ABSTRACT
Increasing Students’ Reading Comprehension Achievement By
Using Collaborative Strategic Reading
(a script) By
Ahmad Wibawa
Reading is one of the skills that is very useful as a means of communication between the writer and the reader. A reader uses the skill to get a thorough understanding of what was written by the writer. Meanwhile, it is not limited for only reading the text aloud and then doing nothing, but the important thing in reading is comprehension which is having an intentional, active, interactive process that occurs before and during reading a particular piece of writing. Comprehension itself is a main point and to be a good reader, English language learners must learn it. That was the reason why the researcher took reading and tried to increase the students’ comprehension by a strategy called collaborative strategic reading.
The objective of the research was to find out whether there was any significant
increasing of the students’ vocabulary achivement at the second grade of SMPN 29 Bandar Lampung and what aspect of reading that most affected after being taught by using collaborative strategic reading. The researcher used one group pre test post test design. The sample of this research was VIII A at SMPN 29 Bandar Lampung. The reading comprehension test was used as the instrument of the research. The data was analyzed by using repeated measure t-test in which the significance was determined by p<0.05.
INCREASING STUDENTS’ READING COMPREHENSION
ACHIEVEMENT BY USING COLLABORATIVE STRATEGIC READING AT THE SECOND GRADE OF SMPN 29 BANDAR LAMPUNG
By
AHMAD WIBAWA
A Bachelor Thesis
Submitted as a Partial Fulfillment of The Requirement for S-1 Degree
To
Language and Arts Education Department Faculty of Teacher Training and Education
LAMPUNG UNIVERSITY BANDAR LAMPUNG
ii
CURRICULUM VITAE
Ahmad Wibawa was born in Metro, on June 21st1992. He is the first child of two siblings of a couple, Otong Triono and Sugianti. He has one brother named Ramdhani Ahmad.
He started his education in SDN 3 Gunung Sugih in 1997 and graduated in 2003. In the same year, he continued his Junior High School at SMPN 4 Gunung Sugih in Central Lampung and graduated in 2006. Then, he decided to continue his study at SMAN 1 Terbanggi Besar in 2006 and finished in 2009.
iii
DEDICATION
This bachelor thesis would proudly dedicated to:
iv MOTTO
“
Stay hungry. Stay foolish
.”
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Praise is merely to the Almighty Allah SWT for the gracious mercy and tremendeous blessing that enables me to accomplish this bachelor thesis entitled:
Increasing Student’s Reading Comprehension Achievement By Using Collaborative Strategic Reading at Second Grade of SMPN 29 Bandar Lampung. This bachelor thesis is presented to fulfill one of the requirements in accomplishing S-1 Degree in English Education Study Program, Teacher Training and Education Faculty, University of Lampung.
I would like to express my special appreciation to my advisors, Prof. Dr. Patuan Raja, M.Pd., and Drs. Ramlan Ginting Suka for their valuable assistance and inspiration to the completion of this bachelor thesis. I also would like to express my deep gratitude to my inspiring examiner, Prof. Dr. Cucu Sutarsyah, M.A. who has given me valuable input for the improvement of this bachelor thesis.
Furthermore, I would like to thank to Dra. Astuti, M.Pd, the headmaster of SMPN 29 Bandar Lampung, who has given me permission to do the research, to the 24 students in language program at the second grade of SMPN 29 Bandar Lampung, and to the English teacher in SMPN 29 Bandar Lampung, for the assistance during the research.
The greatest honor and appreciation would be finally dedicated to my beloved parents, Otong Triono and Sugianti. It is truly undoubted that loves, cares, spirits, motivation, patience and willingness to wait for my graduation and timeless prayers during days and nights are everything for me. My sincere love are also dedicated to my beloved brother, Ramdhani Ahmad and my closest friend, Atikah Muthiah, thank you so much from my deepest heart to you all.
vi
Last, my appreciation would be addressed to my business mentors: Anne Ahira, Bramantya Farid Prakosa, Kuncoro, Indra Andriyadi, Jefferly Heliantusonfri, Heru Romadhona, and Mohammad Fahmi. The quality of both business knowledge and mindset that they have given has turned me from a stupid boy into a person that understand how to run the online advertising business as a whole.
Bandar Lampung, April 2015
APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Try Out Test
Appendix 2. Answer Key of Try Out Test
Appendix 3. The Distribution of Students' Try Out Test
Appendix 4. Difficulty Level and Discrimination Power of Try Out Test Appendix 5. Reliability Table of the Try Out Test
Appendix 6. Reliability of the Try Out Test Formula Appendix 7. Pre Test
Appendix 8. Answer Key of Pre Test
Appendix 9. The Distribution of Students’ Score of Pre Test
Appendix 10. Analysis of Mean Pre Test Score Appendix 11. Lesson Plan
Appendix 12. Post Test
Appendix 13. Answer Key of Post Test
Appendix 14. The Distribution of Students’ Score of Post Test
Appendix 15. Analysis of Mean Post Test Score
Appendix 16. Increase of the Students’ Reading Comprehension Achievement in the
Experimental Class
Appendix 17. Students’ Gain between Pre Test and Post Test Appendix 18. Normality Test of Pre Test and Post Test Appendix 19. Random Test of Pre Test and Post Test Appendix 20. Hypothesis Testing
TABLES
GRAPH
APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Try Out Test
Appendix 2. Answer Key of Try Out Test
Appendix 3. The Distribution of Students' Try Out Test
Appendix 4. Difficulty Level and Discrimination Power of Try Out Test Appendix 5. Reliability Table of the Try Out Test
Appendix 6. Reliability of the Try Out Test Formula Appendix 7. Pre Test
Appendix 8. Answer Key of Pre Test
Appendix 9. The Distribution of Students’ Score of Pre Test
Appendix 10. Analysis of Mean Pre Test Score Appendix 11. Lesson Plan
Appendix 12. Post Test
Appendix 13. Answer Key of Post Test
Appendix 14. The Distribution of Students’ Score of Post Test
Appendix 15. Analysis of Mean Post Test Score
Appendix 16. Increase of the Students’ Reading Comprehension Achievement in the
Experimental Class
Appendix 17. Students’ Gain between Pre Test and Post Test Appendix 18. Normality Test of Pre Test and Post Test Appendix 19. Random Test of Pre Test and Post Test Appendix 20. Hypothesis Testing
CONTENTS
1.2 Identification of the Problems ... 4
1.3 Formulation of the Research Questions ... 4
1.4 Objectives of the Research ... 4
2.2 Reading Comprehension ... 8
2.3 Aspects of Reading ... 9
2.4 Recount Text ... 13
2.5 Teaching Reading ... 15
2.6 Strategy of Teaching Reading (CSR) ... 16
2.7 Collaborative Strategic Reading ... 17
2.8 The Advantages and The Disadvantages of CSR ... 18
2.9 Procedure of CSR ... 19
2.10 Theoretical Assumption ... 24
2.11 Hypothesis ... 25
III. METHODS 3.1 Design ... 26
3.2 Population and Sample ... 27
3.3 Variables ... 27
3.5 Research Procedure ... 28
3.6 Try Out Result ... 30
3.6.1 Validity ... 31
3.6.2 Reliability ... 33
3.6.3 Level of Difficulty ... 35
3.6.4 Discrimination Power ... 36
3.7 Scoring System ... 37
3.8 Data Analysis ... 38
3.9 Hypothesis Test ... 39
IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Result ... 41
4.1.1 Pre Test ... 41
4.1.2 Treatment Implementation... 44
4.1.3 Post Test ... 45
4.1.4 Difference of Students’ Reading Comprehension ... 46
4.2 Discussion ... 50
V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION 5.1 Conclusions ... 58
5.2 Suggestions ... 59
1
I. INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses introduction of the research used in this study, that is, background, formulation of the problems, objectives of the research, uses of the research, scope of the research, and definition of terms.
1.1.Background
Reading works as a means of communication between a writer and a reader. By using this skill, the readers try to understand what the idea or the information of a text that wanted to deliver by the writer. Mastering reading skill is also becomes a must for all of the students which are studying English as a foreign language.
In the classroom context of reading comprehension, the students take a role as a reader of the text. It means that they must able to comprehend the reading materials which are shown as the written texts. Furthermore, the students are also purposed to pass the final examinations which are related to reading comprehension achievement. In order to achieve those important goals, the teacher should be successful enough in making the students comprehend the text well.
2
continuously involved the conventional activity in which the students should read the written text individually and the teacher checked their fluency and pronunciation. It seems effective to gain a higher ability in reading a text in the accurate spelling; but it cannot reach the aspects of all the reading comprehension where the students should be able to find the main idea, making inference, making reference, and knowing the supporting details. Furthermore, that conventional technique absolutely made the teacher used the time more and could be stated as an inefficiency, because all the students need to read the text one by one.
It is good to find a better strategy that more interesting, not wasting the time, and turning into a high quality result. Students’ collaboration is absolutely sure to become a solution of this problem. Learning through collaboration makes two or more students learn or attempt to learn something together. According to Romney (1996), collaborative learning (usually called cooperative learning) is a well-established group work method that provides a useful alternative to teacher-fronted classes. Its various techniques follow a certain number of set rules.
Through collaborating, the students are able to work with others includes actively participation in the learning process, having a brave in showing their ideas,
evaluating one another’s ideas, monitoring one another’s work, and avoiding the
wasting time. It’s better than checking for each student’s work which will
consume much more time. Furthermore, the teachers also have a responsibility to find the best way of collaboration so that the students can work effectively. It is not the strategy that only several students work in a group but also all the students participate well in order to gain the same increase of reading comprehension for each group member.
3
As seen in many cases when the researcher did pre-research, the learning process in reading class sometimes done by working in group, most of groups depended on one to two students for discussing and finishing the task. Meanwhile, the other students had no role in finding the solution and they were like the employees who get a salary without working. That kind of collaboration will have two bad results. First, the students who never work in the discussion and only get a free score will have no increase in their reading competency; theirs is only a deceitful score without any proof when they are tested. Second, they will not familiarize their self in collaborating with others; they cannot be brave to share their mind and keep to be a passive student. Because of those facts, the collaborative learning process in the classroom should be revised so that it can increase all the groups’ member reading comprehension.
One of the techniques in teaching reading which guides the students for being able to collaborate well with others is Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR). Klingner and Vaughn (1996), said that the goals of CSR are to improve reading comprehension and increase conceptual learning in ways that maximize students' involvement. Student roles are the important aspect of CSR because cooperative learning seems to work best when group members have been assigned a meaningful task.
4
1.2.Identification of the Problems
Based on the background discussed above, the researcher would like to identify the problems that may cause the problem under discussion as follows:
1. Some of the students tended to be a passive learner without participating actively.
2. The technique used by the teacher did not appropriate with the students. 3. Students did not feel enthusiastic with the teaching learning process
especially in reading activity.
4. Students could not comprehend the reading text well.
5. Students did not pass the standard score of the school (KKM).
1.3.Formulation of the Research Questions
Dealing with the issues presented in the background, the research questions in this research are:
1. Is there any increase in students’ reading comprehension achievement before and after being taught by using Collaborative Strategic Reading? 2. What aspect of reading is most affected after being taught by using
Collaborative Strategic Reading?
1.4.Objectives of the Research
This study has these three following objectives:
5
2. To investigate the most affected aspect of reading after being taught by using Collaborative Strategic Reading.
1.5.Uses of the Research
The uses of this research are as follows:
1. Theoretically
This research is intended to find out whether the result of the research is relevant or not with the previous theory about Collaborative Strategic Reading technique.
2. Practically
As information for all teachers and students on how Collaborative Strategic Reading influences to students’ reading comprehension achievement in learning English.
1.6.Scope of the Research
This research focuses on how is the effect of Collaborative Strategic Reading
(CSR) in increasing students’ reading comprehension achievement. The
researcher chooses recount text to be used in this research and conduct in second grade students of junior high school.
1.7.Definition of Terms
6
1. Collaborative Strategic Reading refers to a procedure for teaching comprehension skills to students with varied ability levels in one classroom. The strategy is used to help the students improve their comprehension of text. These reading strategies are: (a) preview, (b) click and clunk, (c) get the gist, and (d) wrap up.
2. Reading refers to a process in which the reader makes sense of the written text in order to get information and knowledge from the text.
3. Recount refers to a text which retells events or experiences in the past. Its purpose is either to inform or to entertain the audience. There is no complication among the participants and it differentiates from narrative.
7
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter discusses the concepts and findings which are reviews from related literature which are expected to contribute to the findings of the research.
2.1.Reading
Nuttal (1982) defines reading as the meaningful interpretation of printed or written verbal symbols. It means that reading is an interaction result that represented from the perception of graphics symbol to the readers language skills. According to Grabe (2009), reading as an interaction between reader and text and requires efficient knowledge to world and given topic also an efficient knowledge of the language. While, Clark and Silberstein (1987: 21) also define reading as an active cognitive process of interacting with printed material and monitoring comprehension to establish meaning.
8
not. Insufficient background knowledge will make the readers hard to comprehend the text.
McDonough and Shaw (1993) stated that the aim of teaching reading is to develop the students’ skill so that they can read English texts effectively and efficiently.
To be able to do so, the reader should have particular knowledge in their mind before they interact with the text. It means that to comprehend the text, the readers should involve their mind actively includes asking the questions dealing with the context. The questions are the tool to be able in comprehending the text. When the questions are asked on their mind, the readers will look for the answers by collecting the ideas from the text.
The explanations above directly assume that to get a good reading skill, the readers do not only read a whole of the text, but are also involved the active process of mind including building the background knowledge and formulating the questions related to the text.
2.2.Reading Comprehension
The important thing that should be known before starting to define reading comprehension is the reading itself. Reading is a construct process of guessing and an active process of deriving meaning (Grellet, 1981:7).
9
can read the words but they do not understand what they read, they were not really reading (Dallman, 1982).
The idea of comprehension also emphasized by the definition of Grabe et al. (1986:27) that states reading can be defined loosely as the ability to make sense of written or printed symbols to guide recovery of information to construct a plausible interpretation of the written message. Furthermore, it is supported more by Simanjuntak (1988:4), states that comprehension is the first point to be made about reading process.
The statements above state that comprehension has taken an important role in reading process. Reading is not a simple way which only making sound of the text but also it is the process of comprehending the text itself. The reading includes comprehension will achieve not only the understanding about the surface meaning but also the important points and the plausible interpretation of the reading text.
It can be inferred that reading comprehension means the students must use the cognitive skill and the knowledge of the world when the reading process is held. By combining those elements, the students can interact and understand the idea of the printed or written symbols.
2.3.Aspects of Reading
Mikulecky and Jeffries (2004) divided aspects of reading comprehension into ten different parts:
a. Scanning
10
b. Previewing and Predicting
Previewing means the reader look and find out information at book’s cover.
In this condition, the reader will have a prediction and then make some “educated guess” about this book.
c. Vocabulary Knowledge for Effective Reading
The strategy if the reader does not know the meaning of vocabulary is trying to guess what it means. It can be connected by the sentence surrounding the word.
d. Topics
Finding the topic of the passage is the others strategy to read for meaning. It gives an advantages to use a question the topic the text are reading about such as what is the general idea?, What is this?
e. Topics of Paragraphs
In a paragraph contains sentences that have same aspect related to the text.
f. Main Ideas
The main idea of a paragraph gives the reader topic of author’s idea. The expresses always appears in a complete sentence include the main idea and the topic.
g. Pattern Organization
11
h. Skimming
Getting the general sense of a passage or a book fast could save the reader’s
time.
i. Making inference
Some reading passages do not stated the topic. Therefore, the reader has to make the inference by guessing and finding the clue.
j. Summarizing
Summarizing from the important key points is to retell a reading text and to make shorter form.
Whereas, according to Nuttal (1985), there are five sort reading skills that should be mastered by the reader to comprehend the text deeply, which is as follows:
a. Identifying Main idea
Determining idea is a skill to grasp and find the main point of the passage by summarizing the passage and look for repetition of ideas or words (Kelly, R. 2004). The main idea is important to a reader because it tells what the story is mainly about.
b. Identifying Details
12
c. Determining Inference
Inference is an educational guess or conclusion drawn based on logic of the passage. An inference is when the student take clues from a story plus what they already know from their own experiences to decide what the teacher means. The teacher will not always tell students everything, so it needs to use inferences to understand and visualize the story. The students will make inferences to help them understand what they are reading. As follow:
1. Think about the type of information the teacher is giving.
2. Think about how the topic of the text relates to own life or the experiences of students have had.
d. Understanding vocabulary
The communication will success or not it depends on the accurate vocabulary understanding. It means to comprehend what the words mean is important in vocabulary. When vocabulary mastery improves, comprehension will be deeper and apply lettersound correspondence to a pretend word and matching it to a known word in the readers’ oral vocabulary.
Linan et al. (2007:87) states that the role of vocabulary in reading is clearly understood: vocabulary knowledge, the understanding of word meanings and their use, contributes to reading comprehension and knowledge building.
e. Reference
13
has been mentioned recently in the text than when it was mentioned earlier (Young, 2011:146).
There are two kinds of theory related to aspect of reading comprehension that included in this research. The first is from Mikulecky and Jeffries (2004) that formulated aspect of reading comprehension in ten parts, namely scanning, previewing and predicting, vocabulary knowledge for effective reading, topics, topics of paragraphs, main ideas, pattern organization, skimming, making inference, and summarizing. The second theory is from Nuttal (1985) that divided into five aspects, namely identifying main idea, identifying details, determining inference, understanding vocabulary, and reference.
When the theories above have been compared, the researcher decides to take the second theory to be used as the foundation of this research. There is only one consideration, that is, the object of the research is junior high school students where they need a simple implementation of reading comprehension. It can be seen that the first theory is much more complicated than the second one where it makes them must conduct the ten aspects. While the second theory only need to conduct only five steps to comprehend the text. So that, the second theory will be simpler and easier to be implemented to the junior high school students.
2.4.Recount Text
14
1. Personal recount. Retell an activity that the writer has been personally involved in and may be used to build the relationship between the writer and the reader e.g. anecdote, diary journal, personal letter.
2. Factual recount. Report the particulars of an incident by reconstructing factual information e.g. police reconstruction of an accident, historical recount, biographical and autobiographical recounts.
3. Imaginative recount. Apply factual knowledge to an imaginary role in order to interpret and recount events e.g. A Day in the Life of a Roman Slave, How I Discovered Radium.
4. Procedural recount. Record the steps in an investigation or experiment and thereby providing the basis for reported results or findings.
5. Literary recount. Retell a series of events for the purpose of entertaining.
The generic structure of recount consists of orientation, sequence of events, and re-orientation. The generic structure and the example will be given more by the table below.
Table 2.1. Generic Structure of Recount
Generic Structure Recount Text Orientation - provides the reader with
background information needed to understand the text. e.g. who, when, where
15
Re-orientation – this is the last segment of recount text consist of a summary statement/an evaluative comment/a return to the starting point.
On the last day of our holiday, we all went fishing again. We caught lots of fish. It was really cool fishing with Dad.
2.5.Teaching Reading
Hedge (2003) states that any reading component of an English Language teaching may include a set of learning goals as the following:
- The ability to read a wide range of text in English. This is the language range goal most teachers seek to develop through independent readers outside EFL/ESL classroom.
- Building a knowledge of language which will facilitate reading ability. - Building schematic knowledge.
- The ability to adapt the reading technique according to reading purpose. - Developing an awareness of the structure of written texts in English. - Taking a critical stance to the contents of the texts.
It is important to build up students’ ability to adapt the reading technique according to reading purpose as goal in teaching reading. The aim of teaching reading is to develop students’ skills that they can read English texts effectively
16
2.6.Strategy of Teaching Reading
A strategy is a drawing on works in cognitive psychology and defined as learning techniques, behaviors, problem-solving or study skills which make learning more effective and efficient (Oxford & Crookall, 1989). While in reading context, a strategy is a plan selected deliberately by the reader to accomplish a particular goal or to complete a given task (Paris, Lipson, & Wixson, 1983; Paris, Wasik, & Turner, 1991).
Furthermore, Block (1986) indicates a reading strategy on how readers conceive a task, what textual cues they attend to, how they make sense of what they read, and what they do when they do not understand. Last, Barnett (1988) refers reading strategist as the mental operations involved when readers purposefully approach a text and make sense of what they read.
The goal of all reading instruction is to help students become expert readers so that they can achieve independence and can use literacy for lifelong learning and enjoyment. Learning by using strategies effectively is essential to constructing meaning.
Readers who are not strategic often encounter difficulties in their reading (Paris, Wasik, & Turner, 1991). These early difficulties in reading may influence the way readers learn throughout the rest of their lives (Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, & Wilkinson, 1985).
17
2.7.Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)
In teaching reading, the teachers need a strategy that can make the students not only having a good voice when reading, but also having a good reading comprehension and being able to work cooperatively. CSR is an excellent technique which has a concept to teach the students reading comprehension by building their vocabulary achievement and working cooperatively.
Kligner and Vaughn (1996) are originally designed CSR by using a combination of modified reciprocal technique of teaching with cooperative learning. So that, it is actually derived from (1) modified reciprocal teaching (Palinscar and Brown, 1984) and (2) cooperative learning (Johnson and Johnson, 1987) or students pairing (Klingner and Vaughn, 2000).
Reciprocal teaching refers to an instructional activity in which students have small group reading sessions and the teacher help them learn to guide group discussions using four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. This technique is aided to help the students solve the problems of studying reading comprehension. While cooperative learning is a condition where the students work in teams on an assignment and the team members are held individually accountable for the complete content of the assignment.
18
of the text while they are reading. The fourth strategy, wrap-up, asks the students to summarize key ideas from the text and to generate questions about the material after reading. (Klingner and Vaughn, 1998; Vaughn et al., 2001).
The detailed explanations above prove that CSR is an appropriate and effective strategy to make an improvement for the students reading comprehension achievement and their activeness or learning participation.
2.8.The advantages and the disadvantages of CSR
In using CSR, there must be the strengths and the weaknesses that will be elaborated in the following section.
a. The advantages of CSR
Using CSR, the students are not only trained to have a capability in oral reading, but also to be more active and to be an independent reader. In addition to providing the instruction to lead the students in comprehending content area text as well as deciphering vocabulary and multisyllabic words, CSR also encourage the students to work in a peer interaction so that they can increase interest and persistence in the reading assignment.
The process of implementing CSR guides the student to be more accurate and fluent in reading the text, to indentify the words’ meaning in detail, and to comprehend the text. Furthermore, the learner does not do those reading tasks alone, but involve the social environment by interacting with their partner.
b. The Disadvantages of CSR
19
longer time to adapt and implement to the strategy based on the CSR procedure.
Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) can be concluded as the same as the other strategies because it also has strength and weakness. The strength is CSR trains the students’ to be more active and to be the independent reader. They are encouraged to work in a pair which must involve their participation in order to get a good work.
The weaknesses are shown when CSR is being implemented in the class. It needs the longer time for the students to adapt and implement the CSR strategy which divided into four steps.
2.9.Procedure of CSR
CSR can be implemented in two phases: (1) teaching the strategies, and (2) student pairing. The implementation steps described below were developed through a series of research studies (Bryant et al., 2000; Klingner and Vaughn, 1998, 1999; Vaughn et al., 2000, 2001).
Phase 1. Teaching the Strategies
Students learn four strategies: previewing, clicking and clunking, getting the gist, and wrapping up. Previewing is used before reading the entire text of the lesson, and wrapping up is used after reading the entire text of the lesson.
20
a. Previewing
The preview strategy activates background knowledge and establishes predictions about the text by scanning the pictures, captions, graphics, title, headings, subheadings, and key words. The objective of the preview strategy is to stimulate the students’ background knowledge about the topic, to
encourage interest and motivation to read the text, to make informed predictions about the text, to set a purpose for reading and to share and learn from other members of their group (Klingner, and Vaughn 1999; Vaughn et al., 2001).
b. Clicking and Clunking
After the students preview the text, they begin reading as they employ the click and clunk strategy. This second strategy is a self-monitoring device to be used during the students’ reading of text. When the students click, they are
recognizing words and their meanings in the context of the text. When they come to a clunk in their reading, they have found a word or section that they do not understand and pursue their comprehension of the text. Students then write down their clunks in their learning logs. After they have finished in reading a text, they begin to discuss and to solve their clunks. CSR involves four strategies to solve the clunks called as fix-up strategies, that is: reareading, context clues, prefixes or suffixes, and morphemic analysis (Klingner et al., 2001; Vaughn et al., 2001).
c. Getting the Gist
21
text. Furthermore, the students then brainstorm to establish the most important idea and rephrase that idea in only ten words or even less. They learn to define main idea while filtering out unnecessary details (Vaughn et al., 2001).
d. Wrapping up
The fourth strategy called as wrap up teaches the students to identify the most important ideas of the text that they have read and then assist them to understand and to remember what they have learned. Students are guided to generate questions and to review important ideas of the text. They take a role as a teacher and start to make questions by thinking about important ideas in the passage. It is truly advised that the questions should be started by who, what, when, where, why, and how. Then they continue to implement the second step of wrap up, review; it makes the students learn how to mentally organize the textual information and focus on comprehension of the text as a whole. Furthermore, they increase their understanding and memory of text by writing down the most important ideas they have learned from the passage.
Phase 2. Student Pairing
This second phase is applied when the students have already learned the four strategies. They are categorized to be ready in implementing CSR after having developed proficiency in teacher led-activities and peer-led cooperative learning groups. The procedure for using these strategies with group is outlined below.
a. Setting the Stage
22
b. Selecting the materials
The following materials will be helpful for the teacher to assist students to use CSR and cooperative learning techniques (Klingner et al., 2001).
1. Reading materials. When selecting reading materials for CSR, the teacher will consider: (a) reading materials at students’ instructional level, which
generally refer to students being able to decode about 80% of the words correctly, (b) reading materials having themes and supporting details, (c) reading materials consisting of several paragraphs, and (d) reading materials containing clues/pictures for predicting.
2. Clunk cards. Each of the four clunk cards contains a fix-up strategy. The fix-up strategies in clunk cards include: (a) reread the sentences with the clunk and looks for key ideas to help you figure out the word-think about what makes sense, (b) reread the sentence before and after the clunk looking for clues, (c) look for prefix or suffix in the word that might help, and (d) break the word apart and look for smaller words that you know. 3. Timer (optional). Timer is an optional material where it is used as a
reminder for the duration when the students are doing the task.
c. Process
The basic steps to apply CSR in cooperative learning group are as follows:
Step 1: The first step is introduction where the teacher introduces the topic,
teaches key vocabulary, and provides instructions.
Step 2: The second step is a student pairing activity which are previewing,
23
Step 3: The last step is discussion for what the teacher and students have done
today. Teacher leads the discussion by reviewing the reading passage, solving the clunks problems, answering questions, and sharing some review ideas.
d. Role of the teacher
During the learners pairing activity, the teacher’s role is circulating among the pairs, clarifying clunks, modeling strategy usage, redirecting students to remain on-task, and providing assistance. Based on the stages mentioned above, there will be a general procedure of teaching reading comprehension using CSR during the research. The researcher runs each treatment through the following steps:
1. Assign students to their pair.
2. Read passage using the step-by-step strategy: Before reading
Previewing
Reading the first paragraph or section and encourage students to do these following procedures:
- Brainstorming: What do we already know about the topic?
- Predicting: What do we think we will learn about the topic when we read the passage?
During reading Clicking and clunking
- Were there any parts that were hard to understand (clunks)?
24
look for prefix or suffix in the word that might help. Fourth, break the word apart and look for smaller words.
Getting the gist
- What is the most important person, place, or thing in the text? - What is the most important idea about the person, place, or thing? Do the second and the third step for all the paragraphs or sections in the passage.
After reading Wrapping up
- Asking questions: What questions related to the each section of the text? What is the answer of each question?
- Reviewing: What have we learnt?
In the procedure of CSR, both teacher and students do the two different phases. First, teacher becomes the instructor who gives and teaches students the procedure of applying CSR. The students are guided to apply together in class on how to do previewing, clicking and clunking, getting the gist, and wrapping up. Last, after the process of teaching strategies has done, teacher divides the students in group include the different roles for each of them and monitor them when perform CSR in the class.
2.10. Theoretical Assumption
25
The students’ reading comprehension can be increased by many ways and one of
them is by using CSR where the students are trained to have an active process by conducting four steps of reading comprehension strategy and also work cooperatively so they can motivate their selves more to help each other, be responsible doing their own task, and work efficiently. The assumption come to a conclusion that this good strategy (CSR) will generate a difference on the students’ reading comprehension achievement in which their ability is going to
increase.
Furthermore, based on his research, Song (1998) concluded that CSR had a positive effect on EFL learners’ answers to main idea questions. That theory has made the researcher predicted that identifying main idea will be the most affected aspect after the students are taught by using CSR.
2.11. Hypothesis
There is an increase of students’ reading comprehension achievement after being taught by using CSR and the most affected aspect of reading that will be the highest increase is determining main idea.
III.METHOD
This chapter describes the method that was used in conducting the data of the research such as design, population and sample, research instruments, validity and reliability of the instrument, research procedure, data analysis, and hypothesis testing.
3.1. Design
This research used a quantitative because it was very useful for providing factors connected with second language development. Setiyadi (2006:5) cites that quantitative design aims to investigate a theory has been existed and the data in order to support or reject it.
In conducting the research, the researcher applied One Group Pretest-Posttest design. One group pretest-posttest design was a research design where one group
of participants was pretested on the dependent variable and then post-tested after the treatment condition had been administered.
Pre test was given to the students in order to measure the students’ competence before they were given the treatment and post test was given to measure how far the students’ achievement after they were given the treatment. In this design,
27
Tl X T2 Where:
T1 : pre-test T2 : post-test
X : treatment (using Collaborative Strategic Reading)
(Hatch and Farhady 1982: 24)
3.2. Population and Sample
The population of this research was the second year students of SMPN 29 Bandar Lampung. There were ten classes of the second year students in 2014/2015 academic year. Each class consisted of about 24-25 students.
This research employed two classes; the first class was the class to implement the try out or called as try out class and the second class stood as the experimental class. The researcher applied the classes by using random sampling (lottery).
3.3. Variables
In order to assess the influence of the treatment in research, variables could be defined as dependent and independent variables. Hatch and Farhady (1982:15) stated that the independent variable was the major variable that a researcher hoped to investigate and the dependent variable was the variable that the researcher observed and measured to determine the improvement of the independent variable.
The research consists of the following variables:
28
3.4. Research Instrument
The instrument of this research was pretest and posttest. The data was analyzed from the result of those three activities which could be clarified as follows:
1. Pretest
Pretest was conducted in order to find out the students’ reading comprehension achievement before the treatment. This test was multiple choice in which the students were asked to choose one correct answer from the options a, b, c, or d. In this test, they were given 30 items of reading and it was conducted within 60 minutes.
2. Posttest
After conducting the treatment, the post test was administered. It was done in order to know the students’ achievement after the treatment. This test consisted of 30 items of multiple choice and was done within 60 minutes. It could be stated when a much higher post-test score should indicate that a student had learned certain topics well.
3.5. Research Procedure
Below are the procedures in administering the research:
1. Determining Research problem
29
2. Determining the Research Instrument
The researcher checked the students’ reading achievement by giving two reading tests to the students. The reading tests were pre test and post test. In measuring reading comprehension, multiple-choice selections were more valid than short-sentence answer (Henning, 1987: 48). Each test consisted of 30 items and each item had four alternative answers a, b, c, or d. There were one correct answer and three distracters.
3. Selecting and Determining the Materials
The materials of this research were based on the current English curriculum for the second grade students. Those were also added and searched from internet. There were three lesson plans in the process of teaching reading which involved recount text inside.
The first lesson plan was used in the first meeting and purposed to teach the students about the strategies of applying Collaborating Strategic Reading (CSR) in the class. While the second lesson plan was used in the second meeting to make the students practice CSR in the real class discussion. The researcher acted as a teacher and divided the students into the groups included different role for each student. Last, the third lesson plan was done in the third meeting and purposed to strengthen the students’ understanding and performance to do CSR.
4. Administering the try out
30
instrument of the research. The items were 40 and allocated within 80 minutes.
5. Administering pre-test
The pre test was administered in order to find out students’ reading comprehension achievement before treatment. In this test, the researcher asked students to do multiple choice tests consist of 30 items of recount text in 60 minutes.
6. Conducting treatment
In this research, the treatment was conducted in three meeting which takes 2 x 40 minutes. It was done by the lessons plan which consists of three different topics. The students were given the different assignments for each session and the materials which were about recount text were taken from the students' English book for the second grades and internet.
7. Administering post-test
The aim of this test was to measure the students' reading comprehension achievement after treatment. The test was conducted in 60 minutes with 30 items of multiple-choice reading test.
8. Testing hypothesis
After scoring student's work, the data were analyzed by using T-test to compare the data of two mean scores.
3.6.Try Out Result
31
rapid, simple, and most importantly reliable, not subjective or influence by the markers’ judgment (Heaton, 1975:135).
Try out test purpose was for knowing the quality of the research instrument that was used in pre-test and post-test. In order to get a good test, the test item should fulfill some criterias such as: validity, reliability, level of difficulty, and discrimination power that will be discussed below.
3.6.1. Validity
Validity referred to the extent to which the test measures and to what is intended to measure (Hatch and Farhady, 1982:250). Validity indicated how deep the instrument can measure the target of the research. There were four types of validity namely face validity, content validity, construct validity, and empirical validity or criterion-related validity.
To measure the test had a good validity, the researcher used content validity and construct validity. Face validity concerned with the layout of the test while the criterion-related validity was concerned with measuring the success in the future, as in replacement test (Hatch and Farhady, 1982:251). So, these two validities were considered to be less needed. An instrument was valid when it can provide the output accord with the researchers’ analysis, its contents and constructs
validity. The two types of validity that was used in this research as followed:
a. Content Validity
32
To get the content validity of reading comprehension, the researcher tried to arrange the materials based on the standard competence in syllabus for the second grade of junior high school students. In order to establish the content validity of a measuring instrument, the researcher identified the overall content to be represented.
The validity of instruments were referred to the content and constructs validity in which the question represents five sort reading skills, i.e. determining main idea, finding the detail information, reference, inference, and vocabulary (Nuttal, 1985). The distribution of the items number was based on the current English curriculum, and the syllabus of second grade SMP students and represent of the materials that has been taught by the teacher. The content of the try out is presented in table of specification below:
Table 3.1. Reading Specification (Aspects of Reading)
No. Reading Skills Items Number Percentage
1. Identifying main idea 1,7,11,16,24,26,31,36 20%
2. Identifying details 6,19,8,2,12,13,21,28,37,38 25%
3. Making inference 15,9,20,5,25,29,35 17.5%
4. Understanding vocabulary 4,9,14,17,22,30,34,39 20%
5. Reference 3,10,18,23,27,33,40 17.5%
Total 40 items
Based on the theory, the test was created by considering five reading skills and all of them had distributed well in all items so it could be concluded that the test had a good grade in content validity’s context. The table above shows that identifying
33
was 25% (6,19,8,2,12,13,21,28,37,38); making inference was 17.5% (15,9,20,5,25,29,35); understanding vocabulary was 20% (4,9,14,17,22,30,34,39); and reference was 17.5% (3,10,18,23,27,33,40) of the total items.
b. Construct Validity
Construct validity concerns whether the tests are true reflection in line with the theory of what it means to know the language (Shohamy, 1985:74). If a test has construct validity, it is capable of measuring certain specific characteristics in accordance with a theory of language behaviour and learning. This type of validity assumes the existence of certain learning theories or constructs underlying the acquisition of abilities and skills (Heaton, 1988:161).
According to Nuttal’s theory in which the construct validity in this instrument represented by five sort reading skills: determining main idea, finding the detail information, reference, inference, and vocabulary; so the table 3.1 has explained that the test is in a good construct validity in which the five reading skills are distributed well percentage in the items of the test.
3.6.2. Reliability
Reliability refers to the extent to which the test is consistent in its score and gives us an indication of how accurate the test score are (Hatch and Farhady, 1982:244). In other words, how far it can measure the subject at separated time, but it shows the same result relatively (Setiyadi.2006:113).
34
correlation coefficient of the reliability between odd and even number (reliability of half test) in the following formula:
r
xy=
Where:
rxy : coefficient of reliability between odd and even numbers items
x : odd number y : even number
∑x2
: total score of odd number items
∑y2
: total score of even number items
∑xy : total score of odd and even number
After getting the reliability of half test, the researcher used “Spearman Bown’s Prophecy formula” (Hatch and Farhady,1982; 247) to determine the reliability of
the whole tests, as follows:
rk =
Where:
rk
: the reliability of the whole testsrxy
: the reliability of half test35
The criteria of reliability as follows: 0.90 – 1.00 = high
0.50 – 0.89 = moderate 0.0 – 0.49 = low
After the data were analyzed, the result showed that the reliability of half test (rxy)
was 0.975 and reliability of the whole test (rk) is 0.987 (see Appendix 6). Based
on the criteria of reliability of the test, it can be stated that the tests have a high reliability since the range of the high criteria for the reliability test is 0.8 –1.00 (Hatch and Farhady, 1982: 246). It can be interpreted that the test can be used and in other word, the test is reliable.
3.6.3. Level of Difficulty
Level of difficulty relates to how easy or difficult the item taken from the point of view of the students who take the test. It is important since test items which are too easy (that all students get right) can tell us nothing about differences within the test population (Shohamy, 1985:79).
Moreover, the difficulty level of an item shows how easy or difficult that particular item done by the participants Heaton (1975:182). The students were divided into two groups that were upper and lower groups. The students’ scores of try out were listed from the highest score to the lowest score. It is calculated by the following formula:
36
Where:
LD : level of difficulty
U : the number of upper group who answer correctly L : the number of lower group who answer correctly N : the total number of students in upper and lower groups
The criteria are as follows: < 0.03 : difficult 0.03 – 0.70 : average > 0.70 : easy
(Shohamy, 1985: 79)
Based on the result of try out related to the criteria, these tests consisted of 2 difficult items (23, 27), 32 good items (2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 39) and 5 easy items (1,6, 13, 24, 36, 38). The easy and difficult items were not used to collect the data and should be revised or dropped from the test. Then, the average items were administered in pretest and post test (see appendix 4).
3.6.4. Discrimination Power
37
Notes:
D : discrimination power
U : the number of students from the upper who answer correctly L : the number of students from the lower who answer correctly N : the number of the students
(Shohamy, 1985:82)
The criteria of discrimination power are: 0.00 – 0.20 : Poor
0.21 – 0.40 : Satisfactory 0.41 – 0.70 : Good 0.70 – 1.00 : Excellent
- (negative) : Bad items (should be omitted)
From the computation of discrimination power of try out, For discrimination power, it was found that there were 9 poor items (1, 10, 15, 16, 23, 32, 34, 35, 38), 19 satisfactory items (2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 12, 14, 17, 20, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 36, 37, 39, 40), 11 good items (3, 5, 9, 11, 13, 18, 19, 25, 30, 31, 33), and an excellent item (21) (Appendix 4). From the result of the test, 30 which met the criteria of a good test were administered in pre test and post test.
3.7. Scoring System
38
X%
c
= T R 100Where:
X%c = percentage of correct score
R = number of right answer T = total number of items on test
(Lyman, 1971: 95)
3.8.Data Analysis
In order to know the students’ progress in comprehending the text and the students’ score were computed by doing three activities:
1. Scoring the pretest and posttest
2. Tabulating the result of the test and calculating the mean of pretest and the posttest. The mean was calculated by applying the following formula:
=
Notes:
= mean (average score)
= the total students’ score
= total number of students
(Hatch and Farhady:1982) 3. Drawing conclusion from the tabulated results of the test given, that was by
T-39
Test of Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) to test whether the difference of students’ gain was significant or not, in which the significance was determined by p < 0.05. It is used as the data from one sample. (Hatch and Farhady,1982: 117). To know whether the students got any progress, the formula was as follow:
I =
-
Notes:
I = the difference of students’ reading comprehension achievement = the average score of post test
= the average score of pre test
3.9.Hypothesis Test
There are two hypotheses in this research. First, there is an increase between pre test and post test result after the students are being taught by using CSR. Second, identifying main idea is the most affected aspect of reading comprehension. To answer those hypotheses, the result of pre test and post test were compared so the researcher could identify further.
The researcher used Repeated Measure T-Test towards the average score of pre test and post test. Moreover, the result of t-test was used to investigate the difference on students’ reading comprehension achievement before and after the
40
H0 : There is no increase on students’ reading achievement after giving
treatment by using collaborative strategic reading.
H1 : There is increase on students’ reading achievement after giving
treatment by using collaborative strategic reading.
(Hatch and Farhady, 1982:111)
The criteria for accepting the hypothesis were as follows:
1. H0 was accepted if the t-value is lower than T-ratio.
H1 was accepted if the t-value is higher than T-ratio.
Furthermore, the researcher used the score of each reading skills in the pre test and the post test result. Those were compared to know whether the second hypothesis was accepted or rejected. It was accepted if identifying main idea was the most affected aspect but it was rejected if identifying main idea was not the most affected aspect.
V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
This chapter presents conclusions that are based on the research’s results and
discussions in the previous chapter. It also presents some suggestions for English
teachers and other researchers who want to try to apply Collaborative Strategic
Reading (CSR) in the teaching reading.
5.1 Conclusions
In line with the results of the data analysis and discussion, the writer comes to this following conclusion:
1. After the research has been conducted, it is concluded that Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) is a good strategy for reading comprehension because it can make the students participate well in the class. The strategy that consists of four different steps and implementation and divides the students into a pair rather than a group consists of five or six members are able to make the teacher arranges them better.
59
5.2 Suggestions
Referring to the conclusion above, some suggestions can be listed as follows:
1. Suggestions to the teacher.
a. English teachers are recommended to apply collaborative strategic reading as alternative technique in teaching reading using recount text because it can help the students in comprehending the text easier.
b. In collaborative strategic reading, when the teacher implements it, it’s better for the teacher to make the technique to be simpler. It means that the teacher needs to simplify by using student pair rather than using a big group including each different task for the students. That modified strategy makes the students easier to understand the concept and how to implement the collaborative strategic reading itself.
c. Then, teacher should control the students’ activities and consider the time allocation when they implement collaborative strategic reading, because it may affect the efficiency of the strategy itself.
2. Suggestions to further researchers
a. In this research, the researcher appllies collaborative strategic reading to increase the students’ reading achievement using recount text at second grade students of Junior High School. Other researchers can conduct other kinds of text, i.e exposition, recount, narative, and report text.
b. Further researcher may conduct this strategy on different level of students. It can be applied in senior high school students or university students.
REFERENCES
Anderson, R. C., Hiebert, E., Scott, J., & Wilkinson, I. 1985. Becoming a nation of readers: The report of the Commission on Reading. Champaign, IL: Center for the Study of Reading.
Barnett, M. A. (1988). Reading through context: How real and perceived
strategies use affects L2 comprehension. Modern Language Journal, 72, 150-162.
Block, E. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 163-494.
Bryant, D. P., Vaughn, S., Linan-Thompson, S., Ugel, N., Hamff, A., and Hougen, M. 2000. Reading outcomes for students with and without reading disabilities in general education middleschool content area classes. Learning Disability Quarterly, 23(3), 24-38.
Carrel, P. 1987. Scheme and ESL reading pedagogy in methodology in TESOL. Los Angles: New Bury House Publisher.
Clark, M. A. and Silberstein S. 1987. Toward a realization of psycholinguistic principles in the esl reading class, in methodolgy TESOL. New York: New Bury House Publisher.
Dallman, R. L. 1982. Teaching of reading. Washington: CBS College Publishing.
Dechant, V. E. 1982. Improving the Teaching of Reading. California: Prentice Hall.
Department for Education of South Australia. 2012. Engaging in and exploring
recount writing, practical guide for classroom teachers. From:
www.decd.sa.gov.au (Retreived on Ferbuary 20th, 2014).
Fan, Y. 2010. The effect of comprehension strategy instruction on EFL learners’ reading comprehension. Asian Social Science, 6.8, 19-29.
Grabe, W. 2009. Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Grabe, W. and Eskey, D.E. 1986. Teaching Second Language Reading for Academic Purpose s. Reading. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
61
Hatch, E. and Farhady, H. 1982. Research design and statistics for applied linguistics. London: Newbury House Publishers Inc.
Heaton, J. B. 1975. Writing English Language Tests: A Practical Guide for Teachers of English As a Second or Foreign Language (Longman
Handbooks for Language Teachers). UK: Longman Group United
Kingdom.
Heaton, J. B. 1988. Writing english language tests. London and New York: Longman.
Hedge, Tricia. 2003. Teaching & learning in the language classroom. UK: OUP.
Johnson, D. W., and Johnson, R. T. 1987. Learning together and alone (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Katims, D.S., and Harmon, J.M. 2000. Strategic instruction in middle school social studies: Enhancing academic literacy outcomes for at-risk students. From: http://aei.sagepub.com/content/38/4/224.full.pdf+html (Retrieved on Ferbruary 21st, 2014)
Kelly, R. 2004. 18 March 2004. Test prep guide. (http:/testprep.about.com/).
Klingner, J. K. and Vaughn, S. 1996. Reciprocal teaching of reading
comprehension strategies for students with learning disabilities who use English as a second language. The elementary school journal, 96(3), 275-293.
Klingner, J. K. and Vaughn, S. 1999. Promoting reading comprehension,
content learning, and English acquisition through Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR). The Reading Teacher, 52(7), 738-747.
Klingner, J. K., and Vaughn, S. 2000. The helping behaviors of fifth graders while using collaborative strategic reading during ESL content classes. TESOL Quarterly, 34(1), 69-98.
Klingner, J. K., Vaughn, S., Dimino, J., Schumm, J. S., and Bryant, D. 2001. From clunk to click: Collaborative Strategic Reading. Longmont. CO: Sopris West.
McDonough, J. and Shaw, C. 1993. Materials and methods in ELT : a teacher's guide. London: Blackwell.
62
Lyman, B. H. 1971. Test scores and what they mean. Englewood cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Mikulecky, and Jeffries, L. 2004. More Reading Power. Boston: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Nuttal, C. 1982. Teaching reading skills in foreign language. London: Heinemann Educational Books.
Nuttal, C. 1985. Teaching reading skill in a foreign language. British library catalouging in publication: London.
Oxford, R.L. & Crookall, D. 1989. Research on language learning strategies: methods, findings, and instructional issues. Modern Language Journal.
Palincsar, A. M., and Brown, A.L. 1984. Reciprocal teaching of comprehension- fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1(2), 117-175.
Paris, S. G., Lipson, M. Y., & Wixson, K. K. 1983. Becoming a strategic reader. Contemporary Educational Psychology.
Paris, S. G., Wasik, B. A., & Turner, J. C. 1991. The development of strategic readers. In R. Barr, P. D. Pearson, M. Kamil & P. Mosenthal (Eds.), Handbook of reading research. New York: Longman.
Romney, Claudey. 1996. The benefits of collaborative learning. From: http://www.ucalgary.com/pubs/Newsletters/Currents/Vol3.6/Benefits.html (Retrieved on February 19th 2014).
Segretto, Michael. 2002. Roadmaping to 8th Grade Reading: Virginia Edition. New York: Princeton Review Publishing, L.L.C.
Setiyadi, Ag. Bambang. 2006. Metode penelitian untuk pengajaran bahasa asing. Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu.
Shohamy, E. 1985. A practical handbook in language testing for the second language teacher. Tel-Aviv: Tel-Aviv University.
Simanjuntak, E.G. 1988. Developing Reading skill for EFL Students. Jakarta: Depdikbud.
Smith, F. 1982. Understanding reading. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.
63
Song, M. J. 1998. Teaching reading strategies in an ongoing EFL university reading classroom. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 8, 41-54.
Suparman, U. 2007. Reading strategies of EFL book 1. Tangerang: Matabaca.
Suparman, U. 2012. Developing reading comprehension skills and strategies. Bandung: CV Arfino Jaya.
Universitas Lampung. 2008. Pedoman penulisan karya ilmiah. Lampung University Press: Bandar Lampung
Vaughn, S., Klingner, J. K., and Bryant, D. P. 2001. Collaborative strategic reading as a means to enhance peer-mediated instruction for reading
comprehension and content area learning. Remedial and Special
Education, 22(2), 66-74.
