The International Journal of Organizational Analysis 2001, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 272–280
PREDICTORS OF ORGANIZATIONAL
CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR AMONG MEXICAN
RETAIL SALESPEOPLE
Matthew S. O’Connell
Select International, Inc.
Dennis Doverspike
Christina Norris-Watts
University of Akron
Keith Hattrup
San Diego State University
The present study examined multiple antecedents of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB) in a Mexican sample of retail salespeople. Although a quota based measure of sales performance was correlated with OCB, the correlation was relatively low. However, personality and attitude measures, with conscientiousness having the cleanest relationship, were significantly correlated with OCB. A situational judgment measure was significantly correlated with sales performance. These findings indicate that individual personality facets may be stable predictors of OCB in Mexican samples.
Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) has received a great deal of attention in scholarly journals over the past several years (Becker & Randall, 1994; George, 1990; Organ, 1997). OCBs can be defined as those behaviors that
The present study attempts to examine the relationship between personality facets and OCB. While past research has typically studied OCB solely from an Anglo-American point of view, this study attempts to examine the correlates of OCB in a Mexican sample. Relationships between OCBs, personality variables, supervisor ratings, and objective work criteria considered in this Mexican sample to examine whether or not the relationships between these predictors and OCB are similar to the relationships evident in prior research. This study also examines current OCB research by examining this behavior within a retail sales context. OCBs directed at the employer or co-workers may or may not influence customer service and hence, sales. It is therefore unclear from past research exactly how OCBs will be related to sales performance.
The quest to identify individual personality traits or abilities that predict OCB has often been met with small or contradictory relationships (Organ & Ryan, 1995). Those dispositional predictors of OCB that do prove significant are often attributed to common method bias as OCBs are usually measured using self-report techniques (Organ & Ryan, 1995). However, when measuring performance rated by another source, personality ratings were found to explain significant incremental variance in these ratings (Mount, Barrick, & Strauss, 1994). Also, OCBs have been found to correlate with six different personality dimensions while task performance correlated only with two different personality dimensions (Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994).
Specific personality variables that may yield a more consistent relationship with OCB include negative affectivity and conscientiousness. George (1990) found that negative affectivity was related to levels of OCB. A negative correlation of r =
–.51 was found between negative affectivity, as defined through obnoxious behaviors, and a contextual performance variable (Borman, White, & Dorsey, 1995). Other personality variables, such as conscientiousness, should also be strongly related to OCB since a growing body of research has found that among the Big Five personality variables, conscientiousness is consistently related to supervisor ratings of performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Tett, Jackson, & Rothstein, 1991). Also, conceptually, the aspects of personality which are usually considered to constitute the second order conscientiousness factors, such as being orderly, punctual, hardworking, having a strong work ethic, etc. (Digman, 1990) overlap well with OCB.
Another major class of predictors of OCB in the workplace appears to be
attitudes toward one’s work or job (Organ, 1997). Job satisfaction, leader
supportiveness, organizational commitment, job involvement and perceived fairness have all been found to predict OCB (Allen & Meyer, 1996; Farh, Podsakoff, & Organ, 1990; Organ & Konovksy, 1989; Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Moorman, & Fetter, 1990). An underlying “morale” factor that predicts OCB is
often the justification used to explain these findings (Organ, 1997). Attitudes toward customers in a sales setting, however, have not been examined as often with respect to OCB. It is expected here that more positive attitudes toward customers,
This study extends previous research by adding a cross-cultural component to OCB prediction in that the study was conducted with a Mexican sample. Mexican culture, while examined in cross culture research (i.e., Hofstede, 1980), is not often
empirically examined with respect to the culture’s impact on work behaviors or
outcomes. Mexican culture has been classified as a culture high in masculinity, low in individuality, high in uncertainty avoidance, and very high in power distance (Hofstede, 1980). However, more important to the study of OCB is the aspect of Mexican culture that views work as a means to an end rather than an end in and of itself (Pelled & Xin, 1997). While the Protestant Work Ethic may drive workers in the United States, Mexican workers may see work as something that needs to be done, but that should not be overly enjoyed (Pelled & Xin, 1997).
Research with samples from the United States has found that the highest correlations between personality factors and contextual performance were found for work orientation (r = .36), dependability (r = .31), internal control (r = .26) and cooperativeness (r = .22) (Motowidlo, Borman, & Schmidt, 1997). Since work orientation is not as central to Mexican culture, and these other personality difference variables take a different role in Mexico as well, it is unclear how personality variables will relate to OCBs in Mexico.
The current study attempts to identify individual difference variables (i.e., personality, ability, and attitude) that may be predictive of OCB for a sample of retail salespeople. Retail salespeople were viewed as an appropriate group for studying OCB because salespeople are compensated for sales and not for OCBs. Therefore, engaging in OCB is a volitional act that may or may not improve actual sales performance. OCBs performed by sales personnel could actually hinder actual sales performance, because these behaviors would be directed toward improving the organization, rather than improving the chance of successfully completing a sale. The relationship between OCB and sales performance then is expected to be low to moderate at best. A stronger relationship is proposed between attitudes toward productive sales behavior and actual sales performance.
If the predictors of OCBs are indeed stable across cultures and if OCBs do lead to improved performance in a sales context, it seems like these predictors would be of great interest to those selecting to fill sales positions within any organization. By using dispositional factors in selection, an organization could secure more OCBs within their organization. Proving that these dispositional factors do indeed predict OCBs in a Mexican sample as well as a sales context is a necessary first step to demonstrating the consistency of the predictors of OCB, and hence proving the usefulness in using these predictors in a selection context across international organizations.
Based upon this previous research, it was hypothesized that:
Hypothesis 1: There would be a low to moderate correlation between supervisor ratings of OCB and actual task performance (i.e., sales performance);
Hypothesis 3: The personality variable of negative affectivity would be negatively correlated with OCB;
Hypothesis 4: An attitude measure of customer service would be positively correlated with OCB; and
Hypothesis 5: The attitude measure of sales judgment would be positively correlated with actual sales performance.
Method
Participants
As part of a concurrent validation study, 112 retail salespeople from 3 stores within a large, metropolitan, Mexican city took part in the study. The stores were large retail department stores. There were 83 females and 39 males. The average age of the group was 24 years, with an average of 2.8 years of experience on the job.
Measures
All measures were developed or adapted for the Mexican sample. Instruments were translated into Spanish and then back-translated.
Conscientiousness Scale. A 23–item conscientiousness scale was developed for the Mexican sample. The 23 statements were rated using a 5–point Likert-type scale. Based upon previous studies, the estimated internal consistency reliability (coefficient alpha) of the scale was .74 (O´Connell, Hattrup, Doverspike, & Blumental, 2000). This scale has been shown to be a valid predictor of performance
in both Mexico and the U.S. (O’Connell, 1998). The score on this scale was the
average score on the items.
Negative Affectivity. An 11–item negative affectivity, which was based on the 21–item scaled developed by Levin and Stokes (1989; George, 1990), was adapted for administration to a Mexican sample. Each item was rated on a 5–point scale. A total score was calculated based upon the average score across the 11 items. Based on previous work with the longer version of the scale, internal consistencies in the mid .80s have been reported (Levin & Stokes, 1989).
Customer Service Attitudes. A 14–item scale was used to measure attitudes towards effective customer service. Each item was rated on a 5–point scale and the total score was based on the average across items. This scale has been shown to be a reliable, with reliabilities ranging from .62 to .71, and a valid predictor of performance in both sales and customer service positions in the U.S. and Mexico
(O’Connell, 1998).
Criteria
OCB. Supervisors evaluated the OCB of the individual salespeople using a
10–item scale that was based upon Becker and Randall (1994). This measure was designed to measure two dimensions of OCB, altruism and conscientiousness. Altruism refers to the process of helping co-workers complete job related tasks, while conscientiousness refers to those behaviors that aid organizational functioning in general. Some of the behaviors associated with conscientiousness include working late on a big project, using time efficiently while at work, and not wasting company resources. Factor analyses based on a sample of over 300 restaurant employees revealed that this two-factor structure was effectively assessed by this measure (Becker & Randall, 1994).
Actual Sales. Information was gathered on the actual sales performance for
each of the salespeople. Each salesperson was assigned a monthly goal by the organization. This goal took into account the store and department in which the salesperson was working. Actual sales for a 3 month time period were compared to
the salesperson’s goal for those months. A ratio of actual sales versus sale’s goal
was calculated for each individual, and an average ratio over the 3 months was used as a measure of sales performance. Previous research (O´Connell et al., 2000) with this index suggested that the estimated reliability was
= .59, which is consistent with the level of reliability found in a meta-analysis of sales data (Hunter, Schmidt, & Judiesch, 1990).Procedure
The measures or scales were included in a computerized assessment battery administered to the salespeople. The full assessment process took approximately two hours.
Results
The results of the correlational analysis can be seen in Table 1, which presents the means, standard deviations and correlations for all variables used in the study. The personality variable of Conscientiousness clearly had the strongest correlation with OCB, followed by Customer Service Attitudes, and then Negative Affectivity scale. The Sales Situational Judgment measure was not significantly related to ratings of OCB. Only the Sales Situational Judgment measure, however, was significantly related to the criterion of Sales Performance.
and again, as predicted, a positive correlation was found, r = .27, p < .01. Finally, Hypothesis 5 predicted a positive relationship between sales judgment and actual sales performance which was confirmed, r = .18, p < .05. In sum, all predicted hypotheses were supported.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for All Variables Used in the Study
Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. CO 4.00 .60 (.83)
2. NA 4.14 .72 .33** (.68)
3. CSA 4.47 .95 .51** –.25** (.63)
4. SJ 4.00 2.36 .08 .06 .05 (.67) 5. OCB 3.57 .58 .35** –.24** .27** .06 (.79)
6. SP 1.02 .31 –.02 –.03 .15 .18* .21* (.63)
Note: N = 112. CO = Conscientiousness scale; NA = Negative affectivity; CSA = Customer service attitudes; SJ = Sales judgment; SP = Sales performance. Reliabilities (alpha) appear in the diagonal. Correlations were not adjusted for attenuation or range restriction.
*p < .05. **p < .01. (two-tailed)
Discussion
This study attempted to examine the relationship between personality variables, customer service attitudes, sales performance and OCBs with a Mexican sample of retail salespeople. The results indicate that OCB and objective sales performance are relatively independent constructs for this sample of retail salespeople, although there is a relationship between the two. This indicates that managers distinguish between these two criteria, and that sales people engage in both types of behaviors. The relationship between the two is moderate, as expected since OCBs may actually interfere with a salesperson's ability to complete sales. In addition to the relatively low correlation between the two variables, different predictor variables emerged as significant predictors of the two constructs. While situational sales judgments were correlated with actual sales performance, they were not correlated with OCBs. Therefore it seems that while sales judgment may predict sales performance, OCBs are predicted more strongly by personality measures.
findings that OCB is affected by mood and job satisfaction (Smith et al., 1983; Organ, 1997) and that personality variables are more predictive for contextual variables than for task performance (Borman & Motowidlo, 1997; Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994). Hence the predictors of OCB appear to be stable cross-culturally, even in a culture with low work centrality values. Although the antecedents of OCB are no doubt numerous and multifaceted, it does appear that stable individual differences in personality, affectivity and attitudes are valid predictors of OCB, and these antecedents consistently predict OCB within a Mexican sample.
This consistency with past research between personality factors and OCB is also important given the sales context of the current study. As hypothesized, an attitude measure of customer service was positively related to OCBs. Therefore, a
salesperson’s positive view of customers may lead him/her to engage in more OCBs. The small relationship between OCBs and actual sales performance is also interesting as one could argue that time spent engaging in OCBs may lead to less time spent focusing on making a sale. While OCBs apparently do not hinder sales performance, they are not strong predictors of it either. A much stronger predictor
of actual sales performance appears to be an individual’s sales judgment ability.
It should be kept in mind that the conceptualization of OCB used in the current study is not the only conceptualization available at present (e.g., Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). What is described here as OCB refers only to consciousness and altruistic behaviors, and the results should thus be interpreted with this limitation in mind. Perhaps other types of OCBs would function differently and relate differently to the other variables studied here. More research is clearly needed to assess how different aspects of OCBs affect performance in an international retail setting.
The selection process employed by managers, then, should take into account these personality measures that predict OCBs in a cross-cultural context. At least for retail salespeople, the personality measures of conscientiousness and negative affectivity are both important in the prediction of future OCBs. Therefore, as well as helping to improve the social-psychological environment of the workplace, OCBs are correlated with customer service performance and hence they are important behaviors for managers to encourage, and select for, in their employees.
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Biographical Note
Christina Norris-Watts
University of Akron Department of Psychology Polsky Building, 3rd Floor 225 South Main St Akron, OH 44325–4301 Phone/Fax: 330–972–7280/5174 Email: cnn@akron.edu
Christina Norris-Watts is currently a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Psychology at
the University of Akron. Her research interests include performance management, extra-role behaviors, and the effects of generational differences at work.
Matthew S. O'Connell is the co-founder and Director of Research and Development at
Select International, Inc. His research includes personnel selection procedures, leadership assessment and theory, computer-based assessment, and cross-cultural psychology.
Dennis Doverspike is Professor of Psychology at the University of Akron. Currently, his
major research interests include safety issues, recruiting, compensation, diversity, and testing and assessment issues.
Keith Hattrup is currently Associate Professor and Coordinator of the Applied Psychology
Program in the Department of Psychology at San Diego State University. His research interests include job performance theory, personnel selection procedures, adverse impact and fairness in hiring, and cross-cultural psychology.
Received: February 12, 2001 Accepted by Daniel J. Svyantek after two revisions: February 1, 2002
ignore this taable
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for All Variables Used in the Study
1 2 3 4 5 6 Mean SD Conscient NA Cust Serv (P)Sales (SJ) OCB Sales Perf.
1 4.00 .60 (.83)
2 4.14 .72 .33** (.68)
3 4.47 .95 .51** –.25** (.63)
4 4.00 2.36 .08 .06 .05 (.67)
5 3.57 .58 .35** –.24** .27** .06 (.79)
6 1.02 .31 –.02 –.03 .15 .18* .21* (.63)
Note: Reliabilities (alpha) appear in the diagonal. All correlations are based on a sample size of 112. Correlations were not adjusted for attenuation or range restriction.
