Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol11.Issue5.1997:

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Using conceptual frameworks in management

training: the case of education

Naftaly S. Glasman

Pro fe sso r, Unive rsity o f Califo rnia, Santa Barbara, Califo rnia, USA

Aims to demonstrate how conceptual frameworks can guide managerial training in education. Such purpose should apply to various coun-tries because the concepts, by their nature, have univer-sal characteristics. Uses three managerial functions: the rationale for their selec-tion; the methods of teaching them; and the results of teaching as benchmarks of the use of the guidelines. Also provides an argument that other managerial functions can be taught in the same way. This work, which focuses on communication, style and problem solving, is consid-ered experimental in nature. More research is needed to understand better the rela-tions between conceptual frameworks and administra-tion training.

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Con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k s m ay b e d efi n ed a s b a s ic s t r u ct u r es or a r r a n gem en t s w h ich h old t oget h er gen er a l n ot ion s or id ea s of a cla s s of ob ject s. T h u s, in ed u ca t ion , for exa m p le, va r iou s s y s t em in p u t s s u ch a s st u d en t a p t i-t u d es, s y si-t em p r ocess es su ch a s i-t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g, a n d sy s t em ou t p u t s s u ch a s st u d en t a ch ievem en t com b in e t oget h er in t o a n in p u t -ou t p u t con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k of s ch ools. M ost con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k s in ed u ca t ion a r e con s t r u ct ed on t h e b a s is of d a t a w h ich d escr ib e p r a ct ice. At t im es t h e d a t a a r e in com p let e bu t t h e fr a m ewor k is con st r u ct ed a n y w ay. At ot h er t im es t h e b a sis for t h e fr a m ewor k con s t it u t es va lu es m or e t h a n fa ct s bu t , h er e t oo, t h e fr a m ewor k is con st r u ct ed a n y w ay.

Ver y lit t le is r e p or t ed on t h e u s e of con ce p -t u a l fr a m ewor k s in m a n a ger ia l -t r a in in g in ed u ca t ion (e.g. Boya n , 1988; M u r p h y, 1996). T h e r ea s on is n ot s o m u ch t h a t u n iver s it y t r a in er s fa il t o r e p or t t h eir wor k (e.g. M ils t ein , 1993; Mu r p h y, 1993). Ra t h er, m u ch of t h e t r a in in g is n ot a n ch or ed in con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k (e.g. Gla sm a n , 1997). T h e p r oblem -b a s ed fr a m ewor k is a n ot ed exce p t ion

(Br id ges, 1997).

T h e p u r p ose of t h is p a p er is t wo-fold . On e ob ject ive is t o d escr ib e t h r ee ca ses of u s in g con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k in m a n a ger ia l t r a in -in g -in ed u ca t ion . T h e fi r s t ca se t ook p la ce a t t h e Un iver s it y of J u d a is m in Los An geles w h er e, a s p a r t of t h e M A d e gr ee r eq u ir em en t s, s t u d en t s r eceive 120 h ou r s of cla s s -r oom in s t -r u ct ion a n d a yea -r -lon g, t en w eek ly h ou r s of in t er n s h ip exp er ien ce. T h e ot h er t wo ca s es t ook p la ce a t t h e Un iver s it y of Ca li-for n ia , Sa n t a Ba r b a r a . On e ca s e in volved a lea d er s h ip s em in a r a s p a r t of p r elim in a r y a d m in is t r a t ive cr ed en t ia l r eq u ir em en t s. T h e ot h er in volved a n eva lu a t ion s em in a r a s p a r t of r eq u ir em en t s for t h e a dva n ced a d m in ist r a -t ive cr ed en -t ia l. T h e secon d p u r p ose of -t h e p a p er is t o h igh ligh t select ed lea r n in g r es u lt s in ea ch of t h e t h r ee ca ses t o b e d es cr ib ed .

T h e p a p er b e gin s w it h a n ou t lin e of t h e con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k s a n d t h eir a s socia t ed cen t r a l m a n a ger ia l fu n ct ion s. Ra t ion a le is pr ovided for th e ch oice of th e th r ee fu n ction s – com m u n ica t ion , st y le, a n d p r oblem solv in g – a s w ell a s t h eir cor r es p on d in g con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k s. T h e secon d sect ion cover s t h e

t ea ch in g m et h od s u sed in a ll t h r ee ca ses, in clu d in g t h e a ss ign ed r ea d in g, in t r od u ct ion of t h e m a t er ia l in cla ss, cla ss d is cu ssion , fi eld -b a sed a ss ign m en t s, a n d t h e sh a r in g of r esu lt s in cla ss. Sect ion t h r ee offer s exa m p les of w h a t t r a in ees lea r n ed . T h is s ect ion a t t em p t s t o t ie lea r n in g r esu lt s t o b ot h t h e con ce p t u a l fr a m e-wor k s a n d t h e m et h od ology of t ea ch in g t h em . A b r ief fi n a l sect ion offer s con clu d in g r em a r k s.

Organizational functions and their

conceptual frameworks

T h is sect ion in clu d es t h r ee su b sect ion s, ea ch d escr ib in g a d iffer en t ca se of u sin g a con ce p -t u a l fr a m ewor k -t o -t ea ch a sp ecifi c m a n a ger ia l fu n ct ion . F ir st t h e fu n ct ion s w ill b e d efi n ed , t h eir im p or t a n ce in m a n a gem en t n ot ed , a n d t h e select ed con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k s ou t lin ed .

Communication

Com m u n ica t ion in or ga n iza t ion s is t y p ica lly d efi n ed a s t r a n sm it t in g or exch a n gin g in for -m a t ion or op in ion s. H oy a n d Misk el (1987) su ggest ed t h a t com m u n ica t ion p r ocesses a r e d iffu s ed t h r ou gh ou t t h e en t ir e or ga n iza t ion , a fa ct w h ich m a k es it ext r em ely d ifficu lt t o exa m in e t h ese p r ocesses a s se p a r a t e en t it ies. N on et h eless, sever a l st u d ies (e.g. H oy a n d Misk el, 1987; Mu r p h y a n d P eck , 1980; Sigb a n d a n d Bell, 1989) d em on st r a t e t h e cen t r a lit y of com m u n ica t ion a s a fu n ct ion in t h e or ga n iza -t ion a n d i-t s s-t a -t u s in d e-t er m in in g -t h e n a -t u r e of ot h er fu n ct ion s (e.g. in st r u ct ion a l lea d er -sh ip ).

Sever a l con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k s for or ga n i-za t ion a l com m u n ica t ion exis t . T h e on e ch o-sen h er e (offer ed by Gor t on a n d Sn ow d en , 1993) is com p r eh en s ive, su fficien t ly in d e p t h a n d a p p lica ble t o sch ool m a n a gem en t . T h e con ce p t s ch osen for t h is fu n ct ion w er e a ssoci-a t ed w it h fou r r oles of t h e s ch ool m ssoci-a n ssoci-a ger ssoci-a s follow s : com m u n ica t ion sen d er, r eceiver, m on it or a n d in for m a t ion seek er.

H eav y em p h a sis in t h e fr a m ewor k is on t h e r ole of com m u n ica t ion s en d er. T h e follow in g six set s of con ce p t s w er e ch osen :

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Naftaly S. Glasman

Using c o nc e ptual frame wo rks in manage me nt training: the c ase o f e duc atio n

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2 effect ive ch a r a ct er is t ics of t h e con t en t of t h e m es sa ge (e.g. a r ou sin g d es ir e, d esir -a ble com m u n ic-a t ion fi r st , -a ck n ow led gin g op p os in g a r gu m en t s, r ecogn izin g t h a t fa ct a lon e w ill n ot ch a n ge p eop le’s op in ion ); 3 r ecip ien t s’ p er ce p t ion of m es sa ge sen d er

(e.g. h on est , t a ct fu l, a cce p t in g, p osit ive, d e p en d a ble);

4 r ecip ien t s’ ch a r a ct er is t ics (e.g. t h eir in t er -est , k n ow led ge, b ia s, s ocia l b a r r ier s ); 5 com m u n ica t ion ch a n n els (e.g. w r it in g,

or a l fa ce-t o-fa ce, or a l-elect r on ic/ v is u a l); a n d

6 cr it er ia for ch oosin g com m u n ica t ion ch a n -n el (e.g. ob ject ives, co-n t e-n t , a u d ie-n ce, st r en gt h of com m u n ica t or, ot h er s p ecifi c sit u a t ion s).

Con ce p t s p er t in en t t o t h e r ole of com m u n ica -t ion r eceiver in clu d ed p er ceived r ea son s for m ess a ge, p er ceived k ey fa ct s in t h e m es sa ge, a n d t h e p er ce p t ion a b ou t t h e ext en t t o w h ich t h e m es s a ge is t y p ica l a n d in d ica t ive of it s s en d er. Kin d s of list en in g a n d r ea d in g in r eceiv in g com m u n ica t ion a r e ou t lin ed in t h e fr a m ewor k . Som e r ecom m en d ed lis t en in g b eh av iou r s a r e d iscu ss ed su ch a s sh ow in g a t t en t ion , seek in g a d d it ion a l in for m a t ion , s eek in g cla r ifi ca t ion , p a r a p h r a s in g, r efl ect -in g em ot ion a n d s u m m a r iz-in g.

T h e la s t t wo com m u n ica t ion r oles

p r esen t ed w er e m on it or in g a n d in for m a t ion s eek in g. T h e for m er is ch a r a ct er ized by st ay -in g -in for m ed a b ou t k ey com m u n ica t ion s a n d k ey com m u n ica t or s. T h e la t t er in volves feed -b a ck fr om m u lt ip le s ou r ces a -b ou t p r ocess a n d effect .

Style

M a n a ger ia l st y le in or ga n iza t ion s is t y p ica lly d efi n ed a s t h e ch a r a ct er is t ic m a n n er in w h ich t h e m a n a ger in t er a ct s w it h s u b or d i-n a t es. T h e ii-n t er a ct ioi-n is a fu i-n ct ioi-n of t h e w ay in w h ich t h e m a n a ger a n d s u b or d in a t es p er -ceive ea ch ot h er s’ a ct ion s a n d b eh av iou r s (e.g. H a ll, 1990). T h u s, m a n a ger ia l st y le is d et er m in ed by p er ce p t ion s of m em b er s of t h e or ga n iza t ion . T h e st y le, in t u r n , a ffect s s u b -or d in a t es ’ f-or m a l a n d in f-or m a l b eh av iou r s. M a n a ger ia l st y le h a s b een v iew ed a s ver y cen t r a l t o t h e d escr ip t ion , u n d er s t a n d in g a n d op er a t ion of a n or ga n iza t ion (e.g. Ou ch i, 1981).

On ly in r ecen t yea r s h ave st u d en t s of ed u ca -t ion a l a d m in is -t r a -t ion b e gu n -t o a -t -t r ibu -t e h igh s ign ifi ca n ce t o t h e st u dy of lea d er sh ip s t y le in m a n a gem en t t r a in in g p r ogr a m m es (e.g. Gla s m a n , 1997). T h e ch a n ge occu r r ed a s a r es u lt of in cr ea sed b elief t h a t st y le is cr u cia l t o effect iven ess a n d t h a t it m ay b e lea r n ed . T h e con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k ch osen h er e (offer ed by Bolm a n a n d Dea l, 1984) w a s on e of

t h e fi r st on es t o b e offer ed in t h e fi eld . It h a s st r on g t h eor et ica l gr ou n d in g (b e gin s w it h a solid set of a ssu m p t ion s), a n d it is h igh ly com p r eh en sive (offer s s p ecifi c b eh av iou r s for fou r st y les in a ssocia t ion w it h n in e d iffer en t a d m in ist r a t ive fu n ct ion s ea ch ). T h u s, on e cou ld exa m in e b eh av iou r s b elon gin g t o a st r u ct u r a l st y le, a h u m a n r es ou r ce st y le, a p olit ica l st y le a n d a sy m b olic st y le in t er m s of ea ch of t h e follow in g n in e fu n ct ion s:

1 p la n n in g; 2 d ecis ion m a k in g; 3 r eor ga n izin g; 4 eva lu a t in g;

5 a p p r oa ch in g con fl ict ; 6 goa l set t in g;

7 com m u n ica t in g; 8 m eet in g; a n d 9 m ot iva t in g.

Som e of t h e a ssu m p t ion s u n d er ly in g t h e u se of t h e st r u ct u r a l s t y le in clu d e:

1 em p h a sis on goa ls a n d cor r esp on d in g a p p r op r ia t e st r u ct u r es;

2 d e p loy m en t in a t u r bu len t en v ir on m en t of n or m s of r a t ion a lit y a s w ell a s con t r ol a n d im p er s on a l r u les ;

3 d e p loy m en t of sp ecia liza t ion for in cr ea sed p er for m a n ce; a n d

4 d e p loy m en t of st r u ct u r a l solu t ion s t o p r ob -lem s w h ich a r e p er ceived a s st r u ct u r a l in n a t u r e.

Select ed a ssu m p t ion s u n d er ly in g t h e h u m a n r ela t ion s st y le a r e a s follow s:

1 n eed for a fi t b et w een n eed s of t h e or ga n i-za t ion a n d n eed s of t h e in d iv id u a ls; a n d 2 w h en fi t is p oor, b ot h su ffer ; w h en fi t is

good , b ot h b en efi t .

T h e a ssu m p t ion s u n d er ly in g t h e u se of t h e p olit ica l st y le in clu d e:

1 a lloca t ion of sca r ce r es ou r ces is a cen t r a l d ecision ;

2 coa lit ion s of in t er est gr ou p s for m ; t h ey d iffer in va lu es a n d b eliefs a n d t h ey st r ive t o a dva n ce t h eir ca u s e; a n d

3 coa lit ion s n e got ia t e bu t sca r ce r esou r ces a n d d iffer en ces r em a in ; con fl ict is a cen -t r a l fea -t u r e of or ga n iza -t ion a l life. Som e of t h e a ssu m p t ion s u n d er ly in g t h e u se of t h e sy m b olic s t y le a r e:

1 p er ce p t ion s a n d m ea n in g of even t s a r e cen t r a l;

2 t h er e is m u ch a m b igu it y in t h e or ga n iza -t ion ; a n d

3 t h e cr ea t ion of s y m b ols r ed u ces a m b igu it y.

Problem solving

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t h a t in or ga n iza t ion a l life t h e p r ocess of p r ob -lem s olv in g is con sid er ed t h e m a k in g of a ser ies of r ela t ed d ecision s. In m ost of t h e lit er a t u r e w h ich d ea ls w it h p r oblem solv in g a n d d ecision m a k in g in ed u ca t ion a l or ga n iza -t ion s, -t h e m a k in g of d ecision s is con s id er ed cen t r a l t o t h e wor k of t h e m a n a ger. T h e solv -in g of p r oblem s, t h ou gh , is con sid er ed a n im p or t a n t con t ext w it h in w h ich t h e d ecision s a r e m a d e (e.g. Ca r r oll a n d J oh n s on , 1990).

P r oblem -s olv in g-b a s ed con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k s h ave b een u sed in m a n a gem en t t r a in -in g p r ob a b ly m or e t h a n a n y ot h er fr a m ewor k (e.g. Br id ges, 1997). T h e fr a m ewor k s va r y by t h e p r oblem sit u a t ion t o w h ich t h e fr a m e-wor k is a p p lied . On e va r ia t ion is a fu n ct ion of t h e len gt h of t im e it is es t im a t ed t o solve a p r oblem . Sh or t -t er m p r oblem a t ic solu t ion s (les s t h a n a n h ou r ) a r e t y p ica lly n ot r e p or t ed b eca u s e of b r ev it y a n d t h e d ifficu lt y of r ecor d in g b eh av iou r s a n d t h ou gh t s. M ed iu m -t er m p r oblem a -t ic si-t u a -t ion s (u p -t o -t wo d ay s) in volve s ever a l d ecision s w h ich ca n b e d et ect ed a n d r ecor d ed (e.g. Gla sm a n , 1994). Lon g-t er m p r oblem a t ic sit u a t ion s (a yea r or m or e) in volve t h e follow in g t y p ica l st a ges w h ich occu r b eca u s e of t h e ava ila b ilit y of t im e: d ia gn os is, a lt er n a t ive solu t ion s, s elec-t ion a n d im p lem en elec-t a elec-t ion a n d eva lu a elec-t ion (e.g. Ker s ey a n d Bla n ch a r d , 1988).

T h e con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k offer ed h er e (Gla s m a n , 1994) in volved n ot on ly d ecis ion s m a d e by m a n a ger s, bu t a lso eva lu a t ion s con -d u ct e-d by t h em . T h e cen t r a l a ss u m p t ion w a s t h a t m a n a ger s sp en d q u it e a b it of t im e eva lu -a t in g – t h -a t is, g-a t h er in g in for m -a t ion -a n d ju d gin g it s wor t h – a n d t h a t eva lu a t ion r esu lt s s er ve a s in p u t s t o t h eir d ecis ion s. T h e fr a m ewor k in clu d es a p r oblem -s olv in g p r oces s m a d e u p of fou r d ecis ion s a n d 22 eva lu a t ion a ct ion s sp r ea d a m on g t h e fou r d ecis ion s. T h e Ap p en d ix d e p ict s a con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k for t h e p r oblem -s olv in g m od u le.

Teaching the functions

T h is s ect ion a lso in clu d es t h r ee su b s ect ion s. E a ch s u b s ect ion d escr ib es t h e m et h od s u s ed t o t ea ch ea ch of t h e t h r ee fu n ct ion s, r es p ec-t ively. In ea ch ca s e ec-t h e ec-t ea ch in g gu id e w a s ec-t h e r esp ect ive con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k id en t ifi ed in t h e p r ev iou s sect ion . T h e t ea ch in g of t h e t h r ee fu n ct ion s h a d t h e follow in g in com m on : 1 Som e m a t er ia l a b ou t t h e fu n ct ion w a s r ea d by t r a in ees p r ior t o t h e fi r s t cla s s m eet in g d ea lin g w it h t h e su b ject .

2 T h e con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k w a s in t r od u ced in t h e fi r st m eet in g a n d d is cu s sed in t er m s of t h e r ela t ion sh ip of sp ecifi c con ce p t s t o t h eir cou n t er p a r t b eh av iou r s, a t t it u d es a n d p er ce p t ion s in m a n a ger ia l p r a ct ice (in t h e p r oblem -s olv in g u n it a s econ d m eet in g

w a s n eed ed in or d er t o com p let e t h is d is-cu ssion ).

3 An a s sign m en t w a s given (in t h e com m u -n ica t io-n a -n d st y le u -n it s, t wo a ssig-n m e-n t s w er e given ) w h er ein t h e t r a in ees w er e a sk ed t o ga t h er d a t a a b ou t t h e fu n ct ion a n d t o a n a ly se it in t er m s of p ossible gen er a lit ies.

4 In a n ot h er cla ss m eet in g, ga t h er ed d a t a w er e sh a r ed , d iscu s sed , a n d b r oa d er gen -er a lit ies w -er e sou gh t .

Communication

Sever a l p r a ct ice-b a sed exa m p les w er e in t r o-d u ceo-d a n o-d o-d iscu sseo-d in con n ect ion w it h ea ch of t h e follow in g fou r com m u n ica t ion r oles of t h e sch ool m a n a ger – m essa ge s en d er, m es-sa ge r eceiver, m on it or a n d in for m a t ion seek er. I h a d t h e op p or t u n it y t o r e p ea t t h is p r oced u r e eigh t t im es (1988-1996) a t t h e Un i-ver sit y of J u d a ism in Los An geles. I fou n d t h a t a s m or e a n d m or e exa m p les a r e h ea r d , t h e t r a in ees b e gin t o feel t h a t t h e fou r com m u n ica t ion r oles a r e a lso fou r com m u n ica -t ion for m s.

Mor e sp ecifi ca lly, m ost of t h e exa m p les of com m u n ica t ion h ea r d a r e v iew ed a s w ay s of exch a n gin g op in ion s a n d in for m a t ion . T h e m a jor p r oblem a ssocia t ed w it h t h ese exch a n ges is t y p ica lly id en t ifi ed a s m iscom m u n ica t ion . T r a in ees exp r ess d iffer en t p er ce p t ion s a b ou t a given or a l or w r it t en com -m u n ica t ion . So-m e cla ss t i-m e is d evot ed t o id en t ify in g w ay s of lea r n in g h ow t o avoid su ch d iffer en ces. T h e u se of t h e con ce p t s is h elp fu l in p er for m in g t h is a ct iv it y.

In a d d it ion t o b ein g exp osed t o exa m p les in p r a ct ice of con ce p t s a ssocia t ed w it h sch ool m a n a ger s’ en ga gem en t in com m u n ica t ion , t h e t r a in ees en ga ged in a p er t in en t exer cise w h ich t ook p la ce in t h e fi r s t cla ss session of t h e u n it . E a ch of t h e t r a in ees w a s given t h e t a sk of p r e p a r in g a t h r ee-m in u t e or a l m essa ge fr om a sch ool p r in cip a l t o h is/ h er t ea ch -er s. T h e p u r p ose of t h e m ess a ge, t h e ch a r a c-t er is c-t ics of c-t h e r eceiver s, a n d c-t h e con c-t en c-t of t h e m es sa ge w er e t o b e ea ch t r a in ee’s ch oice. Aft er t en m in u t es of p r e p a r a t ion t im e, t r a in ees w er e a sk ed t o d eliver t h e m essa ges on e a t a t im e. Wh ile a given t r a in ee d eliver ed t h e m es sa ge, t h e r est of t h e t r a in ees p r e p a r ed t h em s elves t o s h a r e t h eir p er ce p t ion s a b ou t fou r it em s p er t in en t t o t h e m ess a ge: 1 t h e r ea son (s) for t h e m essa ge; 2 t h e k ey fa ct s in clu d ed in t h e m essa ge; 3 in for m a t ion w h ich m ay b e r eleva n t t o t h e

m essa ge bu t w a s n ot in clu d ed ; a n d 4 t h e ext en t t o w h ich t h e m essa ge is t y p ica l

a n d in d ica t ive of t h e sen d er.

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a b ou t a for t h com in g a s sem bly ; in q u ir y a b ou t s t a ff d evelop m en t a ct iv it ies ; a n n ou n cem en t s a b ou t con t a ct s w it h ou t s id e a gen cies ). Fol-low in g t h e d eliver y of t h e m ess a ges, lis t en er s s h a r ed t h eir p er ce p t ion s r e ga r d in g t h e fou r it em s m en t ion ed .

Follow in g t h e d iscu s s ion of t h e r es u lt s of t h e exer cis e, t h e a s sign m en t w a s given . T r a in ees w er e a s k ed t o log a n d r ecor d t h em -s elve-s in t h eir wor k a -s a d m in i-st r a t ive in t er n -s in s ch ools for 30 m in u t es or m or e u n t il t h ey h a d d et ect ed fi ve in st a n ces of s elf-en ga ge-m en t in coge-m ge-m u n ica t ion . T h ey w er e a ls o a s k ed t o eva lu a t e t h eir com m u n ica t ion s k ills in t er m s of effect iven es s cr it er ia d er ived fr om t h e con ce p t s. T r a in ees p r es en t ed t h eir wor k or a lly a n d in w r it in g in t h e follow in g cla s s s ess ion . A d is cu s sion follow ed w h ich s ea r ch ed for gen er a lit ies.

Style

H er e t oo, t h e session in w h ich t h e con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k is in t r od u ced in clu d es a m p le exa m p les t h a t a r e p r a ct ice-b a sed . Act u a lly t h is t a s k is r ela t ively ea s y b eca u s e t h e ch osen fr a m ewor k en com p a sses 36 p os s ible m a n a ge-r ia l b eh av iou ge-r s (n in e fu n ct ion s ×fou r s t y les ). It s o h a p p en s t h a t som e “cells ” ca n n ot b e ea s ily fi lled w it h exa m p les fr om t h e fi eld , p r im a r ily b eca u s e sch ool p r in cip a ls d o n ot exh ib it a ll st y les in a ll fu n ct ion s.

Wh ile I h ave h a d t h e p r iv ile ge of wor k in g w it h t r a in ees on t h e fu n ct ion of st y le for s ix yea r s a t t h e Un iver sit y of Ca lifor n ia , Sa n t a Ba r b a r a (1991-1997), I w a s a ble t o m a k e t h e fi r s t a s s ign m en t on ly in t h e la st t h r ee yea r s sin ce t h e p u blica t ion of Ga r d n er ’s (1995) b ook (t o b e d is cu ssed b elow ). In t h is a s sign m en t , t r a in ees w er e a s k ed t o id en t ify m a n a ger ia l b eh av iou r s in a ser ies of w r it t en d es cr ip t ion s of lives of 11 exce p t ion a l lea d er s. Su ch a collect ion of d escr ip t ion s exis t s in H ow a r d Ga r d -n er ’s L ea d i-n g M i-n d s (1995). It i-n clu d es wor k s on Rob er t Op p en h eim er, Rob er t H u t ch in s, Geor ge M a r s h a ll, P op e J oh n XXIII, E lea n or Roos evelt , Ma r t in Lu t h er Kin g a n d ot h er s. Ty p ica l d es cr ip t ion s in clu d e: “…M a r s h a ll s h ow ed t h a t h e ca r ed a b ou t t h e h u m a n d im en sion of s old ier in g…” (p. 158) (cou ld ea sily b e la b elled “h u m a n r ela t ion s t y le”); “…Kin g w a s evolv in g fr om a r efor m er in t o a r a d ica l…” (p. 217) (cou ld ea s ily b e la b elled “p olit ica l s t y le”). I fou n d it u sefu l t o m a k e t h is a ss ign m en t in p a ir s so t h a t t r a in ees h a d a ch a n ce of b ou n cin g id ea s b a ck a n d for t h off ea ch ot h er.

T h e n ext cla s s m eet in g w a s d evot ed t o s h a r -in g t h e d a t a a n d d iscu ss -in g t h e va lu e of t h e con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k .

T h e s econ d a ss ign m en t in t h is a r ea w a s t o ob ser ve (sh a d ow ) a sch ool p r in cip a l for on e d ay (or t wo h a lf-d ay s), t o r ecor d h is/ h er ob ser ved b eh av iou r s a n d t o cla s s ify t h es e

b eh av iou r s a ccor d in g t o on e or m or e of t h e fou r st y les. T h e p u r p ose w a s t o lea r n fi r st h a n d a b ou t t h e u se of st y le. In t h e fi n a l cla ss m eet in g, r es u lt s w er e sh a r ed a n d gen er a liza -t ion s sou gh -t .

Problem solving

T h e p er t in en t con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k w a s u sed in t h e p a s t t h r ee yea r s (1994-1997) a t t h e Un iver sit y of Ca lifor n ia , Sa n t a Ba r b a r a . It w a s d iscu ssed a t gr ea t len gt h in t h e fi r st cla ss m eet in g. At issu e w a s n ot so m u ch t h e m er it of t h e fou r d ecision s or t h e sign ifi ca n ce of t h e 22 eva lu a t ion s con s id er a t ion s. T h ey h a d a ll b een con sid er ed in on e for m or a n ot h er in t h e m a n a gem en t or eva lu a t ion lit er a t u r es, r esp ect ively. T h e con cer n , r a t h er, w a s a b ou t t h e or d er of t h e con ce p t s in t h e fr a m ewor k . E xa m p les w er e t y p ica lly b r ou gh t fr om p r a c-t ice a n d op c-t ion s w er e s u ggesc-t ed a s c-t o c-t h e sp ecifi c loca t ion of s om e eva lu a t ion con sid er -a t ion s.

T h e a ss ign m en t in t h is u n it con sist ed of in t er v iew in g a sch ool p r in cip a l a b ou t a p r ob -lem a t ic sit u a t ion (m ed iu m r a n ge) h e/ sh e h a s h a d in r ecen t w eek s. T h e t r a in ee w a s t o u se t h e con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k a s a gu id e for t h e 26 q u est ion s. T h e p r in cip a l’s a n sw er s w er e t o b e r ecor d ed in t h e a p p r op r ia t e “cells”. F in a lly, t h e en t ir e ca s e w a s t o b e a n a ly sed in t er m s of t h e com p let en es s of t h e p r oblem -solv in g p r ocess. Da t a w er e s h a r ed in t h e n ext cla ss session a n d gen er a liza t ion s w er e sou gh t a b ou t p r oblem -solv in g b eh av iou r s of p r in cip a ls u sin g t h e cip r ev iou sly m en t ion ed con ce cip -t u a l fr a m ewor k .

Selected learning

T h is sect ion w ill focu s on n ew d a t a w h ich t r a in ees a cq u ir ed a s a r es u lt of t h eir en ga ge-m en t in t h e t h r ee ge-m a n a gege-m en t fu n ct ion s, t h eir t h r ee cor r esp on d in g con ce p t u a l fr a m e-wor k s a n d t h e u ses of t h ese fr a m ee-wor k s t o t ea ch t h e fu n ct ion s. Wh ile a s ea r ch for gen er -a liz-a t ion s -a b ou t t h ese d -a t -a is -a lw -ay s sou gh t in t h is a p p r oa ch , it is oft en p os sible t o com e u p on ly w it h con ject u r es w h ich m u st b e t est ed elsew h er e. T h ese con ject u r es con st it u it e sit r on g h in it s a b ou it m a n a ger s’ b eh av -iou r s, n on et h eless.

On ly s om e of t h e n ew d a t a w ill b e d escr ib ed in t h is sect ion . T h e ch oices a r e illu st r a t ive of a r ich r eser voir of k n ow led ge w h ich m ay b e d er ived fr om t h e u se of con ce p t u a l fr a m e-wor k s in t r a in in g m a n a ger s in ed u ca t ion .

Communication

1 . The e xe rc ise

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a n d t es t in g for r ea ct ion . For p u r p oses of t h is a r t icle, a clos e r ecor d w a s k e p t of d a t a a s soci-a t ed w it h t h e exer cis e w h ich t ook p lsoci-a ce in t h e 1994-1995 a ca d em ic yea r. N in e s t u d en t s w er e in t h e coh or t gr ou p t h a t yea r. In t h e exer cis e, ea ch s t u d en t d eliver ed a m es s a ge w h ile t h e ot h er eigh t d id t h e a n a ly sis. An exa m p le of a m ess a ge wou ld b e a s t a t em en t t o t ea ch er s t o p r ov id e exa m p les of sp ecia l a ct iv it ies t h ey con d u ct in t h eir cla ss r oom s (t o b e in clu d ed in sch ool bu llet in ). In fi ve of t h e eigh t ca s es t h er e w a s com p let e a gr eem en t a m on g lis t en er s a b ou t t h e r ea son for ea ch m ess a ge (m es -sa ges 1, 2, 3, 4 a n d 5). T h r ee m es -sa ges w er e v iew ed a s in for m in g a n d t wo w er e in t en d ed t o con v in ce. In t h e ot h er t h r ee ca ses (m es -sa ges 6, 7, a n d 8) t h er e w a s n o a gr eem en t a b ou t t h e r ea son . Ta ble I s u m m a r izes t h e d a t a p er t in en t t o a ll m es sa ges. (In som e ca s es a lis t en er p er ceived m or e t h a n on e r ea son for a given m es sa ge. On ly t h e m a jor p er ceived r ea s on is r ecor d ed h er e.)

In d is cu ss in g t h e d iffer en ces fou n d in t h e la st t h r ee ca ses, it w a s felt t h a t p er h a p s t h ese t h r ee m es sa ges w er e les s clea r t h a n t h e ot h er fi ve. Ot h er p ossible r ea son s for t h e d iffer -en ces in clu d in g t h e lis t -en er s’ level of k n ow l-ed ge a b ou t t h e su b ject , t h e b eliefs w h ich t h ey m ay h ave a b ou t t h e su b ject , a n d t h eir in t er est in t h e s u b ject . All of t h ese r ea son s a r e p a r t of t h e ch a r a ct er is t ics of r ecip ien t s of m es s a ges w h ich va r y a n d m u st b e t a k en in t o a ccou n t by s ch ool m a n a ger s w h en t h ey com m u n ica t e.

T r a in ees ’ r ea ct ion s t o t h e k ey fa ct s in ea ch of t h e m ess a ges d id n ot d iffer fr om ea ch ot h er sign ifi ca n t ly. T h e m ea n n u m b er of fa ct s p er m ess a ge w h ich w er e d et ect ed by ea ch lis t en er w a s b et w een t wo a n d t h r ee. T h is n u m b er m a k es sen s e given t h e s h or t d u r a t ion of ea ch m ess a ge. T h e n u m b er s of k ey fa ct s d et ect ed by ea ch t r a in ee w er e n ot fou n d t o b e a fu n c-t ion of c-t h e p er ceived r ea son s for c-t h e m es sa ge.

In fou r of t h e ca ses, t r a in ees id en t ifi ed p os -sible k in d s of in for m a t ion w h ich m ay b e r eleva n t bu t n ot in clu d ed in t h e m es s a ge. T h e fou r w er e in m ess a ge n u m b er s 4, 5, 7 a n d 8 (a s d e p ict ed in Ta ble I). It s eem s t h a t su ch

p er ce p t ion s p r eva il w h en t h e p er ceived in t en -t ion of -t h e m ess a ge is -t o con v in ce or -t o -t es-t for r ea ct ion . Discu ssion follow ed con cer n in g t h e cost in cr ed ib ilit y a n d t r u s t t o t h e m essa ge sen d er in su ch in st a n ces. T h e gen er a l feelin g w a s t h a t in som e in st a n ces la ck of in clu sion of som e in for m a t ion is a dv isa ble bu t t h a t a ll p ossible con seq u en ces of d oin g so m u st b e w eigh ed by t h e s ch ool lea d er.

In m ost of t h e ca ses (58 of 8 ×8), list en er s b elieved t h a t t h e m ess a ge w a s h igh ly in d ica -t ive a n d -t y p ica l of -t h e m ess a ge sen d er. T h is fa ct con t r ibu t ed t o t h e p er ce p t ion t h a t list en -er s h a d of t h e m essa ge sen d -er a s con sist en t , p r ed ict a ble a n d t r u st wor t h y. Discu ss ion follow ed a s t o w h y a t t im es t h e m essa ge is p er -ceived a s n ot t y p ica l of t h e sen d er. Rea son s id en t ifi ed in clu d ed w h en a m a jor cr isis occu r s, w h en u n u s u a l p r essu r e is exer t ed , w h en t h er e is a ch a n ge of a lle gia n ce, a n d w h en con fi d en t ia lit y is r eq u ir ed .

2 . The assignme nt

N in e t r a in ees ea ch r e p or t ed a b ou t fi ve com -m u n ica t ion in s t a n ces. Ta ble II d e p ict s t h e n u m b er of com m u n ica t ion in st a n ces r e p or t ed by t y p e of com m u n ica t ion . Over a t h ir d of t h e ca ses w er e “sen d in g” in st a n ces. Ab ou t a fou r t h w er e “a ct ively seek in g in for -m a t ion ” a n d a n ot h er fou r t h w er e “r eceiv in g”.

Cla ss d iscu ssion b e ga n w it h a n a t t em p t t o exp la in t h e n u m b er s. T h r ee fa ct or s w er e h igh ligh t ed : t h e s it u a t ion , t h e a u t h or it y a llo-ca t ed t o t h e in t er n , a n d t h e p er son a l ch a r a c-t er is c-t ics of c-t h e in c-t er n . In p a r c-t icu la r, c-t r a in ee n u m b er s 1,2,7,8 a n d 9 id en t ifi ed p er son a l ch a r a ct er ist ics w h ich t h ey t h ou gh t h elp ed t h em exp la in t h eir d ist r ibu t ion of in st a n ces. Am on g t h e ch a r a ct er ist ics m en t ion ed w er e “ca u t iou sn ess” (9) cou p led w it h a ct ively seek -in g -in for m a t ion (4), “go-in g w it h t h e fl ow ” (1) cou p led w it h r eceiv in g in for m a t ion (2), a n d b ein g a n “ext r over t ” (8) cou p led w it h sen d in g in for m a t ion (2).

T h e n ot ion of com b in a t ion s w a s a lso b r ou gh t u p in d iscu ssin g w h ich seq u en ces of com m u n ica t ion in st a n ces occu r. Two t r a in ees logged t h eir fi ve com m u n ica t ion in st a n ces in on e a n d t wo seq u en ces, r esp ect ively. T h ey r e p or ect ed ect h a ect ect h eir a d m in isect r a -t ive wor k is m a d e u p of sever a l su ch seq u en ces. It so h a p p en ed t h a t t h ese t wo t r a in ees h a d a lso b een d ele ga t ed s ever a l sig-n ifi ca sig-n t a d m isig-n is t r a t ive a u t h or it ies. Bot h t r a in ees felt t h a t sin ce p r in cip a ls exp er ien ce m a n y com m u n ica t ion seq u en ces, t h eir ow n wor k m igh t r es em ble t h os e of t h eir p r in cip a ls t o a la r ger ext en t t h a n t h a t of ot h er t r a in ees w h o h a d b een d ele ga t ed less a u t h or it y. T h e p ossib ilit y of com m u n ica t ion seq u en cin g b ein g a fu n ct ion of t h e s cop e of a d m in ist r a -t ive a u -t h or i-t y w a s d eb a -t ed .

Table I

Numbe r o f liste ne rs’ pe rc e ive d re aso ns fo r me ssage s by re aso n

M essage Perceived reasons for message by eight listeners

number Informing Convincing Testing for reaction

1 8 – –

2 8 – –

3 8 – –

4 – 8 –

5 – 8 –

6 6 – 2

7 1 2 5

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T h e w r it t en r e p or t s in clu d ed s elf-eva lu a t ion s of t h e effect iven es s of t h e in st a n ces of com m u n ica t ion . For t h e 17 in st a n ces in w h ich in for m a t ion w a s “sen t ”, t r a in ees ju d ged t h eir effect iven es s by t h e cr it er ia of h on est y, t a ct fu ln es s, a cce p t a n ce, p os it iven es s, a n d d e p en d a b ilit y. T h eir eva lu a -t ion s in -t er m s of -t a c-t fu ln es s a n d a cce p -t a n ce w er e w ea k er. “Receiv in g” in for m a t ion in 11 in st a n ces w a s eva lu a t ed a b it d iffer en t ly for “lis t en in g” t o a n or a l m ess a ge a n d “r ea d in g” a w r it t en m es s a ge. In “lis t en in g”, t h e cr it er ia u sed w er e a t t en t iven es s, con cen t r a t ion , a n d ca r in g. All t r a in ees eva lu a t ed t h em selves s t r on gly on a t t en t iven es s a n d con cen t r a t ion a n d a b it les s s t r on gly on ca r in g. In “r ea d in g”, t h e eva lu a t ive cr it er ia in clu d ed u n d er -s t a n d in g, con cen t r a t ion a n d ca r in g. T r a in ee-s eva lu a t ed t h em selves st r on gly in con cen t r a -t ion a n d ca r in g a n d a b i-t less s-t r on gly in u n d er s t a n d in g.

On ly t wo of fi ve in st a n ces of “m on it or in g” w er e eva lu a t ed , p r im a r ily in t er m s of p r ocess con s id er a t ion s (is it wor k in g?) r a t h er t h a n ou t com e (w h a t d id it p r od u ce?). In t h e ca se of “a ct ively seek in g in for m a t ion ”, on ly eigh t of 12 in s t a n ces w er e eva lu a t ed , p r im a r ily in t er m s of n u m b er of s ou r ces ch eck ed (t h e m or e s ou r ces, t h e st r on ger t h e eva lu a t ion ).

T h e d es cr ip t ion of t h e con t en t in ea ch in st a n ce of com m u n ica t ion w a s, in m ost ca s es, in for m a t ive a n d clea r ly st a t ed . It cov -er ed a w id e a r r ay of a d m in is t r a t ive r es p on s i-b ilit ies. In r ea d in g t h e d escr ip t ion s it w a s p os sible t o get a s en se t h a t m os t t r a in ees en ga ge in com m u n ica t ion t o a gr ea t ext en t . H ow fa r t h ey p r ogr es sed in t h is a r ea , is exem -p lifi ed in on e in s t a n ce w h ich t h e in t er n la b elled a s a “m on it or in g” in s t a n ce r a t h er t h a n a “m ess a ge r eceiv in g” (list en in g) or a n “in for m a t ion s eek in g”. T h e in s t a n ce w a s d escr ib ed a s follow s:

… I m on it or ed w h a t t h e p r in cip a l w a s d oin g…I ob s er ved a s ch ool t ou r for p er s p ect ive p a r en ect s. T h e p r in cip a l sh a r ed in for m a -t ion a b ou -t -t h e sch ool by s h ow in g a

p r om ot ion a l v id eo … T h e p r in cip a l ver b a lly exp la in ed t h e sch ool’s p h ilosop h y … T h e p r in cip a l sh ow ed t h e fa cilit ies a n d cla ss es in p r ogr ess … T h e p a r en t s h ea r d … ob ser ved … a n d a sk ed q u est ion s…

Wh en a sk ed w h y t h is in st a n ce cou ld n ot b e v iew ed a s a “m essa ge r eceiv in g” in st a n ce, t h e t r a in ee sa id t h a t t h e p r in cip a l w a s n ot t a lk in g t o h im bu t t o p a r en t s. Wh en a s k ed w h y it cou ld n ot b e v iew ed a s “in for m a t ion seek -in g”, t h e t r a -in ee s a id t h a t h e w a s n ot seek -in g fa ct s or id ea s fr om a n yon e. Wh en a sk ed , fi n a lly, w h a t w a s h e d oin g t h er e, t h e t r a in ee sa id :

… I w a t ch ed a n d ob s er ved in or d er t o s ee for m y self h ow good t h e p r in cip a l is, a n d t h a t is m on it or in g …

Style

1 . The first assignme nt

T h is a ssign m en t in clu d ed t h e id en t ifi ca t ion of b eh av iou r s d escr ib ed in Ga r d n er ’s (1995) volu m e a b ou t 11 em in en t lea d er s (n ot n eces-sa r ily ed u ca t ion a l m a n a ger s ) a n d t o cla ssify t h em a ccor d in g t o Bolm a n a n d Dea l’s (1984) fou r st y les. In t h e t h r ee yea r s in w h ich t h is a ssign m en t w a s u sed (1995-1997), t h e cen t r a l va lu e of t h e con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k a n d t h is a ssign m en t w a s id en t ifi ed by t r a in ees a s en h a n cin g t h eir aw a r en ess a n d u n d er st a n d in g of d iffer en ces a m on g lea d er s. For exa m -p le, a -p olit ica l lea d er u ses -p ow er a n d im m er ses h im / h er self in con fl ict a lm ost a s a m a t t er of h a b it . T h is lea d er ca n b e r ecogn ized by h is / h er p olit ica l st y le w it h r e ga r d t o n ea r ly ever y t h in g s h e or h e d oes (e.g. H u t ch in s). So it is for t h e P op e w it h r e ga r d t o sy m b olic s t y le, Ma r sh a ll w it h r e ga r d t o t h e st r u ct u r a list st y le, a n d Mr s Roosevelt w it h r e ga r d t o t h e h u m a n r esou r ces st y le.

T h e r ea son s su ch st y les a r e exh ib it ed r ela t e t o t h e a ssu m p t ion s w h ich u n d er lie t h e b eh av -iou r s. For exa m p le, va lu e d iffer en ces exist in t h e p olit ica l wor ld , u n cer t a in t y in t h e sy m -b olic wor ld , t h e n eed t o est a -blish goa ls a n d cor r esp on d in g st r u ct u r es in t h e st r u ct u r a list wor ld a n d t h e n eed t o sa t isfy in d iv id u a ls’ a n d t h e or ga n iza t ion ’s n eed s in t h e h u m a n r es ou r ce wor ld .

Ot h er fi n d in gs b a sed on t h e t h r ee yea r s of wor k in clu d e:

• St y le cou ld b e r ela t ed t o t h e lea d er ’s b a ck -gr ou n d .

• Dom in a n t st y le is ev id en t in a lm ost a ll n in e fu n ct ion s.

• In ca ses w h er e m or e t h a n on e s t y le is d om i-n a i-n t , a givei-n st y le m ay b e cor r ela t ed w it h a sp ecifi c sit u a t ion .

• A lea d er m ay ch a n ge st y le w it h a ge a n d m is sion .

2 . The se c o nd assignme nt

In t h is a ssign m en t s ch ool p r in cip a ls w er e ob ser ved for a t ot a l of eigh t h ou r s. T h eir b eh av iou r s w er e r ecor d ed by u n it of a ct iv it y a n d cla s sifi ed by on e or m or e st y les. T h e fi n d in gs h er e d iffer ed con sid er a b ly fr om t h ose in t h e fi r st a ssign m en t . (T h e m et h od u s ed p er m it t ed on ly eigh t h ou r s of wor k Table II

First five instanc e s o f c o mmunic atio n e xpe rie nc e d and re c o rde d by inte rns in a 3 0 -minute wo rk pe rio d

Communication Number of instances reported by intern

Instance type 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total

Sending information 3 2 2 2 2 1 3 2 1 7

Receiving information 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 – 1 1 1

M onitoring information – 1 1 1 1 1 – – – 5

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r a t h er t h a n a lifet im e h is t or y.) Below is a list of select ed fi n d in gs ob t a in ed d u r in g t h e six t im es t h is a s sign m en t w a s given :

• M ea n d u r a t ion of a b eh av iou r is a b ou t t h r ee m in u t es. Ab ou t 160 b eh av iou r s a r e ob ser ved on t h e aver a ge by ea ch t r a in ee ever y yea r.

• Ap p r oxim a t ely 90 p er cen t of t h es e b eh av -iou r s a r e cla ss ifi ed a s eit h er s t r u ct u r a lis t or h u m a n r esou r ces st y les. T h e r es t a r e cla s sifi ed a s eit h er p olit ica l or sy m b olic st y les.

• M os t of t h e u ses of t h e p olit ica l st y les a r e fou n d t o occu r t oget h er w it h t h e u s es of t h e st r u ct u r a lis t st y les.

• Ab ou t t h r ee-q u a r t er s of t h e u s es of t h e sy m b olic s t y les a r e fou n d t o occu r t oget h er w it h t h e u s es of t h e h u m a n r es ou r ces st y les.

• M os t t r a in ees b elieve t h a t t h e s t r u ct u r a lis t st y le is, in t h e m a in , a m a t t er of k n ow led ge w h ich n eed s t o b e a cq u ir ed .

• M os t t r a in ees b elieve t h a t t h e h u m a n r es ou r ce st y le is, in t h e m a in , a m a t t er of b ot h k n ow led ge a n d s k ills w h ich n eed t o b e a cq u ir ed .

Problem solving

Us in g t h e con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k w h ich con sist s of fi ve d ecis ion q u est ion s a n d 22 eva lu a -t ion q u es -t ion s, ea ch -t r a in ee in -t er v iew ed a sch ool p r in cip a l a b ou t a m ed iu m r a n ge p r ob -lem a t ic s it u a t ion t h e p r in cip a l exp er ien ced in r ecen t w eek s. T r a in ees con d u ct ed t h e in t er v iew s w it h t h e exp licit k n ow led ge t h a t t h e or d er of t h e con ce p t s in t h e con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k m ay h ave t o b e a d ju s t ed . T h a t is, som e p r in cip a ls m ay con vey in for m a t ion n ot in t h e p r ea r r a n ged or d er of t h e q u es t ion s. T h r ee coh or t s of s t u d en t s h ave d on e t h is a s sign m en t . Dom a in s w it h in w h ich p r oblem a t ic sit u a t ion s occu r r ed va r ied (e.g. cu r r icu -lu m , p er s on n el, st u d en t p er son n el, fi n a n ce). As els ew h er e (Gla sm a n , 1994, p p. 87-90), t h e d om in a n t m et h od s of eva lu a t in g t h e d iffer en t st a ges t u r n ed ou t t o b e d is cu s sion s w it h on e or m or e ot h er p eop le or con sid er a t ion of t h e is su e on on e’s ow n . T h is w a s t r u e in t h e eva l-u a t ion of p ossible soll-u t ion s, t h eir ow n er s, t h e ow n er s ’ p r ior it ies, t h e p oss ible effect s of t h e solu t ion s, t h eir cos t s, a n d t h eir m a n a gea b il-it y. T h e r e p or t ed eva lu a t ion fi n d in gs w er e p er t in en t t o m ost ca ses.

In s u m , r e p or t s id en t ifi ed t h e follow in g: • a r a n ge of on e t o fou r p os sible s olu t ion s ; • a s m a ll r a n ge of on e t o sever a l ow n er s of t h e

p os s ible s olu t ion s;

• of t h e t ot a l solu t ion ow n er s, a b ou t 75 p er cen t focu s ed on d es ir ed ou t com es (w h ich d ecis ion s t o m a k e) a n d a b ou t 25 p er cen t focu s ed on d esir ed p r ocess es (h ow t o d ecid e);

• of t h e t ot a l p ossible effect s of t h e solu t ion s, a b ou t 75 p er cen t focu sed on cogn it ive r esu lt s (w h a t p eop le wou ld k n ow ) a n d a b ou t 25 p er cen t focu sed on a ffect ive r esu lt s (h ow p eop le wou ld feel);

• t h r ee k in d s of cost s of p ossible solu t ion s in clu d ed d olla r s, p er son n el a n d t im e; a n d • a ll r e p or t s m en t ion ed t h a t p ossible solu

-t ion s w er e v iew ed a s m a n a gea ble by -t h e p r in cip a ls.

Follow -u p q u est ion s w er e u su a lly r a ised in r e ga r d t o im p r ov in g p r oblem -solv in g a n d d ecision -m a k in g sk ills. T h ese in clu d ed : • Wh en op t ion s p a r t ly over la p (in com p a r

ison t o sit u a t ion s w h er e op t ion s a r e m u t u -a lly exclu sive), is it e-a sier or m or e d ifficu lt t o con d u ct eva lu a t ion s w h ich lea d t o a p os-sible s olu t ion ? Som e t r a in ees felt t h a t it is ea sier b eca u se on e n eed s t o h a n d le less d a t a a n d t h a t on e’s ca p a cit y t o h a n d le d a t a is lim it ed .

• Wh en t h er e is m or e t h a n on e ow n er of t h e p oss ible solu t ion s, w h a t m igh t en h a n ce t h e r ecogn it ion by t h e ot h er co-ow n er s t h a t t h ey a r e, in fa ct , co-ow n er s of a p r oblem a t ic sit u a t ion ? Alm ost a ll t r a in ees a gr eed t h a t t h e a ssign m en t of d u t ies t o in d iv id u a ls m igh t en h a n ce su ch r ecogn it ion . T h e t im in g of d u t y a ssign m en t is a fu n ct ion of t h e level of in volvem en t t h e d ecision m a k er d es ir es for h im / h er self a n d for ot h er s (Gor t on a n d Sn ow d en , 1993, p p. 20-21). • Wh a t ca n b e d on e t o en h a n ce t h e p r oblem

-solv in g p r ocess w h en ou t com e-r ela t ed p r ior it ies of t h e solu t ion coow n er s va r y su b -st a n t ia lly ? Alm o-st a ll t r a in ees a gr eed t h a t a t t em p t s sh ou ld b e m a d e t o id en t ify a n d / or r ea ffir m a gr eem en t on p r ocess-r ela t ed p r ior it ies of t h e solu t ion co-ow n er s. • Is t h e sign ifi ca n ce of p oss ible cogn it ive

effect s of s olu t ion s d iffer en t fr om t h a t of p oss ible a ffect ive effect s? H er e, t r a in ees sp lit a lon g t wo m a in lin es of t h in k in g. On e gr ou p felt st r on gly t h a t t h e sign ifi ca n ce of p oss ible cogn it ive effect s fa r ou t w eigh s t h a t of p oss ible a ffect ive effect s. T h e ot h er gr ou p felt t h a t t h e t wo t y p es of p ossible effect s a r e in t er d e p en d en t .

• Sh ou ld d ecis ion m a k er s ch oose p ossible solu t ion s t o p r oblem a t ic sit u a t ion s w h er e t h e m a n a gea b ilit y is ext r em ely d ifficu lt ? Alm ost a ll t r a in ees a gr ee t h a t n ot on ly a r e t h ey n ot in clin ed t o ch oos e t h em , bu t t h a t t h ey m ay even n ot in clu d e t h ese p ossible solu t ion s a s op t ion s a lt oget h er.

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Naftaly S. Glasman

s u ch eva lu a t ion s is t o r ein for ce w h a t is d on e in p r a ct ice a n y w ay.

Summary and concluding remarks

T h e u s e of con ce p t s a n d con ce p t u a l fr a m e-wor k s h a s b een d em on st r a t ed in t h is p a p er in t ea ch in g t h r ee d iffer en t m a n a ger ia l fu n c-t ion s c-t o m a n a ger ia l c-t r a in ees in ed u ca c-t ion . T h e r e p or t ed fu n ct ion s w er e t a u gh t a t t h r ee levels. M or e s p ecifi ca lly, t r a in in g in m a n a ger -ia l com m u n ica t ion w a s s h ow n a s it t a k es p la ce in a s m a ll m a n a ger ia l t r a in in g p r o-gr a m m e in a p r iva t e u n iver s it y. T r a in in g in a m a n a ger ia l st y le w a s ou t lin ed a s it a p p ea r s in a p r elim in a r y a d m in is t r a t ion cr ed en t ia l p r ogr a m m e in a p u blic u n iver s it y. An d fi n a lly, t r a in in g in m a n a ger ia l p r oblem solv -in g w a s d escr ib ed a s it is -in clu d ed -in a n a dva n ced a d m in ist r a t ion cr ed en t ia l p r ogr a m m e, a lso in a p u blic u n iver s it y.

E a ch m a n a ger ia l fu n ct ion a n d it s cor r e-s p on d in g con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k ch oe-sen for t h is p a p er w a s d efi n ed a n d t h e r ea son for t h e ch oice w a s exp la in ed . T h e t ea ch in g m et h od s w er e d es cr ib ed in d et a il in ea ch ca s e, a s w er e s elect ion s of lea r n in g r es u lt s.

T h e t es t in g of t h e con ce p t s w it h fi eld -b a s ed d a t a w a s a n in d is p en s a ble com p on en t of t h e t ea ch in g. A va r iet y of m et h od s of collect in g fi eld d a t a w er e em p loyed (e.g. ob s er va t ion , in t er v iew, self loggin g.) T h e va lu e fou n d in s h a r in g fi eld d a t a a m on g t r a in ees w a s in gen er a t in g n ew id ea s a n d p os s ible n ew con -ject u r es a b ou t t h e m a n a ger ia l t op ics w h ich w er e lea r n ed .

T h e m a jor m ess a ge of t h is p a p er is t h a t t h e t ea ch in g of m a n a ger ia l con ce p t s in p r in cip a l p r e p a r a t ion t r a in in g m ay b e im p r oved by id en t ify in g cen t r a l con ce p t s, d iscu ss in g t h em , a s s ign in g wor k t o t r a in ees w h ich in volves collect in g d a t a a b ou t t h em s elves a n d ot h er m a n a ger s in r ela t ion t o t h e con ce p t s, a n d d is cu ss in g t h e r es u lt s a n d s y n t h es izin g t h em in cla s s. P r a ct ice-b a sed d a t a collect ion a n d con ce p t s com p lem en t ea ch ot h er. T h ey m ay b e t h e b est com b in a t ion in m a n a ger ia l t r a in in g p r ogr a m m es.

T h is m ess a ge is b r ou gh t a b ou t on t h e b a sis of t h e wor k d on e in t h e USA. T h e ch oice of fu n ction s wh ose tea ch in g w a s descr ibed h er e – com m u n ica t ion , st y le a n d p r oblem solv in g – h ave im p lica t ion s a cr os s t h e en t ir e wor ld . T h es e a r e cen t r a l m a n a ger ia l fu n ct ion s a n d t ea ch in g t h em is a r eq u ir em en t in ever y ed u -ca t ion a l sy s t em . To gr ou n d t h e t ea ch in g of t h es e fu n ct ion s in con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k s in com b in a t ion w it h t h e collect ion of fi eld d a t a m a k es t h e t r a in in g of ed u ca t ion a l m a n a ger s ever y w h er e em p loy gen er a liza ble con ce p t s a n d loca l im p lica t ion s of t h es e con ce p t s. It is

t h ese loca l im p lica t ion s w h ich sh ou ld m a k e t h e m a n a ger ia l t r a in in g d escr ib ed h er e a t t r a ct ive t o a va r iet y of m a n a ger ia l t r a in in g in st it u t ion s r e ga r d less of cou n t r y a n d cu l-t u r e.

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Appendix

A. Did you decide to observe and participate in the problematic situation? Yes __ No __ If yes,

What did you look for? How did you look at it? What did you find?

The problematic issues

The origins of the issues

The participants in the issues

Those responsible for the issues

Possible specific problems to work on

The owners of possible problems

The priorities of problem owners

The possible effects of the problems

The predicted manageability of the problems

B. Did you decide on a problem to work on? Yes __ No __ If so, what was the problem? _______________________________________________________________________________

What did you look for? How did you look at it? What did you find out?

The possible solutions of the problem chosen to work on

The owners of the possible solutions

The priorities of solution owners

The possible effects of the solutions

The cost of the solutions

The manageability of the solutions

C. Did you decide on a solution and did you implement it? Yes __ No __ If so, what the solution and how did you implement it? ___________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________

The solution implementation process

The possible effectiveness of the solution implementation process

The predicted manageability of the solution implementation process

The cost of the solution implementation process

The owners of the solution implementation process

D. Did you decide on a design for a monitoring solution implementation and did you implement it? Yes __ No __ If so, what was the design? _____________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________

The cost of the design for a monitoring solution implementation