofsummits,workshops,task forces,discussions,andproposedsolu-tions to address a problem that will soon—if it does not already—threaten the very value of graduate degrees in business(Miller,2006).
Thematterhasgrownsoseverethat oneestimateplacedtheshortfallofdoc-torates of business at 1,150 by 2009 and 2,500 by 2014 (Olian, LeClair, & Milano,2004).
Whenoneconsidersthatalmosthalf of all new doctoral students do not completetheirdegreeprograms(Small-wood, 2004), at least 15% of all who do complete such doctorates choose governmentorindustrycareers,andan even higher percentage matriculate at
unaccreditedinstitutions,theremaining number of eligible students is so thin thatonemightsummarizethesituation asanearcrisis(DoctoralFacultyCom-mission,2003),asNelsonpredictedfor at least one field of business almost a quarterofacenturyago.
Perhaps the most severe shortfall appearsintheareaofaccountingwhen one outlines a supply-versus-demand comparison. Plumlee, Kachelmeier, Madeo,Pratt,andKrull,(2006)expect somewhere between 100 and 200 new PhDsinallareasofaccountingannually in the near term. They also estimated tenuretracksearchesinthefieldjustfor the 2005–2006 academic year at 1,174 tenuretracklines,renderingashortfall approaching90%annually.
Concerns about shortages of qualified tenuretrackfacultyincollegesofbusiness administrationhavenotbeenconfinedto aspecificareaofstudy.Researchershave documentedfacultyneedsininformation systems (Freeman, Jarvenpaa, &Wheel-er, 2000; Frolick, Chen, & Janz, 2005), accounting (Billiot, Glandon, & McFer-rin, 2004; Carpenter & Robson, 2004; Carr, 2005; Plumlee et al., 2006), sup-ply chain management (Golicic, 2004), finance(Hobbs,Weeks,&Finch,2005), marketing (Basil & Basil, 2006; Davis & McCarthy, 2005), and certainly other areas of business education in just this decadealone.Currentpredictionssuggest thatneedsforsuchfacultywillcontinueto grow(Olianetal.,2004).
MarketMeltdown:RecruitingQualified
BusinessFaculty
JAMESE.SWARTZ CALIFORNIASTATE
POLYTECHNICUNIVERSITY PAMONA,CALIFORNIA
I
ABSTRACT.Universitybusiness programshavebeenfacingagrowing dilemmaconcerninghowtoaddress increasingshortagesofdoctoral-level faculty.Inthisstudy,theauthors examinethechallengesfacingbusiness schoolsbecauseoftheidentifiedshort-age,especiallyinlightofpendingbaby boomerretirements.WiththeCalifor-niaStateUniversitysystemandits23 campusesasacasestudy,theauthors usedrecruitmentstatisticstoillustrate thecontinuingshortfallinnewhire success.Theauthorsidentifiedrecruit- mentchallengesandofferedrecom-mendationstoimprovetherecruitment ofqualifiedfaculty.
Keywords:businessfaculty,faculty shortages,recruiting
Copyright©2007HeldrefPublications
TERESAA.SWARTZ
CALIFORNIAPOLYTECHNIC STATEUNIVERSITY
SANLUISOBISPO,CALIFORNIA
PRISCILLALIANG CALIFORNIASTATE
UNIVERSITY–CHANNELISLANDS CAMARILLO,CALIFORNIA
Finally, another source of potential supplyseemstobediminishing:thatof foreignscholarswithdegreesfromrepu-table programs elsewhere. Researchers havedocumentedincreasingshortagesin suchplacesasHongKong(Beck,1990), Australia (Maslen, 1991), and China (Bronson, 1990). Canada appears to be oneofthefewreliablesupplypointsfor sendingterminaldegreeholdersintothe UnitedStates(Lewington,1999).
Perhapsnowherearesuchchallenges more profound than among business programs in the California State Uni- versity(CSU)system,thenation’slarg-est public university system. The CSU systemhas23campusesthatarealready competing for scarce resources. Both (a) cost of living obstacles fueled by a recent boom in land and real estate values and (b) competition from the smaller yet more endowed and pres-tigious University of California (UC) systemhavemadehiringafullcomple-ment of academically qualified profes-sorsinthediscipline—atleastonsome campuses—nearlyimpossible.
Inthisstudy,weexaminedthechal-lengesfacingbusinessschoolsbecause of the identified shortage of new busi-ness faculty with doctoral degrees, especially in light of pending baby boomer retirements. We scanned and assessed the landscape of the CSU’s vast network of campuses for busi-ness educators nationally, and perhaps eveninternationally,togaininsightinto whatAACSBregardsasitsfirstpriority amongadauntinglistofchallengesand concerns(ManagementEducationTask Force, 2002). Our purpose was (a) to examine the challenges currently face for an adequate supply of candidates deemedacademicallyqualified(AQ)by AACSBstandards;(b)toreviewtrends in demand for such a pool within the CSU system; (c) to survey how vari-ousmemberinstitutionshaveaddressed theirneedsforbusinessfaculty;and(d) to review existing solutions, and pos-siblyintroducerevisedsolutionstohelp remedythedocumentedshortfalls.
TheCSUSystemandIts BusinessPrograms
Begunin1857atSanJose,theCSU system has 417,000 students with
46,000facultyandstaff(CSU,2007).It hasstaffacrossalmosttwodozencam-pusesfromHumboldtinthefarnorthof thestatetoSanDiegointhefarsouth. Included in the CSU inventory—in addition to a majority of state univer-sity campuses with various program-matic strengths—are two polytechnic universitiesamongthesixintheUnited the largest with some 61,469 declared undergraduatemajors,or19.06%ofthe entirepopulationofdeclaredundergrad-uatesinthesystem(CSU,2006).There arebusinessfacultyatall23campuses, with Fullerton and San Diego among the largest colleges of business in the West having 7,466 and 6,600 enrolled business students, respectively (CSU, 2006).In2004–2005,allfacultyinthe CSUsystembusiness-relateddisciplines accountedfor1,219full-timeequivalent faculty(FTEF),or8%oftheentirefac-ulty population in the CSU system. In addition,morethanhalfofallfulltime (e.g., economics, public administration, or public policy). For purposes of this analysis,wedidnotincludetheseaddi-tionalunits,exceptinaggregatecampus data under business and management (hereafterreferredtoasbusiness).
Finally, 16 of the 23 campuses are accredited by AACSB, almost half of the33accreditedprogramsintheentire state,whichlists5withintheUniversity ofCaliforniasystemand12elsewhere. Among the 5 programs in California accredited separately for accounting, 2—one at Fullerton and one at San Diego—werewithintheCSUsystem.
TerminalDegreesinBusiness
A review of the origin of a CSU tenure track faculty member’s termi-nal degree reveals some interesting findings. Although a complete census
wouldbedifficulttodetermine,thedata reported in Table 1 reflect the relative backgroundsofthiscohortasmeasured byourreviewingtheself-reportedfacul-tycredentialsofeachbusinessprofessor inthesystem.InTable1,thefirstnum-berindicatesthefacultywhoseterminal degrees are in some cognate area of business, and the second number indi- catesthetotalfacultycount.Weidenti-fied accounting, finance, information systems, marketing, and management as the primary groups. We included operationsmanagement(OM)underthe broadermanagementumbrella.
Accordingtoa2006completereview of Web sites of all business faculty in theCSUwhoself-declaredtheirmajor area of emphasis for terminal degrees, a mere 222 of 397, or slightly more than 55%, earned terminal degrees in some cognate area of business, includ-ing accounting, business administra-tion, business law, finance, informa-tion systems, international business, management,marketing,andoperations management. Among the almost 45% claiming to hold terminal degrees in other areas, most common were eco-nomics, psychology or organizational behavior,andengineering.
With respect to specific fields, the data suggest that information systems (and possibly operations management underthebroaderumbrellaofmanage-ment) might require hiring authorities tocompromisemoreawayfromtermi-naldegreesinbusiness.Incontrast,the fields of finance and accounting have two of the highest concentrations of
TABLE1.Self-ReportedTerminal DegreesinBusiness
Program na %
Accounting 30of48 62.5 Finance 52of78 66.7 Information
systems 26of59 44.1 Marketing 43of66 65.1 Management 42of80 52.5 Total 222of397 55.9
a
Thefirstnumbercorrespondstothenum-ber of faculty whose terminal degree is in the business area identified and the secondnumberrepresentsthetotalfaculty countsforthearea.
faculty with terminal degrees in those areasofinquiry.
However, researchers might surmise thatbecauseofthespecificityofaccount-ingandfinance,hiringauthoritiessuch as deans and provosts are less likely to authorize tenure track appointments for faculty candidates whose degrees are in areas other than accounting or finance,witheconomicsdoctoratesthe mostcommoncompromise.
The data stated earlier should be viewed as categorical because it mere-ly assesses those who have reported terminal degrees of origin. It may be safetoconcludethatsearchcommittees and administrators within the system have turned to a measure of compro-mise by hiring faculty in related, and sometimes somewhat unrelated, areas tostaffmanytenuretracklineswithper-sonswhomightbejudgedacademically qualified—assuming their publication records are sufficiently active and cur-rentintheirteachingfields.
CSUFacultyRecruitments
Our review via telephone inquiry of each of the 23 campuses revealed an emerging picture that was similar to the one that we predicted with critical shortagesofappropriate,doctoral-level faculty, as evidenced by unfilled ten-ure track faculty positions. According to cumulative data from all units in the system in Table 2 there were 162 authorized tenure track recruitments in business disciplines during the 2005– 2006 academic year and 53 of them werecarriedoverfromunfilledsearches during the 2004–2005 academic year
cycle. Overall, administrators hired 93 new tenure track faculty, filling 57% ofthe2005–2006recruitments.Current projections indicate 137 tenure track searchesinbusinessdisciplinesforthe 2006–2007 recruiting cycle, with 64 linesfromthepreviousyear.
Finance and accounting were respon-sible for the most unfilled lines for the 2004–2005 recruiting cycle (19 each), with those two disciplines amounting to two thirds of all vacant searches. In the 2005–2006recruitingcycle,management fared best with 72.3% of all searches filled, whereas accounting improved sig-nificantly at 58.3% of all searches filled. Again, accounting and finance had the mostunfilledlines.Businessunitscarried forward66unfilledlinesfrom2005–2006, 8 more than the previous year, but over-all conducted a slightly more successful recruiting campaign, with 57.4% of all lines filled, in comparison to barely half in2004–2005.Asbusinessadministrators look ahead to 2006–2007, finance (36), accounting(35),andmarketing(35)domi-natetheirbusinessfacultyneeds.
CaliforniaChallenges
Although California’s pleasant Medi-terranean climate draws many people whohailfromelsewhere,itisnoteworthy thatgoodweatherfrequentlycannotout-weigh various obstacles to luring quali-fied talent into the system, notably the extremelyhighcostofhousingwherein, for example, the median cost per unit in relatively modest communities of small-scale homes, such as Santa Monica and SantaBarbara,exceeds$1.1million.That high cost of housing can be hard on the
newlymintedPhDswhoaresaddledwith student loan repayments and little cash reserves. Overwhelmingly, California is themostexpensivestateforhousinginthe nation—with some estimates approach-ing 300% higher than any other state. Soextremeisthedisparityinnationwide housing costs that one report located 23 of the 25 most expensive median-priced homesasinCaliforniacommunities,with Newport Beach the leader at a median of $1.3 million (“Pricey Homes,” 2006). Further, California has the top 11 least affordable markets for homebuyers and 28ofthetop50leastaffordablemarkets (Wasserman,2006).
Particularly vexing for the college deans who must recommend starting appointmentsalariesisarelativelyfixed wagestructurethatacollectivebargain-ing agreement between the California FacultyAssociation,asaunionmedia-tor,andtheStateofCaliforniagoverns. For entry-level assistant professors, the state-mandated range is $45,156– $84,912 with performance bonuses A newcontractagreement,ratifiedinMay 2007, provided a 3% general salary increase for all faculty retroactive to July1,2006.Thesalaryfiguresreported herearepriortothenewcontract.
Yet,tenuredfullprofessorswithser-vice and performance bonuses reach a maximum of merely $97,778 (CSU, 2005), which, at highest salary sug-gestedforthemostmeritorious,senior professor, regardless of discipline, is more than $22,000 less than one sur-veyofthemeanstartingannualsalaries fordoctoralstudentsintheeasier-to-fill areaofmarketing(Close,2006).
TABLE2.BusinessRecruitmentbyDiscipline
2004–2005 2005–2006 2006–2007
Continuedincluding Newlines
Program Unfilledlines Filledlines Unfilledlines Filled% conversions projected Totallines
Accounting 19 21 15 58.3 14 21 35 Finance 19 17 18 48.6 17 19 36
IS 2 5 7 41.7 5 12 17
OM 2 2 3 40.0 2 4 6
Marketing 12 14 13 51.9 17 18 35 Management 4 34 13 72.3 11 12 23 Total 58a 93 69 57.4 66 86 152
Note.IS=InformationSystems;OM=OperationsManagement.a59of117recruitmentlineswerefilledfor50.4%overallsuccessrate,2004–2005.
In higher demand areas such as accounting, reported entry-level salaries reach into the $140,000 range (Gulla-palli,2006)andsomeplacenewfinance professorshigherstill.Eveninthefieldof marketing—whichhaslongbeenregard-ed as perhaps the second easiest field tofill,behindgeneralmanagement—an entry-level mean salary package above $120,000fornewappointeeshasraised newchallenges(Close,2006).
SomeRemedies
Neither academics nationally nor those within CSU have been observ-ing business faculty needs idly. From initiativeswithintheCSUOfficeofthe Chancellortothoseimplementedlocal-ly,administratorshavetried,withsome success, to meet the growing needs of risingstudentbodyranksandthegreater communitiesthateachcampusserves.
Among national programs, perhaps the one with the most visibility is the PhD Project, which has tried to attract brightyoungminority(exclusivelyAfri-canAmerican,HispanicAmerican,and NativeAmerican) candidates into doc-toralstudy.Begunin1994,whenthere werefewerthan300tenuretrackfaculty fromtheseunderrepresentedgroups,the program has cultivated more than 500 additionalnewfacultyinslightlymore than a decade. However, this cohort remains an overwhelming minority among the more than 26,000 business facultyinthenation(Mangan,2006).
For its part, AACSB sponsors a Bridge Program in which senior-level business executives are identified and encouraged to begin academic careers to help business units gain or reaffirm accreditation.Thiscohortdoesnotoffer AQcertification,butprofessionalquali-fication(PQ).Launchedinlate1996— with cosponsorship from the doctoral programs at the University of Califor- nia,Irvine,andtheUniversityofSouth-ern California—this program is likely toproduceapotentiallylargerpipeline than the PhD Project because of the extantsizeoftheavailabletalentpool.
Within the State of California, the CSU Office of the Chancellor offers a forgivablestudentloanprogramtoout- standingstudentswhohavebeenaccept-ed into doctoral programs. The
forgiv-ablestudentloanprogramgrantseachof itsstudentsaloanofupto$10,000per annumfor3years.Theprogramcanbe completelywrittenoff,orforgiveatotal of $30,000 if a newly-minted doctor-ate is hired for a tenure track appoint-mentatanyofthesystem’s23campuses for 5 years, with each year of service countingfora20%writeoff.Although thisprogramhassucceededinattracting minority (70.1% of all accepted) and female(69.1%)studentstothepursuitof doctoraldegrees,theselecteddisciplines have diverged from the greatest needs of the CSU system. By August 2005, 1,501 doctoral students had enrolled in this program. Only 53 students (3.5%) were reportedly completing their doc-toral degrees in a business discipline. Not all of the students had completed theirdoctoraldegreesatthetimeofthe report.Thenumberreferstothosewho participated in the program and were pursuingadoctoraldegreeinabusiness discipline. The greatest component of recipientsofthisprogramisineducation and the humanities, which are regret-tably the areas that have far less pro-nounced needs for tenure track faculty (“ForgivableLoan,”2005).
ImprovingtheOddsofanAQ Hire
Administrators have used the fol-lowing measures only uncommonly on manyCSUcampuses:
EnsureThatMarketingFaculty PracticeWhatTheyPreach
Most faculty within marketing units claim expertise in such areas as tar-get marketing; developing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analyses; and developing objectives and strategies with eventual execution and assessment plans. Yet theirownschoolsandcollegesseemto usefewofthemtorecruitnewfaculty. Getting such faculty involved not only improves the potential deliverables, it allows at least one element within a business unit a certain degree of own-ership of the process. Such ownown-ership andinvolvementcanleadtorelationship recruiting materials ahead of site visits orevenduringthevisit.Othersprovide genericpackagesthatwerealreadypre-paredbytheuniversityandnottailored to that specific department or tenure tracksearch.Abetterapproachwouldbe foradministratorstodevelopamodular-ized-package of materials, with com-mon university, college, or school level elements that are augmented by cus-tom-designeddepartmentalandpersonal er concentration in certain areas of the state than anywhere else in the nation. Forexample,morepersonsofArmenian sors in many disciplines are foreign-born, it would be wise for recruiting committeeswithinthestatetousethese culturaladvantagestotheirbenefit.
Havingcertainethnicschools,placesof worship, grocery stores, restaurants, and media nearby, particularly for candidates with close-knit family structures, could give a CSU campus an edge that cannot be compensated by higher salaries and reduced teaching loads. Ethnic-recruiting strategies, of course, go far beyond the obviousstepoftakingcandidatestoethnic restaurants(e.g.,takingaKoreancandidate to eat at a Korean restaurant). Recruiting teams would use ethnic recruiting strat-egies only after completing customary screeningmeasuresandnamingfinalists.
DevelopItinerariesThatWorkforBoth HiringUnitandCandidate
Far too often, a finalist’s schedule is filled with obligatory meetings and
presentations, with precious little time forcandidatestoexploreandenjoythe campus and neighborhood and con-template a life-changing move. Some searches are completed in less than a day in an apparent rush to return can-didates to the airport. Because these processes represent one of the most significant investments in the future of an academic unit, it might be more prudent for schools to allow the final-istsanextraday,identifyintereststhat thefinalisthasapartfromtheacademy (e.g., performing arts, nature, sports), and share those special moments for a fewhours.Theminimalcostofanextra night in a hotel and tickets to a show couldincreaserecruitingsuccess.
ConsiderAlternativeFaculty Appointments
In certain extremely hard-to-fill areas, administrators might consider two alternative models apart from the traditionalalternativeofadjunctprofes-sor or lecturer. First, consistent with the AACSB’s Bridge Program intent, schools could create clinical professor positions for exceptional PQ qualified faculty, with publication or research expectations targeted for leading trade and professional publications. Second, administratorsmightseekafewdoctors of education in a business field to fill tenuretrackpositions.
Schoolsmightexpecttheseindividu-als to assume both a high concen-tration of student-oriented tasks, such as advising student organizations, and publishing their own articles in teach-ing or pedagogical outlets. Schools might expect these individuals to assume both a high concentration of student-oriented tasks, such as advis- ingstudentorganizations,andpublish-inginteachingorpedagogicaloutlets. For these alternative faculty appoint-ments, schools would need to clearly outline criteria for tenure and promo-tion.OneCaliforniadoctoralprogram, at the Claremont Graduate University, now offers an executive PhD program for those people who have had more than 5 years of senior-level corporate experience, which is then credited for somewhat reduced research degree requirements.
PressVigorouslyforUniversity CampusestoDevelopLow-Cost HousingAlternatives
Campuses near the ultra expensive Californiacoastfinditparticularlyhard toluretop-tierfacultywithlessthantop tiercompensationpackagesexacerbated bycost-of-livingindicators.Wherestate land is available, university authorities would be prudent to develop cost-con-trolledoptions.Anevenlessexpensive alternative might be to offer modular-ized-housing options on leased land. These modular houses are far more attractiveandcreativethanthedouble-widetrailersofagenerationago.
EngageinDatabaseMiningtoHelp FillParticularlyDifficultLines
Somepositionsareparticularlychal-lenging and remain vacant, largely because of the disparity in compensa- tionandtherelativeshortagesofquali- fiedpersonsinsuchareasastaxaccoun-tancy and sales management. In such instances, it is even more important to engage in some form of database min-ing to uncover those candidates with boththeprizedAQstandardandexper- tiseintheseareas.Sometimestheseper-sonsareinindustry,sometimesatother institutions unaware of alternatives. Alert search committees must uncover theseopportunitiesandbeaggressivein recruitingsuchcandidates.
DoNotInvestinMismatches
Some overly optimistic deans and search committees spend thousands of dollars in wooing faculty candidates who are better suited to other institu-tionswithdifferentmissionsandvalues. Frequently, these candidates become finalistsandthenrejectwhattheymight regardasbackupoffersifbettermatch- inginstitutionsdomaterialize.Theclas-sicexampleisofacandidatewhohasa strong, dominant research orientation and who interviews with a school that has a strong, dominant teaching ori-entation. Less frequently, these candi-datesacceptnonmatchingfitoffersand thenbeginlookingforsomethingbetter 1–2yearslater.Itwouldseemthewiser play to recruit faculty with a primary match on school’s mission and values,
a move that could improve acceptance andretentionpercentages.
DISCUSSION
Inthisarticle,weexaminedonestate university system, CSU, and one cog-nateareawithinit,business.Thisarticle isapotentialmodelforotherstudiesin high-demandareassuchasengineering, nursing, and architecture, at either the systemlevelorthenationallevel.
Anumberofareaslendthemselvesto further investigation and inquiry. For example, one potential follow-up to thisstudywouldbetoinvestigatemore deeply that population with terminal degrees in areas other than business. Inaddition,researcherscaninvestigate whetherthereisanysignificantdiffer- encebetweenfacultyhiringatAACSB-accredited programs versus unaccred-ited units or units that are different onothercriticaldimensions(e.g.,size, funding,location,discipline).Although the focus of this research has been recruiting business faculty, a related factorofequal—ifnotgreater—impor-tanceisthatofretaininggoodbusiness faculty once they are hired. Another usefulresearchstreammightbedirect-edtowardthisend.Thisisparticularly criticalbecausesomedeansandsearch committeesmighthaveunstatedstrate- giesofraidingfacultyfromothercam-puses or augmenting existing salary structures with private funds. Simply put—it is one achievement to land a top-tier stable of faculty hires from prestigiousprogramselsewhere,where- asitisquiteanothertokeepthem,par-ticularlythoseofjuniorrank.
Conclusions
In this study, we tried to uncover some symptoms of and possible cures for the alarming shortfall of qualified businessfacultyusingtheCSUsystem, thenation’slargestuniversitysystem,as acasestudy.
Although there are no easy answers fororshortcutstoaddressingthegrow- ingproblemofrecruitingenoughquali-fied business faculty, it is apparent that decision makers must invest more time andresourcesintothishighlyimportant activitytopreservetheacademicintegri-tyoftheirunits.Wehaveprovidedherein
areviewofthesituationandsomeextant and potential remedies to help address thesedocumentedshortages.
Stakeholders, particularly the deans who pay the recruiting expenses, must carefullycontemplatetheinvestmentin recruiting tenure track faculty. In the current demand-side market, it would beprudenttodomorethanthenormlest positions remain unfilled and must be carriedovertosubsequentyears.More-over, we strongly urge that presidents and provosts throughout the academy lobby for considerably higher percent-agesofdoctoral-forgivableloandollars and other incentives to be invested in doctoral students of business. In addi-tion, recommending authorities should encourage a greater emphasis on cul-tivating outstanding students to pursue doctoraldegreesinbusinessratherthan educationorthehumanities.
Last, search-and-screen committees must be realistic about the talent avail-able and the match or fit between the institution and the candidate.Although the system that we studied represents
oneofthepremiereaggregatestateuni-Dr. James E. Swartz is professor of inter-national business and marketing at the Califor-nia State Polytechnic University, Pomona. He has published in such diverse areas as global risk assessment, multicultural marketing, public policy,leadershipandemergingtrendswithinthe field of integrated marketing communications, and most recently is investigating variances in universitybrandingstrategies.
Dr.TeresaA.Swartzisprofessorofmarketing and former interim dean at the California Poly-technic State University, San Luis Obispo. She has done extensive work in the area of services,
includingprofessionalservices.Hercurrentfocus isoncreativityandcreativeleadership.
Dr. Priscilla Liang is assistant professor of finance at the California State University, Chan-nelIslands.Herresearchinterestisinbehavioral financeandemergingmarketfinance.
The authors thank Regina Eisenbach and Jim Lackritzfortheirhelpfulcommentsonanearlier draftofthisarticle.Inaddition,thisarticlewould not have been possible without the assistance of thebusinessschooldeansandassociatedeansin theCSUsystem.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Teresa A. Swartz, Orfalea CollegeofBusiness,CaliforniaPolytechnicState University,SanLuisObispo,CA93407.
E-mail:tswartz@calpoly.edu
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