6 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1. Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is a branch of linguistics that takes language as an object of
study, in a way that usually distinguished from how syntax, semantics, morphology,
and phonology handle it. Sociolinguistics studies the relationship between language
and society. It explains why we speak differently in different social contexts, and
sociolinguistics is concerned with the social functions of language and the ways it is
used to convey social meaning (Holmes, 2001:1). In addition, Wardhaugh (1986:13)
states sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationships between
languages and society with the goal of a better understanding of the structure of
language and how language functions in communication.
Sociolingistics is scientific discipline developed from the co-operation of
linguistics and sociology that investigates the social meaning of the language system
and of language use, and the common set of conditions of linguistic and social
structure. J.A Fishman (in Chaer, 2004:3) states that sociolinguistics is the study of
characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the
characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact, change and change
one another within a speech community. Halliday (in Sumarsono, 2002:2) defines
sociolinguistics as the institutional linguistics deals with the relation between a
language and the people who use it and Hudson (1996:4) defines sociolinguistics as
the study of language in relation to society, implying (intentionally) that
7 Sociolinguistics has so many functions in daily life since sociolinguistics
explains on how people use the language in each aspects or the certain social
condition, as states by Fishman (in Chaer, 2004:7) that sociolinguistics discusses
‘who speaks’, ‘what language’, ‘to whom’, ‘when’, and ‘to what end’. Therefore, the
function of language can be seen through the speaker, the listener, the topic, the
code, and the meaning. The study also explores the functions and the varieties of
language, the contacts between different languages, attitude of people towards
language use and user, changes of language, as well as plans on language.
There are numerous factors influencing the way people speak which are
investigated by sociolinguistics.
(http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/sociolinguistics.htm):
a. Social class, the position of the speaker in the society, measured by the level
of education, parental background, profession and their effect on syntax and
lexis used by the speaker.
b. Social context, the register of the language used depending on changing
situations, formal language in formal meetings and informal during meetings
with friends for example.
c. Geographical origins, slight differences in pronunciation between speakers
that point at the geographical region which the speaker comes from.
d. Ethnicity, differences between the use of a given language by its native
speakers and other ethnic groups.
e. Nationality, clearly visible in the case of the English language: British
8 f. Gender, differences in patterns of language use between men and women,
such as quantity of speech, intonation patterns.
g. Age, the influence of age of the speaker on the use of vocabulary and
grammar complexity.
2.2. Bilingualism
When two or more languages used alternately by the same speaker, it can be
said that those languages interact each other. The use of two or more languages
alternately by a speaker is called bilingualism. Mackey (1992:12) and Fishman
(1975:73) in Abdul Chaer and Leonie Agustina stated that bilingualism means the
use of two languages by a speaker in his society by turns. Someone who wants to use
two languages, of course they must master the two languages. They must master their
mother tongue and another language that becomes a second language. When people
use two languages to interact with other people they become bilingual.
People sometime speak languages that they have mastered. When they know
more than one language, they may use both of which in their conversation. People
use more than one language that occurs in situation of social context, which is a
situation where they learn a second language in their communities. In a situation
where a person learns a second language, they can be divided between the situation
9 Nababan (1993:27) differs bilingualism and bilinguality. According to him,
bilingualism is habitual to use two languages to interact with other people.
Bilinguality is an ability to use two languages. So, we can conclude that bilingualism
is habitual; bilinguality is ability and bilingual is the person.
Furthermore, Bloomfield (1933:56) defines the bilingualism as “ability of a
speaker in using two languages, in case the using of first language as good as the
second language”. According to Bloomfield, someone called bilingual if she/he able
to use the first language as well as the second language. However, many arguments
toward Bloomfield’s concept about bilingualism. First, it’s not easy to evaluate the
ability of the speaker in mastering two languages that they use and second, is there
any speaker that using the second language as well as first language, and it is rarely
to find someone who master in two languages as well.
2.3. Code
Code is the particular language one chooses to use in any occasion, a system
used for communication between two or more parties. When people are about to
speak, they have to choose a particular code to express their minds of feeling. The
particular code in this case can be a particular language, dialect, style, register, or
variety. Therefore, in daily situation people may use different code in different
situation.
In a bilingual or multilingual society, it is normal for the people to be in a
situation where a choice between two or more codes has to be made. There are
10 which language or variety, and when or where the conversation takes place. To a
bilingual or multilingual, although choosing a code is one of the routines, the skill in
deciding which code should be chosen still needs developing. The skill of choosing
the language is classified as a communicative competence and it is basically
developed by observing factors found in the social context of language uses.
In other words, a code is a system of rules that allow us to give information in
symbolic form. Human language is also a code, consist of words that represent ideas,
events, and objects. When it put together in certain circumstance, it will help us to
communicate.
Hymes (in Jendra, 2010: 71) states that, there are eight factors that bilingual,
multilingual, or monolingual people may consider when choosing a code. The factors
were formulated into an acronym, namely SPEAKING, which stands for Setting and
Scene, Participants, Ends, Act sequence, Key, Instrumentalities, Norms of
Interaction, and Genre.
a. Setting and Scene
The setting and scene are the places, occasions, or natural situations that
can influence the people in choosing the code. People may consider
choosing a more formal variety of language when talking in an office
than when talking in a picnic place. A more moderate attitude in speaking
is also found in a ritual or ceremonial occasion than in a street or
11 b. Participants
The participants are the people involved in the communication found in
the setting. A good public speaker for example, wants to know about
his/her audience (the participants) before performing a speech. He/she
may think of considering what kind of jokes he/she should tell or whether
he/she should speak in a more casual way or formal one after considering
the audience.
c. Ends
The ends are the goals or purposes that a speaker wishes to reach. If a
political party delivers a speech in a campaign, he/she wishes to persuade
the crowd before him/her in order to receive support for the election.
However, if a mother speaks to her son before he lives for school, she
might want her son to behave himself in the school. Thus, for different
ends, speakers of a language often choose different code.
d. Act Sequence
The act sequence refers to the order of a speech, a narrative, a
conversation, or a talking. It also refers to the form and the content of the
speech.
e. Key
The key is referred to the manner, spirit, and feeling of the message
wished to be captured within the conversation. It is also referred to the
spirit captured in the voice or manner of a speaker. The spirit or the
12 f. Instrumentalities
The Instrumentalities are referred to the register and forms of the speech.
The forms that might be under consideration are whether it will be
delivered in a more formal way or a casual friendly one.
g. Norms of Interaction and Interpretation
The norm of interaction is the contextual custom in using the code,
including for example allowance for an interruption, using gestures
freely, addressing an audience, eye contacts, distance, asking questions
about belief, etc.
h. Genre
The genre is referred to the type of the utterances whether it is in the
form of a poem, a proverb, a prayer, a lecture, and etc.
The factors described above have been one of the most important foundations
in the general study of code choices. In a conversation we might not find the factors
to be activated all together. To certain degree these factors in choosing a code might
be also helpful to describe factors that influence other forms of language contact
phenomenon, namely code switching and code mixing.
2.3.1 Code Switching
There is situation where speakers deliberately change a code being used, by
switching from one to another. People are usually required to select a particular code
13 another even within sometimes very short utterances and thereby create a new code
in a process known as code switching.
(Wardaugh, 1986:100) says code switching is a conversational strategy used
to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, change interpersonal
relation with their rights and obligation. Hymes (in Chaer, 1995:142) states that code
switching has become a common term for alternate use of two or more language,
varieties of language, or even speech styles. In code switching, the speaker changes
the code as he/she redefine the situation, formal to informal, official to personal,
serious to humorous, and politeness to solidarity.
Wardaugh (2010:101) describes two kinds of code switching, namely
Situational Code Switching and Metaphorical Code Switching.
1. Situational Code Switching
Situational Code Switching occurs when the language used change according
to the situations in which the conversant find themselves: they speak one language in
one situation and another in a different one. No topic change involved. Here is the
example:
Agus : Menurutku, semuanya karena mereka tidak tahu persis artinya De.
Mark : Hi, Agus.
Agus : Eh, how are you Mark? Mark, this is Made, our friend from Mataram.
Made : Nice to meet you, Mark.
Mark : Nice to meet you too. What are you talking about?
14 2. Metaphorical Code Switching
Metaphorical Code Switching occurs when a change of topic requires a
change in the language used. The interesting point here is that some topics may be
discussed in either code, but the choices of code a distinct flavor to what is said about
the topic. Here is the example:
Made : We want to take it, to where... Ya, itu tempat kita biasa mancing, and we are
drinking, singing, having fun, OK.
Ali : And, there we are surfing, swimming... terus, kita jadi pusing pusing dah...
ha ha ha...
Made : Are you joining, Jim?
Jim : Okay, then.
2.3.2 Causal Factors of Code Switching
From the definitions above, it is learned that code switching is found more
with bilingual or multilingual speakers, although monolinguals may actually be said
to switch from a variety or style to another. Jendra (2010:74) says that several
reasons why bilinguals do code switching. Among the most obvious factors are
namely, quoting someone, marking and emphasizing group identity or solidarity,
including or excluding someone from a conversation, raising status, and showing
15 Ohowaitun (1996:71), states that the case code switching happens for some
factors such as the relationship between the speaker and the listener, the purpose of
speaking, the discussed topic, time and place the conversation takes place.
Fishman (in Chaer, 1995:143) states in accordance to the causal factors of
code switching that is ‘siapa berbicara’, ‘dengan bahasa apa’, ‘kepada siapa’,
‘kapan’, dan ‘dengan tujuan apa’ (‘who speak’, ‘what language’, ‘to whom’, ‘when’,
and ‘to what end’).
2.3.3 Code Mixing
Code mixing is a mixing of two codes or languages, usually without a change
of topic. Code mixing is the change of one language to another within the same
utterance or in the same oral/written text. Code mixing is found mainly in informal
interactions. In formal situation, the speaker tends to mix it because there is no exact
idiom in that language, therefore, it is necessary to use words or idioms from other
language, as stated by Nababan (1993:32)
“Ciri yang menonjol dalam campur kode ini adalah kesantaian atau situasi informal. Dalam situasi berbahasa yang formal, jarang terdapat campur kode. Kalau terdapat campur kode dalam keadaan yang demikian, itu disebabkan karena tidak ada ungkapan yang tepat dalam bahasa yang dipakai itu, sehingga perlu memakai kata atau ungkapan dari bahasa asing.”
Code mixing is the mixing of pieces of a word or phrase from a language into
the other language in a bilingualism and multilingualism. The bilingual or
multilingual usually mix their language because of the social factors. People
16 from other language. This means that in code-mixing, bilinguals or multilingual
usually inserts phrases or words from other language when he/she has a conversation,
they mix a language with the other language.
The sentences below are the samples of Code Mixing cases of bilinguals
single utterance in which a form of Code Mixing involves Indonesian, English,
Spanish, Japanese.
• A Spanish bilingual mixes Spanish and English, e.g:
No van a bring it up in the meeting. (Jendra, 2010:81)
• A Japanese bilingual mixes Japanese and English, e.g:
Watashi was waseda graduate shimashita. (in Azuma, 1993) in Jendra,
2010:81).
Wardaugh (2010:98) divides code mixing into two kinds named Inter-sential
code mixing and Intra-sential code mixing.
1. Inter-sential code mixing
An inter-sential code mixing happens when there is a complete
sentence in a foreign language uttered between two sentences in a base
language. For the example:
• An Indonesian bilingual mixes Indonesian and English, e.g. Ini lagu
lama, tahun 60an. It’s oldies but goodies, they say. Tapi, masih enak
kok didengerin.
• A Spanish bilingual mixes Spanish and English, e.g. No. Se porque. I
17 2. Intra-sential code mixing
Intra-sential code mixing is found when a word, a phrase, or a clause,
of a foreign language is found within the sentence in a base language. For
example:
• An English bilingual mixes English and French, e.g. The hotel, il est
grand, is really huge and unbelievably majestic.
• A Tanzania bilingual mixes Swahili and English, e.g. He accident
ilitokea alipose control Na Aka overturn and landed in a ditch.
Suwito (1983:76-78) devides code mixing in two kinds. They are:
1. Inner Code Mixing (campur kode kedalam)
“Campur kode kedalam (inner code mixing) adalah campur kode yang
bersumber dari bahasa asli dengan segala variasinya”. Inner code mixing
occurs if the speaker inserts the elements of his/her own language into
national language, the elements of dialect into his/her own language, or
elements of varieties and style into his/her dialect. Code mixing and the
elements of a regional language show that the speaker has a regional language
in stuff, or want to show his regional language characteristic.
2. Outer Code Mixing (campur kode keluar)
“Campur kode keluar (outer code mixing) adalah campur kode yang
berasal dari bahasa asing”. For example, the elements of Holland code
switching inserted in Indonesian language. It shows that the speaker belongs
18 language can give the impression that the speaker is a modern, educated and
has good relationship in society. Code mixing with in the elements of Arabic
shows that the speaker is Islamic, obedient, or a devout person.
2.3.4 Causal Factors of Code Mixing
There are some factors that cause people to do code mixing. Breadsmore
(1982:38) states that factors that cause people do code mixing are:
a. Bilingualism
It cannot be avoided that the ability to use to speak more than one language is
a basic factor of code mixing. Most of the world's population is bilingual or
multilingual.
b. Speaker and Partner Speaking
Communication is the process of expressing ideas between two participants
of conversation. Speaker needs partner to communicate and code mixing could
appear if both use and understand it well.
c. Social Community
An individual lives and cooperates in one community either in monolingual
or bilingual community. Now most communities are bilingual that use two languages
in their interactions. In this case, an individual will be influenced by social
19 d. Situation
Usually code mixing occurs in relax or informal situation. This situation is
closer with daily conversation and for writer is also describe as their habitual
communication.
e. Vocabulary
There is not appropriate word or when there is a lack of vocabulary in one
language. The inability to find an appropriate word or expression in one language
makes people change the word or phrase from one to another language and it can be
combined together.
f. Prestige
Globalization era has made people must speak more than one language,
especially English. For many young people code mixing becomes own style which is
