Plastic Packaging Materials for Food and Pharmaceuticals

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Edited by

James G. Brennan Handbook

Food Processing Handbook.Edited by James G. Brennan

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Further of Interest

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Agglomeration in Industry

Occurrence and Applications 2004

ISBN 3-527-30582-3

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Genetically Engineered Food

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E. Ziegler, H. Ziegler (Eds.)

Handbook of Flavourings

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Second, Completely Revised Edition 2006

ISBN 3-527-31406-7

J. N. Wintgens (Ed.)

Coffee: Growing, Processing,

Sustainable Production

A Guidebook for Growers, Processors, Traders and Researchers

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G.-W. Oetjen

Freeze-Drying

Second, Completely Revised Edition 2004

ISBN 3-527-30620-X

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for Food and Pharmaceuticals

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ISBN 3-527-31455-5

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Common Fragrance

and Flavor Materials

Preparation, Properties and Uses Fourth, Completely Revised Edition 2001

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2000

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Edited by

James G. Brennan

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James G. Brennan 16 Benning Way Wokingham Berks RG40 1 XX UK

Library of Congress Card No.:applied for British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data: A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek

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All rights reserved (including those of translation in other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law. Typesetting K+V Fotosatz GmbH, Beerfelden Printing Strauss GmbH, Mörlenbach Binding Litges & Dopf Buchbinderei GmbH, Heppenheim

Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany Printed on acid-free paper

ISBN-13:978-3-527-30719-7 ISBN-10:3-527-30719-2

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Preface XXI

List of Contributors XXIII

1 Postharvest Handling and Preparation of Foods for Processing 1 Alistair S. Grandison

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Properties of Raw Food Materials and Their Susceptibility to Deterioration and Damage 2

1.2.1 Raw Material Properties 3 1.2.1.1 Geometric Properties 3 1.2.1.2 Colour 4

1.2.1.3 Texture 5 1.2.1.4 Flavour 5

1.2.1.5 Functional Properties 5 1.2.2 Raw Material Specifications 6 1.2.3 Deterioration of Raw Materials 7 1.2.4 Damage to Raw Materials 7

1.2.5 Improving Processing Characteristics Through Selective Breeding and Genetic Engineering 8

1.3 Storage and Transportation of Raw Materials 9

1.3.1 Storage 9

1.3.1.1 Temperature 11 1.3.1.2 Humidity 12

1.3.1.3 Composition of Atmosphere 12 1.3.1.4 Other Considerations 13 1.3.2 Transportation 13

1.4 Raw Material Cleaning 14

1.4.1 Dry Cleaning Methods 14

1.4.2 Wet Cleaning Methods 18

1.4.3 Peeling 20

1.5 Sorting and Grading 21

1.5.1 Criteria and Methods of Sorting 21

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1.5.2 Grading 24

1.6 Blanching 26

1.6.1 Mechanisms and Purposes of Blanching 26 1.6.2 Processing Conditions 27

1.6.3 Blanching Equipment 28

1.7 Sulphiting of Fruits and Vegetables 29 References 30

2 Thermal Processing 33 Michael J. Lewis

2.1 Introduction 33

2.1.1 Reasons for Heating Foods 33 2.1.2 Safety and Quality Issues 34

2.1.3 Product Range 35

2.2 Reaction Kinetics 36

2.2.1 Microbial Inactivation 36

2.2.2 Heat Resistance at Constant Temperature 36

2.3 Temperature Dependence 39

2.3.1 Batch and Continuous Processing 41 2.3.2 Continuous Heat Exchangers 43

2.4 Heat Processing Methods 48

2.4.1 Thermisation 48

2.4.2 Pasteurisation 48 2.4.2.1 HTST Pasteurisation 49 2.4.2.2 Tunnel (Spray) Pasteurisers 53 2.4.3 Sterilisation 53

2.4.3.1 In-Container Processing 53 2.4.3.2 UHT Processing 61

2.4.3.3 Special Problems with Viscous and Particulate Products 67

2.5 Filling Procedures 68

2.6 Storage 68

References 69

3 Evaporation and Dehydration 71 James G. Brennan

3.1 Evaporation (Concentration, Condensing) 71 3.1.1 General Principles 71

3.1.2 Equipment Used in Vacuum Evaporation 73

3.1.2.1 Vacuum Pans 73

3.1.2.2 Short Tube Vacuum Evaporators 74 3.1.2.3 Long Tube Evaporators 75

3.1.2.4 Plate Evaporators 76

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3.1.3 Multiple-Effect Evaporation (MEE) 78

3.1.4 Vapour Recompression 79

3.1.5 Applications for Evaporation 80 3.1.5.1 Concentrated Liquid Products 80

3.1.5.2 Evaporation as a Preparatory Step to Further Processing 82 3.1.5.3 The Use of Evaporation to Reduce Transport, Storage

and Packaging Costs 83

3.2 Dehydration (Drying) 85

3.2.1 General Principles 85

3.2.2 Drying Solid Foods in Heated Air 86

3.2.3 Equipment Used in Hot Air Drying of Solid Food Pieces 88 3.2.3.1 Cabinet (Tray) Drier 88

3.2.3.2 Tunnel Drier 89 3.2.3.3 Conveyor (Belt) Drier 89 3.2.3.4 Bin Drier 90

3.2.3.5 Fluidised Bed Drier 90 3.2.3.6 Pneumatic (Flash) Drier 93 3.2.3.7 Rotary Drier 93

3.2.4 Drying of Solid Foods by Direct Contact With a Heated Surface 94 3.2.5 Equipment Used in Drying Solid Foods by Contact

With a Heated Surface 95

3.2.5.1 Vacuum Cabinet (Tray or Shelf) Drier 95 3.2.5.2 Double Cone Vacuum Drier 95

3.2.6 Freeze Drying (Sublimation Drying, Lyophilisation) of Solid Foods 96

3.2.7 Equipment Used in Freeze Drying Solid Foods 97 3.2.7.1 Cabinet (Batch) Freeze Drier 97

3.2.7.2 Tunnel (SemiContinuous) Freeze Drier 98 3.2.7.3 Continuous Freeze Driers 99

3.2.7.4 Vacuum Spray Freeze Drier 99

3.2.8 Drying by the Application of Radiant (Infrared) Heat 100 3.2.9 Drying by the Application of Dielectric Energy 100 3.2.10 Osmotic Dehydration 102

3.2.11 Sun and Solar Drying 104

3.2.12 Drying Food Liquids and Slurries in Heated Air 105 3.2.12.1 Spray Drying 105

3.2.13 Drying Liquids and Slurries by Direct Contact With a Heated Surface 110

3.2.13.1 Drum (Roller, Film) Drier 110 3.2.13.2 Vacuum Band (Belt) Drier 112

3.2.14 Other Methods Used for Drying Liquids and Slurries 113 3.2.15 Applications of Dehydration 114

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3.2.15.4 Instant Coffee and Tea 118 3.2.15.5 Dehydrated Meat Products 118 3.2.15.6 Dehydrated Fish Products 119 3.2.16 Stability of Dehydrated Foods 119

References 121

4 Freezing 125

Jose Mauricio Pardo and Keshavan Niranjan

4.1 Introduction 125

4.2 Refrigeration Methods and Equipment 125 4.2.1 Plate Contact Systems 126

4.2.3 Immersion and Liquid Contact Refrigeration 127 4.2.4 Cryogenic freezing 127

4.3 Low Temperature Production 127

4.3.1 Mechanical Refrigeration Cycle 129 4.3.1 2 The Real Refrigeration Cycle

(Standard Vapour Compression Cycle) 131

4.3.2 Equipment for a Mechanical Refrigeration System 132 4.3.2.1 Evaporators 132

4.3.2.2 Condensers 133 4.3.2.3 Compressors 135 4.3.2.4 Expansion Valves 135 4.3.2.5 Refrigerants 136

4.3.3 Common Terms Used in Refrigeration System Design 137 4.3.3.1 Cooling Load 137

4.3.3.2 Coefficient of Performance (COP) 137 4.3.3.3 Refrigerant Flow Rate 138

4.3.3.4 Work Done by the Compressor 138

4.3.3.5 Heat Exchanged in the Condenser and Evaporator 138

4.4 Freezing Kinetics 138

4.4.1 Formation of the Microstructure During Solidification 140 4.4.2 Mathematical Models for Freezing Kinetics 141

4.4.2.1 Neumann’s Model 141 4.4.2.2 Plank’s Model 142 4.4.2.3 Cleland’s Model 142

4.5 Effects of Refrigeration on Food Quality 143 References 144

5 Irradiation 147 Alistair S. Grandison

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5.3 Equipment 154 5.3.1 Isotope Sources 154

5.3.2 Machine Sources 157

5.3.3 Control and Dosimetry 159

5.4 Safety Aspects 160

5.5 Effects on the Properties of Food 160 5.6 Detection Methods for Irradiated Foods 162 5.7 Applications and Potential Applications 163 5.7.1 General Effects and Mechanisms of Irradiation 164 5.7.1.1 Inactivation of Microorganisms 164

5.7.1.2 Inhibition of Sprouting 166

5.7.1.3 Delay of Ripening and Senescence 166 5.7.1.4 Insect Disinfestation 166

5.7.1.5 Elimination of Parasites 167

5.7.1.6 Miscellaneous Effects on Food Properties and Processing 167 5.7.1.7 Combination Treatments 167

5.7.2 Applications to Particular Food Classes 167 5.7.2.1 Meat and Meat Products 167

5.7.2.2 Fish and Shellfish 169 5.7.2.3 Fruits and Vegetables 169 5.7.2.4 Bulbs and Tubers 170 5.7.2.5 Spices and Herbs 170

5.7.2.6 Cereals and Cereal Products 170 5.7.2.7 Other Miscellaneous Foods 170

References 171

6 High Pressure Processing 173

Margaret F. Patterson, Dave A. Ledward and Nigel Rogers

6.2 Effect of High Pressure on Microorganisms 176 6.2.1 Bacterial Spores 176

6.2.2 Vegetative Bacteria 177 6.2.3 Yeasts and Moulds 177

6.2.4 Viruses 178

6.2.5 Strain Variation Within a Species 178 6.2.6 Stage of Growth of Microorganisms 178

6.2.7 Magnitude and Duration of the Pressure Treatment 179 6.2.8 Effect of Temperature on Pressure Resistance 179

6.2.9 Substrate 179

6.2.10 Combination Treatments Involving Pressure 180 6.2.11 Effect of High Pressure on the Microbiological Quality

of Foods 180

6.3 Ingredient Functionality 181

6.4 Enzyme Activity 183

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6.6 Gelation 187

6.7 Organoleptic Considerations 189

6.8 Equipment for HPP 190

6.8.1 ‘Continuous’ System 190 6.8.2 ‘Batch’ System 191

6.9 Pressure Vessel Considerations 193

6.9.1 HP Pumps 194

6.9.2 Control Systems 195

6.10 Current and Potential Applications of HPP for Foods 195 References 197

7 Pulsed Electric Field Processing, Power Ultrasound and Other Emerging Technologies 201

Craig E. Leadley and Alan Williams

7.2 Pulsed Electric Field Processing 203 7.2.1 Definition of Pulsed Electric Fields 203

7.2.2 Pulsed Electric Field Processing – A Brief History 203 7.2.3 Effects of PEF on Microorganisms 204

7.2.3.1 Electrical Breakdown 204 7.2.3.2 Electroporation 205

7.2.4 Critical Factors in the Inactivation of Microorganisms Using PEF 205

7.2.4.1 Process Factors 205 7.2.4.2 Product Factors 206 7.2.4.3 Microbial Factors 206

7.2.5 Effects of PEF on Food Enzymes 206 7.2.6 Basic Engineering Aspects of PEF 208 7.2.6.1 Pulse Shapes 208

7.2.6.2 Chamber Designs 210

7.2.7 Potential Applications for PEF 211 7.2.7.1 Preservation Applications 211 7.2.7.2 Nonpreservation Applications 212 7.2.8 The Future for PEF 213

7.3 Power Ultrasound 214

7.3.1 Definition of Power Ultrasound 214 7.3.2 Generation of Power Ultrasound 215

7.3.3 System Types 216

7.3.3.1 Ultrasonic Baths 216 7.3.3.2 Ultrasonic Probes 216 7.3.3.3 Parallel Vibrating Plates 217 7.3.3.4 Radial Vibrating Systems 217

7.3.3.5 Airborne Power Ultrasound Technology 217

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7.3.4.2 Ultrasonic Stimulation of Living Cells 218 7.3.4.3 Ultrasonic Emulsification 220

7.3.4.4 Ultrasonic Extraction 220

7.3.4.5 Ultrasound and Meat Processing 220 7.3.4.6 Crystallisation 220

7.3.4.7 Degassing 221 7.3.4.8 Filtration 221 7.3.4.9 Drying 222

7.3.4.10 Effect of Ultrasound on Heat Transfer 222

7.3.5 Inactivation of Microorganisms Using Power Ultrasound 222 7.3.5.1 Mechanism of Ultrasound Action 222

7.3.5.2 Factors Affecting Cavitation 223

7.3.5.3 Factors Affecting Microbiological Sensitivity to Ultrasound 224 7.3.5.4 Effect of Treatment Medium 224

7.3.5.5 Combination Treatments 225

7.3.6 Effect of Power Ultrasound on Enzymes 227 7.3.7 Effects of Ultrasound on Food Quality 227 7.3.8 The Future for Power Ultrasound 228 7.4 Other Technologies with Potential 229

7.4.1 Pulsed Light 229

7.4.2 High Voltage Arc Discharge 230 7.4.3 Oscillating Magnetic Fields 230 7.4.4 Plasma Processing 230

7.4.5 Pasteurisation Using Carbon Dioxide 231

7.5 Conclusions 231

References 232

8 Baking, Extrusion and Frying 237

Bogdan J. Dobraszczyk, Paul Ainsworth, Senol Ibanoglu and Pedro Bouchon

8.1 Baking Bread 237

8.1.1 General Principles 237

8.1.2 Methods of Bread Production 238 8.1.2.1 Bulk Fermentation 239

8.1.2.2 Chorleywood Bread Process 239 8.1.3 The Baking Process 242 8.1.3.1 Mixing 242

8.1.3.2 Fermentation (Proof) 242 8.1.3.3 Baking 243

8.1.4 Gluten Polymer Structure, Rheology and Baking 244 8.1.5 Baking Quality and Rheology 249

8.2 Extrusion 251

8.2.1 General Principles 251 8.2.1.1 The Extrusion Process 252

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8.2.2 Extrusion Equipment 254 8.2.2.1 Single-Screw Extruders 255 8.2.2.2 Twin-Screw Extruders 256

8.2.2.3 Comparison of Single- and Twin-Screw Extruders 258 8.2.3 Effects of Extrusion on the Properties of Foods 259 8.2.3.1 Extrusion of Starch-Based Products 259

8.2.3.2 Nutritional Changes 264

8.2.3.3 Flavour Formation and Retention During Extrusion 267

8.3 Frying 269

8.3.1 General Principles 269 8.3.1.1 The Frying Process 270 8.3.1.2 Fried Products 270

8.3.2 Frying Equipment 272

8.3.2.1 Batch Frying Equipment 272 8.3.2.2 Continuous Frying Equipment 272 8.3.2.3 Oil-Reducing System 273

8.3.3 Frying Oils 274

8.3.4 Potato Chip and Potato Crisp Production 275 8.3.4.1 Potato Chip Production 276

8.3.4.2 Potato Crisp Production 277

8.3.5 Heat and Mass Transfer During Deep-Fat Frying 278 8.3.6 Modelling Deep-Fat Frying 279

8.3.7 Kinetics of Oil Uptake 280

8.3.8 Factors Affecting Oil Absorption 280

8.3.9 Microstructural Changes During Deep-Fat Frying 281 References 283

9 Packaging 291

James G. Brennan and Brian P. F. Day

9.2 Factors Affecting the Choice of a Packaging Material and/or Container for a Particular Duty 292

9.2.1 Mechanical Damage 292

9.2.2 Permeability Characteristics 292

9.2.3 Greaseproofness 294

9.2.4 Temperature 294

9.2.5 Light 295

9.2.6 Chemical Compatibility of the Packaging Material and the Contents of the Package 295

9.2.7 Protection Against Microbial Contamination 297 9.2.8 In-Package Microflora 297

9.2.9 Protection Against Insect and Rodent Infestation 297

9.2.10 Taint 298

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9.3 Materials and Containers Used for Packaging Foods 300 9.3.1 Papers, Paperboards and Fibreboards 300

9.3.1.1 Papers 300 9.3.1.2 Paperboards 301 9.3.1.3 Moulded Pulp 302 9.3.1.4 Fibreboards 302

9.3.1.5 Composite Containers 303

9.3.2 Wooden Containers 303

9.3.3 Textiles 303

9.3.4 Flexible Films 304 9.3.4.1 Regenerated Cellulose 305 9.3.4.2 Cellulose Acetate 306 9.3.4.3 Polyethylene 306 9.3.4.4 Polyvinyl Chloride 306 9.3.4.5 Polyvinylidene Chloride 307 9.3.4.6 Polypropylene 307

9.3.4.7 Polyester 308 9.3.4.8 Polystyrene 308 9.3.4.9 Polyamides 308 9.3.4.10 Polycarbonate 309

9.3.4.11 Polytetrafluoroethylene 309 9.3.4.12 Ionomers 309

9.3.4.13 Ethylene-vinyl Acetate Copolymers 309 9.3.5 Metallised Films 310

9.3.6 Flexible Laminates 310 9.3.7 Heat-Sealing Equipment 311

9.3.8 Packaging in Flexible Films and Laminates 312 9.3.9 Rigid and Semirigid Plastic Containers 314 9.3.9.1 Thermoforming 314

9.3.9.2 Blow Moulding 315 9.3.9.3 Injection Moulding 315 9.3.9.4 Compression Moulding 315 9.3.10 Metal Materials and Containers 315 9.3.10.1 Aluminium Foil 316

9.3.10.2 Tinplate 316

9.3.10.3 Electrolytic Chromium-Coated Steel 319 9.3.10.4 Aluminium Alloy 319

9.3.10.5 Metal Containers 320

9.3.11 Glass and Glass Containers 322

9.4 Modified Atmosphere Packaging 325

9.5 Aseptic Packaging 329

9.6 Active Packaging 331

9.6.1 Background Information 331

9.6.2 Oxygen Scavengers 334

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9.6.4 Ethylene Scavengers 337 9.6.5 Ethanol Emitters 339 9.6.6 Preservative Releasers 340 9.6.7 Moisture Absorbers 341 9.6.8 Flavour/Odour Adsorbers 342 9.6.9 Temperature Control Packaging 343

9.6.10 Food Safety, Consumer Acceptability and Regulatory Issues 344

9.6.11 Conclusions 345

References 346

10 Safety in Food Processing 351 Carol A. Wallace

10.2 Safe Design 351

10.2.1 Food Safety Hazards 352 10.2.2 Intrinsic Factors 354

10.2.3 Food Processing Technologies 355 10.2.4 Food Packaging Issues 355

10.3 Prerequisite Good Manufacturing Practice Programmes 355 10.3.1 Prerequisite Programmes – The Essentials 357

10.3.2 Validation and Verification of Prerequisite Programmes 361 10.4 HACCP, the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point

System 362

10.4.1 Developing a HACCP System 362

10.4.2 Implementing and Maintaining a HACCP System 370 10.4.3 Ongoing Control of Food Safety in Processing 370

References 371

11 Process Control In Food Processing 373

Keshavan Niranjan, Araya Ahromrit and Ahok S. Khare

11.2 Measurement of Process Parameters 373

11.3 Control Systems 374

11.3.1 Manual Control 374 11.3.2 Automatic Control 376

11.3.2.1 On/Off (Two Position) Controller 376 11.3.2.2 Proportional Controller 377

11.3.2.3 Proportional Integral Controller 378

11.3.2.4 Proportional Integral Derivative Controller 379 11.4 Process Control in Modern Food Processing 380 11.4.1 Programmable Logic Controller 381

11.4.2 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition 381 11.4.3 Manufacturing Execution Systems 382

11.5 Concluding Remarks 384

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12 Environmental Aspects of Food Processing 385

Niharika Mishra, Ali Abd El-Aal Bakr and Keshavan Niranjan

12.2 Waste Characteristics 386 12.2.1 Solid Wastes 387 12.2.2 Liquid Wastes 387 12.2.3 Gaseous Wastes 387

12.3 Wastewater Processing Technology 387

12.4 Resource Recovery From Food Processing Wastes 388 12.5 Environmental Impact of Packaging Wastes 389 12.5.1 Packaging Minimisation 389

12.5.2 Packaging Materials Recycling 390

12.6 Refrigerents 392

12.7 Energy Issues Related to Environment 394 12.8 Life Cycle Assessment 396

References 397

13 Water and Waste Treatment 399 R. Andrew Wilbey

13.2 Fresh Water 399

13.2.1 Primary Treatment 400 13.2.2 Aeration 401

13.2.3 Coagulation, Flocculation and Clarification 401 13.2.4 Filtration 403

13.2.5 Disinfection 406 13.2.5.1 Chlorination 406 13.2.5.2 Ozone 408 13.2.6 Boiler Waters 409 13.2.7 Refrigerant Waters 410

13.3 Waste Water 410

13.3.1 Types of Waste from Food Processing Operations 411 13.3.2 Physical Treatment 412

13.3.3 Chemical Treatment 413 13.3.4 Biological Treatments 413

13.3.4.1 Aerobic Treatment – Attached Films 414 13.3.4.2 Aerobic Treatment – Suspended Biomass 417 13.3.4.3 Aerobic Treatment – Low Technology 419 13.3.4.4 Anaerobic Treatments 419

13.3.4.5 Biogas Utilisation 424

13.4 Sludge Disposal 425

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14 Separations in Food Processing 429

James G. Brennan, Alistair S. Grandison and Michael J. Lewis

14.1.1 Separations from Solids 430 14.1.1.1 Solid-Solid Separations 430 14.1.1.2 Separation From a Solid Matrix 430 14.1.2 Separations From Liquids 430 14.1.2.1 Liquid-Solid Separations 431 14.1.2.2 Immiscible Liquids 431 14.1.2.3 General Liquid Separations 431

14.1.3 Separations From Gases and Vapours 432 14.2 Solid-Liquid Filtration 432

14.2.1 General Principles 432 14.2.2 Filter Media 434 14.2.3 Filter Aids 434

14.2.4 Filtration Equipment 435 14.2.4.1 Pressure Filters 435 14.2.4.2 Vacuum Filters 439

14.2.4.3 Centrifugal Filters (Filtering Centrifugals, Basket Centrifuges) 440 14.2.5 Applications of Filtration in Food Processing 442

14.2.5.1 Edible Oil Refining 442 14.2.5.2 Sugar Refining 442 14.2.5.3 Beer Production 443 14.2.5.4 Wine Making 443

14.3 Centrifugation 444

14.3.1 General Principles 444

14.3.1.1 Separation of Immiscible Liquids 444

14.3.1.2 Separation of Insoluble Solids from Liquids 446 14.3.2 Centrifugal Equipment 447

14.3.2.1 Liquid-Liquid Centrifugal Separators 447 14.3.2.2 Solid-Liquid Centrifugal Separators 448

14.3.3 Applications for Centrifugation in Food Processing 450 14.3.3.1 Milk Products 450

14.3.3.2 Edible Oil Refining 451 14.3.3.3 Beer Production 451 14.3.3.4 Wine Making 451 14.3.3.5 Fruit Juice Processing 451

14.4 Solid-Liquid Extraction (Leaching) 452 14.4.1 General Principles 452

14.4.2 Extraction Equipment 455 14.4.2.1 Single-Stage Extractors 455

14.4.2.2 Multistage Static Bed Extractors 456 14.4.2.3 Multistage Moving Bed Extractors 457

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14.4.3.2 Extraction of Sugar from Sugar Beet 459 14.4.3.3 Manufacture of Instant Coffee 459 14.4.3.4 Manufacture of Instant Tea 460

14.4.3.5 Fruit and Vegetable Juice Extraction 460

14.4.4 The Use of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide as a Solvent 460 14.5 Distillation 462

14.5.1 General Principles 462 14.5.2 Distillation Equipment 466 14.5.2.1 Pot Stills 466

14.5.2.2 Continuous Distillation (Fractionating) Columns 466 14.5.3 Applications of Distillation in Food Processing 467 14.5.3.1 Manufacture of Whisky 467

14.5.3.2 Manufacture of Neutral Spirits 469 14.6 Crystallisation 471

14.6.1 General Principles 471 14.6.1.1 Crystal Structure 471

14.6.1.2 The Crystallisation Process 471

14.6.2 Equipment Used in Crystallisation Operations 475 14.6.3 Food Industry Applications 476

14.6.3.1 Production of Sugar 476 14.6.3.2 Production of Salt 477

14.6.3.3 Salad Dressings and Mayonnaise 477 14.6.3.4 Margarine and Pastry Fats 477 14.6.3.5 Freeze Concentration 477

14.7 Membrane Processes 478

14.7.1 Introduction 478

14.7.2 Terminology 479

14.7.3 Membrane Characteristics 480 14.7.4 Flux Rate 481

14.7.5 Transport Phenomena and Concentration Polarisation 481

14.7.6 Membrane Equipment 483

14.7.7 Membrane Configuration 483

14.7.8 Safety and Hygiene Considerations 486 14.7.9 Applications for Reverse Osmosis 488 14.7.9.1 Milk Processing 488

14.7.9.2 Other Foods 489

14.7.10 Applications for Nanofiltration 489 14.7.11 Applications for Ultrafiltration 490 14.7.11.1 Milk Products 490

14.7.11.2 Oilseed and Vegetable Proteins 492 14.7.11.3 Animal Products 492

14.7.12 Applications for Microfiltration 493

14.8 Ion Exchange 495

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14.8.3 Applications of Ion Exchange in the Food Industry 500 14.8.3.1 Softening and Demineralisation 500

14.8.3.2 Decolourisation 502 14.8.3.3 Protein Purification 502 14.8.3.4 Other Separations 503

14.8.4 Conclusion 504

14.9 Electrodialysis 504

14.9.1 General Principles and Equipment 504 14.9.2 Applications for Electrodialysis 506

References 507

15 Mixing, Emulsification and Size Reduction 513 James G. Brennan

15.1 Mixing (Agitation, Blending) 513 15.1.1 Introduction 513

15.1.2 Mixing of Low and Moderate Viscosity Liquids 513 15.1.2.1 Paddle Mixer 515

15.1.2.2 Turbine Mixer 515 15.1.2.3 Propeller Mixer 516

15.1.3 Mixing of High Viscosity Liquids, Pastes and Plastic Solids 517 15.1.3.1 Paddle Mixers 519

15.1.3.2 Pan (Bowl, Can) Mixers 519

15.1.3.3 Kneaders (Dispersers, Masticators) 519 15.1.3.4 Continuous Mixers for Pastelike Materials 519 15.1.3.5 Static Inline Mixers 520

15.1.4 Mixing Dry, Particulate Solids 520 15.1.4.1 Horizontal Screw and Ribbon Mixers 521 15.1.4.2 Vertical Screw Mixers 522

15.1.4.3 Tumbling Mixers 522 15.1.4.4 Fluidised Bed Mixers 523 15.1.5 Mixing of Gases and Liquids 523

15.1.6 Applications for Mixing in Food Processing 524 15.1.6.1 Low Viscosity Liquids 524

15.1.6.2 Viscous Materials 524 15.1.6.3 Particulate Solids 524 15.1.6.4 Gases into Liquids 524

15.2 Emulsification 524

15.2.1 Introduction 524 15.2.2 Emulsifying Agents 526 15.2.3 Emulsifying Equipment 527 15.2.3.1 Mixers 527

15.2.3.2 Pressure Homogenisers 528 15.2.3.3 Hydroshear Homogenisers 530 15.2.3.4 Microfluidisers 530

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15.2.3.6 Ultrasonic Homogenisers 530 15.2.3.7 Colloid Mills 531

15.2.4 Examples of Emulsification in Food Processing 532 15.2.4.1 Milk 532

15.2.4.2 Ice Cream Mix 533 15.2.4.3 Cream Liqueurs 533 15.2.4.4 Coffee/Tea Whiteners 533 15.2.4.5 Salad Dressings 534 15.2.4.6 Meat Products 534 15.2.4.7 Cake Products 535 15.2.4.8 Butter 535

15.2.4.9 Margarine and Spreads 536

15.3 Size Reduction (Crushing, Comminution, Grinding, Milling) of Solids 537

15.3.1 Introduction 537

15.3.2 Size Reduction Equipment 540

15.3.2.1 Some Factors to Consider When Selecting Size Reduction Equipment 540

15.3.2.2 Roller Mills (Crushing Rolls) 541 15.3.2.3 Impact (Percussion) Mills 544 15.3.2.4 Attrition Mills 546

15.3.2.5 Tumbling Mills 548

15.3.3 Examples of Size Reduction of Solids in Food Processing 550 15.3.3.1 Cereals 550

15.3.3.2 Chocolate 552 15.3.3.3 Coffee Beans 554 15.3.3.4 Oil Seeds and Nuts 554 15.3.3.5 Sugar Cane 555

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There are many excellent texts available which cover the fundamentals of food engineering, equipment design, modelling of food processing operations etc. There are also several very good works in food science and technology dealing with the chemical composition, physical properties, nutritional and microbiolog-ical status of fresh and processed foods. This work is an attempt to cover the middle ground between these two extremes. The objective is to discuss the tech-nology behind the main methods of food preservation used in today’s food in-dustry in terms of the principles involved, the equipment used and the changes in physical, chemical, microbiological and organoleptic properties that occur during processing. In addition to the conventional preservation techniques, new and emerging technologies, such as high pressure processing and the use of pulsed electric field and power ultrasound are discussed. The materials and methods used in the packaging of food, including the relatively new field of ac-tive packaging, are covered. Concerns about the safety of processed foods and the impact of processing on the environment are addressed. Process control methods employed in food processing are outlined. Treatments applied to water to be used in food processing and the disposal of wastes from processing opera-tions are described.

Chapter 1 covers the postharvest handling and transport of fresh foods and preparatory operations, such as cleaning, sorting, grading and blanching, ap-plied prior to processing. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 contain up-to-date accounts of heat processing, evaporation, dehydration and freezing techniques used for food preservation. In Chapter 5, the potentially useful, but so far little used process of irradiation is discussed. The relatively new technology of high pressure pro-cessing is covered in Chapter 6, while Chapter 7 explains the current status of pulsed electric field, power ultrasound, and other new technologies. Recent de-velopments in baking, extrusion cooking and frying are outlined in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 deals with the materials and methods used for food packaging and active packaging technology, including the use of oxygen, carbon dioxide and ethylene scavengers, preservative releasers and moisture absorbers. In Chapter 10, safety in food processing is discussed and the development, implementation and maintenance of HACCP systems outlined. Chapter 11 covers the various types of control systems applied in food processing. Chapter 12 deals with

envi-Food Processing Handbook.Edited by James G. Brennan

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ronmental issues including the impact of packaging wastes and the disposal of refrigerants. In Chapter 13, the various treatments applied to water to be used in food processing are described and the physical, chemical and biological treat-ments applied to food processing wastes are outlined. To complete the picture, the various separation techniques used in food processing are discussed in Chapter 14 and Chapter 15 covers the conversion operations of mixing, emulsif-ication and size reduction of solids.

The editor wishes to acknowledge the considerable advice and help he re-ceived from former colleagues in the School of Food Biosciences, The Univer-sity of Reading, when working on this project. He also wishes to thank his wife, Anne, for her support and patience.

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Department of Food and Consumer Technology

Manchester Metropolitan University Old Hall Lane

Manchester, M14 6HR UK

Professor Dr. Ing. Ali Abd El-Aal Bakr Food Science and Technology

Mr. James G. Brennan (Editor) 16 Benning Way

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Dr. Senol Ibanoglu

Department of Agriculture and Rural Development

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Mr. R. Andrew Wilbey School of Food Biosciences The University of Reading P.O. Box 226

Whiteknights Reading, RG6 6AP UK

Dr. Alan Williams

Senior Technologist & HACCP Specialist

Department of Food Manufacturing Technologies

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Alistair S. Grandison

1.1

Introduction

Food processing is seasonal in nature, both in terms of demand for products and availability of raw materials. Most crops have well established harvest times – for example the sugar beet season lasts for only a few months of the year in the UK, so beet sugar production is confined to the autumn and winter, yet de-mand for sugar is continuous throughout the year. Even in the case of raw ma-terials which are available throughout the year, such as milk, there are estab-lished peaks and troughs in volume of production, as well as variation in chem-ical composition. Availability may also be determined by less predictable factors, such as weather conditions, which may affect yields, or limit harvesting. In other cases demand is seasonal, for example ice cream or salads are in greater demand in the summer, whereas other foods are traditionally eaten in the win-ter months, or even at more specific times, such as Christmas or Easwin-ter.

In an ideal world, food processors would like a continuous supply of raw ma-terials, whose composition and quality are constant, and whose prices are pre-dictable. Of course this is usually impossible to achieve. In practice, processors contract ahead with growers to synchronise their needs with raw material pro-duction. The aim of this chapter is to consider the properties of raw materials in relation to food processing, and to summarise important aspects of handling, transport, storage and preparation of raw materials prior to the range of proces-sing operations described in the remainder of this book. The bulk of the chapter will deal with solid agricultural products including fruits, vegetables, cereals and legumes; although many considerations can also be applied to animal-based materials such as meat, eggs and milk.

1

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1.2

Properties of Raw Food Materials and Their Susceptibility to Deterioration and Damage

The selection of raw materials is a vital consideration to the quality of processed products. The quality of raw materials can rarely be improved during processing and, while sorting and grading operations can aid by removing oversize, under-size or poor quality units, it is vital to procure materials whose properties most closely match the requirements of the process. Quality is a wide-ranging con-cept and is determined by many factors. It is a composite of those physical and chemical properties of the material which govern its acceptability to the ‘user’. The latter may be the final consumer, or more likely in this case, the food pro-cessor. Geometric properties, colour, flavour, texture, nutritive value and free-dom from defects are the major properties likely to determine quality.

An initial consideration is selection of the most suitable cultivars in the case of plant foods (or breeds in the case of animal products). Other preharvest fac-tors (such as soil conditions, climate and agricultural practices), harvesting methods and postharvest conditions, maturity, storage and postharvest handling also determine quality. These considerations, including seed supply and many aspects of crop production, are frequently controlled by the processor or even the retailer.

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fixed numbers of accumulated heat units between sowings, the harvest season can be spread, so that individual fields may be harvested at peak maturity. Sow-ing plans and harvest date are determined by negotiation between the growers and the processors; and the latter may even provide the equipment and labour for harvesting and transport to the factory.

An important consideration for processed foods is that it is the quality of the processed product, rather than the raw material, that is important. For mini-mally processed foods, such as those subjected to modified atmospheres, low-dose irradiation, mild heat treatment or some chemical preservatives, the char-acteristics of the raw material are a good guide to the quality of the product. For more severe processing, including heat preservation, drying or freezing, the quality characteristics may change markedly during processing. Hence, those raw materials which are preferred for fresh consumption may not be most appropriate for processing. For example, succulent peaches with delicate flavour may be less suitable for canning than harder, less flavoursome cultivars, which can withstand rigorous processing conditions. Similarly, ripe, healthy, well col-oured fruit may be perfect for fresh sale, but may not be suitable for freezing due to excessive drip loss while thawing. For example, Maestrelli [2] reported that different strawberry cultivars with similar excellent characteristics for fresh consumption exhibited a wide range of drip loss (between 8% and 38%), and hence would be of widely different value for the frozen food industry.

1.2.1

Raw Material Properties

The main raw material properties of importance to the processor are geometry, colour, texture, functional properties and flavour.

1.2.1.1 Geometric Properties

Food units of regular geometry are much easier to handle and are better suited to high speed mechanised operations. In addition, the more uniform the geom-etry of raw materials, the less rejection and waste will be produced during prep-aration operations such as peeling, trimming and slicing. For example, potatoes of smooth shape with few and shallow eyes are much easier to peel and wash mechanically than irregular units. Smooth-skinned fruits and vegetables are much easier to clean and are less likely to harbour insects or fungi than ribbed or irregular units.

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freezing, as they will determine the rate and extent of heat transfer within food units. Mohsenin [3] describes numerous approaches by which the size and shape of irregular food units may be defined. These include the development of statistical techniques based on a limited number of measurements and more subjective approaches involving visual comparison of units to charted standards. Uniformity of size and shape is also important to most operations and pro-cesses. Process control to give accurately and uniformly treated products is al-ways simpler with more uniform materials. For example, it is essential that wheat kernel size is uniform for flour milling.

Specific surface (area/mass) may be an important expression of geometry, especially when considering surface phenomena such as the economics of fruit peeling, or surface processes such as smoking and brining.

The presence of geometric defects, such as projections and depressions, com-plicate any attempt to quantify the geometry of raw materials, as well as pre-senting processors with cleaning and handling problems and yield loss. Selec-tion of cultivars with the minimum defect level is advisable.

There are two approaches to securing the optimum geometric characteristics: firstly the selection of appropriate varieties, and secondly sorting and grading operations.

1.2.1.2 Colour

Colour and colour uniformity are vital components of visual quality of fresh foods and play a major role in consumer choice. However, it may be less impor-tant in raw materials for processing. For low temperature processes such as chilling, freezing or freeze-drying, the colour changes little during processing, and thus the colour of the raw material is a good guide to suitability for proces-sing. For more severe processing, the colour may change markedly during the process. Green vegetables, such as peas, spinach or green beans, on heating change colour from bright green to a dull olive green. This is due to the conver-sion of chlorophyll to pheophytin. It is possible to protect against this by addi-tion of sodium bicarbonate to the cooking water, which raises the pH. However, this may cause softening of texture and the use of added colourants may be a more practical solution. Some fruits may lose their colour during canning, while pears develop a pink tinge. Potatoes are subject to browning during heat processing due to the Maillard reaction. Therefore, different varieties are more suitable for fried products where browning is desirable, than canned products in which browning would be a major problem.

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1.2.1.3 Texture

The texture of raw materials is frequently changed during processing. Textural changes are caused by a wide variety of effects, including water loss, protein de-naturation which may result in loss of water-holding capacity or coagulation, hydrolysis and solubilisation of proteins. In plant tissues, cell disruption leads to loss of turgor pressure and softening of the tissue, while gelatinisation of starch, hydrolysis of pectin and solubilisation of hemicelluloses also cause soft-ening of the tissues.

The raw material must be robust enough to withstand the mechanical stres-ses during preparation, for example abrasion during cleaning of fruit and vege-tables. Peas and beans must be able to withstand mechanical podding. Raw ma-terials must be chosen so that the texture of the processed product is correct, such as canned fruits and vegetables in which raw materials must be able to withstand heat processing without being too hard or coarse for consumption.

Texture is dependent on the variety as well as the maturity of the raw material and may be assessed by sensory panels or commercial instruments. One widely recognised instrument is the tenderometer used to assess the firmness of peas. The crop would be tested daily and harvested at the optimum tenderometer reading. In common with other raw materials, peas at different maturities can be used for different purposes, so that peas for freezing would be harvested at a lower tenderometer reading than peas for canning.

1.2.1.4 Flavour

Flavour is a rather subjective property which is difficult to quantify. Again, fla-vours are altered during processing and, following severe processing, the main flavours may be derived from additives. Hence, the lack of strong flavours may be the most important requirement. In fact, raw material flavour is often not a major determinant as long as the material imparts only those flavours which are characteristic of the food. Other properties may predominate. Flavour is nor-mally assessed by human tasters, although sometimes flavour can be linked to some analytical test, such as sugar/acid levels in fruits.

1.2.1.5 Functional Properties

The functionality of a raw material is the combination of properties which deter-mine product quality and process effectiveness. These properties differ greatly for different raw materials and processes, and may be measured by chemical analysis or process testing.

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are adequate for biscuits, cakes, pastry, noodles and similar products. Varieties of wheat for processing are selected on this basis; and measurement of protein content would be a good guide to process suitability. Furthermore, physical test-ing of dough ustest-ing a variety of rheological testtest-ing instruments may be useful in predicting the breadmaking performance of individual batches of wheat flours [5]. A further test is the Hagberg Falling Number which measures the amount of a-amylase in flour or wheat [6]. This enzyme assists in the break-down of starch to sugars and high levels give rise to a weak bread structure. Hence, the test is a key indicator of wheat baking quality and is routinely used for bread wheat; and it often determines the price paid to the farmer.

Similar considerations apply to other raw materials. Chemical analysis of fat and protein in milk may be carried out to determine its suitability for manufac-turing cheese, yoghurt or cream.

1.2.2

Raw Material Specifications

In practice, processors define their requirements in terms of raw material speci-fications for any process on arrival at the factory gate. Acceptance of, or price paid for the raw material depends on the results of specific tests. Milk deliveries would be routinely tested for hygienic quality, somatic cells, antibiotic residues, extraneous water, as well as possibly fat and protein content. A random core sample is taken from all sugar beet deliveries and payment is dependent on the sugar content. For fruits, vegetables and cereals, processors may issue specifica-tions and tolerances to cover the size of units, the presence of extraneous vege-table matter, foreign bodies, levels of specific defects, e.g. surface blemishes, in-sect damage etc., as well as specific functional tests. Guidelines for sampling and testing many raw materials for processing in the UK are available from the Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association (www.campden.co.uk).

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1.2.3

Deterioration of Raw Materials

All raw materials deteriorate following harvest, by some of the following mecha-nisms:

– Endogenous enzymes: e.g. post-harvest senescence and spoilage of fruit and vegetables occurs through a number of enzymic mechanisms, including oxi-dation of phenolic substances in plant tissues by phenolase (leading to brown-ing), sugar-starch conversion by amylases, postharvest demethylation of pectic substances in fruits and vegetables leading to softening tissues during ripen-ing and firmripen-ing of plant tissues durripen-ing processripen-ing.

– Chemical changes: deterioration in sensory quality by lipid oxidation, non-enzymic browning, breakdown of pigments such as chlorophyll, anthocya-nins, carotenoids.

– Nutritional changes: especially ascorbic acid breakdown. – Physical changes: dehydration, moisture absorption. – Biological changes: germination of seeds, sprouting.

– Microbiological contamination: both the organisms themselves and toxic prod-ucts lead to deterioration of quality, as well as posing safety problems.

1.2.4

Damage to Raw Materials

Damage may occur at any point from growing through to the final point of sale. It may arise through external or internal forces.

External forces result in mechanical injury to fruits and vegetables, cereal grains, eggs and even bones in poultry. They occur due to severe handling as a result of careless manipulation, poor equipment design, incorrect containerisa-tion and unsuitable mechanical handling equipment. The damage typically re-sults from impact and abrasion between food units, or between food units and machinery surfaces and projections, excessive vibration or pressure from overly-ing material. Increased mechanisation in food handloverly-ing must be carefully de-signed to minimise this.

Internal forces arise from physical changes, such as variation in temperature and moisture content, and may result in skin cracks in fruits and vegetables, or stress cracks in cereals.

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1.2.5

Improving Processing Characteristics Through Selective Breeding and Genetic Engineering

Selective breeding for yield and quality has been carried out for centuries in both plant and animal products. Until the 20th century, improvements were made on the basis of selecting the most desirable looking individuals, while in-creasingly systematic techniques have been developed more recently, based on a greater understanding of genetics. The targets have been to increase yield as well as aiding factors of crop or animal husbandry such as resistance to pests and diseases, suitability for harvesting, or development of climate-tolerant vari-eties (e.g. cold-tolerant maize, or drought-resistant plants) [7]. Raw material quality, especially in relation to processing, has become increasingly important. There are many examples of successful improvements in processing quality of raw materials through selective plant breeding, including:

– improved oil percentage and fatty acid composition in oilseed rape; – improved milling and malting quality of cereals;

– high sugar content and juice quality in sugar beets;

– development of specific varieties of potatoes for the processing industry, based on levels of enzymes and sugars, producing appropriate flavour, texture and colour in products, or storage characteristics;

– brussels sprouts which can be successfully frozen.

Similarly traditional breeding methods have been used to improve yields of animal products such as milk and eggs, as well as improving quality, e.g. fat/lean content of meat. Again the quality of raw materials in relation to processing may be im-proved by selective breeding. This is particularly applicable to milk, where breed-ing programmes have been used at different times to maximise butterfat and pro-tein content, and would thus be related to the yield and quality of fat- or propro-tein- protein-based dairy products. Furthermore, particular protein genetic variants in milk have been shown to be linked with processing characteristics, such as curd strength during manufacture of cheese [8]. Hence, selective breeding could be used to tailor milk supplies to the manufacture of specific dairy products.

Traditional breeding programmes will undoubtedly continue to produce im-provements in raw materials for processing, but the potential is limited by the gene pool available to any species. Genetic engineering extends this potential by allowing the introduction of foreign genes into an organism, with huge potential benefits. Again many of the developments have been aimed at agricultural improvements, such as increased yield, or introducing herbicide, pest or drought resistance, but there is enormous potential in genetically engineered raw materials for processing [9]. The following are some examples which have been demonstrated:

– tomatoes which do not produce pectinase and hence remain firm while col-our and flavcol-our develop, producing improved soup, paste or ketchup;

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– canola (rape seed) oil tailored to contain: (a) high levels of lauric acid to im-prove emulsification properties for use in confectionery, coatings or low fat dairy products, (b) high levels of stearate as an alternative to hydrogenation in manufacture of margarine, (c) high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids for health benefits;

– wheat with increased levels of high molecular weight glutenins for improved breadmaking performance;

– fruits and vegetables containing peptide sweeteners such as thaumatin or monellin;

– ‘naturally decaffeinated’ coffee.

There is, however, considerable opposition to the development of genetically modified foods in the UK and elsewhere, due to fears of human health risks and ecological damage, discussion of which is beyond the scope of this book. It therefore remains to be seen if, and to what extent, genetically modified raw materials will be used in food processing.

1.3

Storage and Transportation of Raw Materials

1.3.1 Storage

Storage of food is necessary at all points of the food chain from raw materials, through manufacture, distribution, retailers and final purchasers. Today’s con-sumers expect a much greater variety of products, including nonlocal materials, to be available throughout the year. Effective transportation and storage systems for raw materials are essential to meet this need.

Storage of materials whose supply or demand fluctuate in a predictable man-ner, especially seasonal produce, is necessary to increase availability. It is essen-tial that processors maintain stocks of raw materials, therefore storage is neces-sary to buffer demand. However, storage of raw materials is expensive for two reasons: firstly, stored goods have been paid for and may therefore tie up quan-tities of company money and, secondly, warehousing and storage space are expensive. All raw materials deteriorate during storage. The quantities of raw materials held in store and the times of storage vary widely for different cases, depending on the above considerations. The ‘just in time’ approaches used in other industries are less common in food processing.

The primary objective is to maintain the best possible quality during storage, and hence avoid spoilage during the storage period. Spoilage arises through three mechanisms:

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– biochemical activity within the food leading to quality reduction, such as: res-piration in fruits and vegetables, staling of baked products, enzymic browning reactions, rancidity development in fatty food;

– physical processes, including damage due to pressure or poor handling, phys-ical changes such as dehydration or crystallisation.

The main factors which govern the quality of stored foods are temperature, moisture/humidity and atmospheric composition. Different raw materials pro-vide very different challenges.

Fruits and vegetables remain as living tissues until they are processed and the main aim is to reduce respiration rate without tissue damage. Storage times vary widely between types. Young tissues such as shoots, green peas and imma-ture fruits have high respiration rates and shorter storage periods, while maimma-ture fruits and roots and storage organs such as bulbs and tubers, e.g. onions, pota-toes, sugar beets, respire much more slowly and hence have longer storage peri-ods. Some examples of conditions and storage periods of fruits and vegetables are given in Table 1.1. Many fruits (including bananas, apples, tomatoes and mangoes) display a sharp increase in respiration rate during ripening, just be-fore the point of optimum ripening, known as the ‘climacteric’. The onset of the climacteric is associated with the production of high levels of ethylene, which is believed to stimulate the ripening process. Climacteric fruit can be har-vested unripe and ripened artificially at a later time. It is vital to maintain care-ful temperature control during storage or the fruit will rapidly over-ripen. Non-climacteric fruits, e.g. citrus fruit, pineapples, strawberries, and vegetables do not display this behaviour and generally do not ripen after harvest. Quality is therefore optimal at harvest, and the task is to preserve quality during storage.

With meat storage the overriding problem is growth of spoilage bacteria, while avoiding oxidative rancidity. Cereals must be dried before storage to avoid

Table 1.1 Storage periods of some fruits and vegetables under typical storage conditions (data from [25]).

Commodity Temperature (8C) Humidity (%) Storage period

Garlic 0 70 6–8 months

Mushrooms 0 90–95 5–7 days

Green bananas 13–15 85–90 10–30 days

Immature potatoes 4–5 90–95 3–8 weeks

Mature potatoes 4–5 90–95 4–9 months

Onions –1 to 0 70–80 6–8 months

Oranges 2–7 90 1–4 months

Mangoes 5.5–14 90 2–7 weeks

Apples –1 to 4 90–95 1–8 months

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germination and mould growth and subsequently must be stored under condi-tions which prevent infestation with rodents, birds, insects or moulds.

Hence, very different storage conditions may be employed for different raw materials. The main methods employed in raw material storage are the control of temperature, humidity and composition of atmosphere.

1.3.1.1 Temperature

The rate of biochemical reactions is related to temperature, such that lower stor-age temperatures lead to slower degradation of foods by biochemical spoilstor-age, as well as reduced growth of bacteria and fungi. There may also be limited bac-teriocidal effects at very low temperatures. Typical Q10 values for spoilage reac-tions are approximately 2, implying that spoilage rates would double for each 108_{C rise, or conversely that shelflife would double for each 10}8_{C reduction.} This is an oversimplification, as Q10may change with temperature. Most insect activity is inhibited below 48_{C, although insects and their eggs can survive long} exposure to these temperatures. In fact, grain and flour mites can remain active and even breed at 08_C.

The use of refrigerated storage is limited by the sensitivity of materials to low temperatures. The freezing point is a limiting factor for many raw materials, as the tissues will become disrupted on thawing. Other foods may be subject to problems at temperatures above freezing. Fruits and vegetables may display physiological problems that limit their storage temperatures, probably as a re-sult of metabolic imbalance leading to a build up of undesirable chemical spe-cies in the tissues. Some types of apples are subject to internal browning below 38_{C, while bananas become brown when stored below 13}8_{C and many other} tropical fruits display chill sensitivity. Less obvious biochemical problems may occur even where no visible damage occurs. For example, storage temperature affects the starch/sugar balance in potatoes: in particular below 108_{C a build} up of sugar occurs, which is most undesirable for fried products. Examples of storage periods and conditions are given in Table 1.1, illustrating the wide ranges seen with different fruits and vegetables. It should be noted that pre-dicted storage lives can be confounded if the produce is physically damaged, or by the presence of pathogens.

Temperature of storage is also limited by cost. Refrigerated storage is expen-sive, especially in hot countries. In practice, a balance must be struck incorpor-ating cost, shelflife and risk of cold injury. Slower growing produce such as onions, garlic and potatoes can be successfully stored at ambient temperature and ventilated conditions in temperate climates.

It is desirable to monitor temperature throughout raw material storage and distribution.

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as leafy vegetables (lettuce, celery, cabbage) or sweetcorn, may be cooled using water sprays or drench streams. Hydrocooling obviously reduces water loss.

1.3.1.2 Humidity

If the humidity of the storage environment exceeds the equilibrium relative hu-midity (ERH) of the food, the food will gain moisture during storage, andvice versa. Uptake of water during storage is associated with susceptibility to growth of microorganisms, whilst water loss results in economic loss and more specific problems, such as cracking of seed coats of cereals, or skins of fruits and vege-tables. Ideally, the humidity of the store would equal the ERH of the food so that moisture is neither gained nor lost, but in practice a compromise may be necessary. The water activity (aw) of most fresh foods (e.g. fruit, vegetables, meat, fish, milk) is in the range 0.98–1.00, but they are frequently stored at a lower humidity. Some wilting of fruits or vegetable may be acceptable in prefer-ence to mould growth, while some surface drying of meat is preferable to bacte-rial slime. Packaging may be used to protect against water loss of raw matebacte-rials during storage and transport, see Chapter 9.

1.3.1.3 Composition of Atmosphere

Controlling the atmospheric composition during storage of many raw materials is beneficial. The use of packaging to allow the development or maintenance of particular atmospheric compositions during storage is discussed in greater de-tail in Chapter 9.

With some materials, the major aim is to maintain an oxygen-free atmo-sphere to prevent oxidation, e.g. coffee, baked goods, while in other cases ade-quate ventilation may be necessary to prevent anaerobic fermentation leading to off flavours.

In living produce, atmosphere control allows the possibility of slowing down metabolic processes, hence retarding respiration, ripening, senescence and the development of disorders. The aim is to introduce N2and remove O2, allowing a build up of CO2. Controlled atmosphere storage of many commodities is dis-cussed by Thompson [10]. The technique allows year-round distribution of apples and pears, where controlled atmospheres in combination with refrigera-tion can give shelflives up to 10 months, much greater than by chilling alone. The particular atmospheres are cultivar specific, but in the range 1–10% CO2, 2–13% O2at 38_{C for apples and 0}8_{C for pears. Controlled atmospheres are also} used during storage and transport of chill-sensitive crops, such as for transport of bananas, where an atmosphere of 3% O2and 5% CO2is effective in prevent-ing premature ripenprevent-ing and the development of crown rot disease. Ethene (ethylene) removal is also vital during storage of climacteric fruit.

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the bright red oxymyoglobin pigment. At the same time, high levels of CO2are required to suppress the growth of aerobic bacteria.

1.3.1.4 Other Considerations

Odours and taints can cause problems, especially in fatty foods such as meat and dairy products, as well as less obvious commodities such as citrus fruits, which have oil in the skins. Odours and taints may be derived from fuels or ad-hesives and printing materials, as well as other foods, e.g. spiced or smoked products. Packaging and other systems during storage and transport must pro-tect against contamination.

Light can lead to oxidation of fats in some raw materials, e.g. dairy products. In addition, light gives rise to solanine production and the development of green pigmentation in potatoes. Hence, storage and transport under dark condi-tions is essential.

1.3.2

Transportation

Food transportation is an essential link in the food chain and is discussed in de-tail by Heap [11]. Raw materials, food ingredients, fresh produce and processed products are all transported on a local and global level, by land, sea and air. In the modern world, where consumers expect year-round supplies and nonlocal products, long distance transport of many foods has become commonplace and air transport may be necessary for perishable materials. Transportation of food is really an extension of storage: a refrigerated lorry is basically a cold store on wheels. However, transport also subjects the material to physical and mechani-cal stresses, and possibly rapid changes in temperature and humidity, which are not encountered during static storage. It is necessary to consider both the stres-ses imposed during the transport and those encountered during loading and unloading. In many situations, transport is multimodal. Air or sea transport would commonly involve at least one road trip before and one road trip after the main journey. There would also be time spent on the ground at the port or airport where the material could be exposed to wideranging temperatures and humidities, or bright sunlight, and unscheduled delays are always a possibility. During loading and unloading, the cargo may be broken into smaller units where more rapid heat penetration may occur.

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1.4

Raw Material Cleaning

All food raw materials are cleaned before processing. The purpose is obviously to remove contaminants, which range from innocuous to dangerous. It is im-portant to note that removal of contaminants is essential for protection of pro-cess equipment as well as the final consumer. For example, it is essential to remove sand, stones or metallic particles from wheat prior to milling to avoid damaging the machinery. The main contaminants are:

– unwanted parts of the plant, such as leaves, twigs, husks; – soil, sand, stones and metallic particles from the growing area; – insects and their eggs;

– animal excreta, hairs etc.; – pesticides and fertilisers; – mineral oil;

– microorganisms and their toxins.

Increased mechanisation in harvesting and subsequent handling has generally led to increased contamination with mineral, plant and animal contaminants, while there has been a general increase in the use of sprays, leading to in-creased chemical contamination. Microorganisms may be introduced preharvest from irrigation water, manure, fertiliser or contamination from feral or domes-tic animals, or postharvest from improperly cleaned equipment, wash waters or cross-contamination from other raw materials.

Cleaning is essentially separation in which some difference in physical prop-erties of the contaminants and the food units is exploited. There are a number of cleaning methods available, classified into dry and wet methods, but a combi-nation would usually be employed for any specific material. Selection of the ap-propriate cleaning regime depends on the material being cleaned, the level and type of contamination and the degree of decontamination required. In practice a balance must be struck between cleaning cost and product quality, and an ‘ac-ceptable standard’ should be specified for the particular end use. Avoidance of product damage is an important contributing factor, especially for delicate mate-rials such as soft fruit.

1.4.1

Dry Cleaning Methods

The main dry cleaning methods are based on screens, aspiration or magnetic se-parations. Dry methods are generally less expensive than wet methods and the ef-fluent is cheaper to dispose of, but they tend to be less effective in terms of clean-ing efficiency. A major problem is recontamination of the material with dust. Pre-cautions may be necessary to avoid the risk of dust explosions and fires.

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cere-al grains, or pods and twigs from peas. This is termed ‘sccere-alping’, see Fig. 1.1 a. Alternatively, ‘dedusting’ is the removal of smaller particles, e.g. sand or dust, from larger food units, see Fig. 1.1 b.

The main geometries are rotary drums (also known as reels or trommels), and flatbed designs. Some examples are shown in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.1 Screening of dry particulate materials: (a) scalping, (b) dedusting.

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Abrasion, either by impact during the operation of the machinery, or aided by abrasive discs or brushes, can improve the efficiency of dry screens. Screening gives incomplete separations and is usually a preliminary cleaning stage.

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velocity. Terminal velocity in this case can be defined as the velocity of upward air stream in which a particle remains stationary; and this depends on the den-sity and projected area of the particles (as described by Stokes’ equation). By using different air velocities, it is possible to separate say wheat from lighter chaff (see Fig. 1.3) or denser small stones. Very accurate separations are pos-sible, but large amounts of energy are required to generate the air streams. Ob-viously the system is limited by the size of raw material units, but is particularly suitable for cleaning legumes and cereals.

Air streams may also be used simply to blow loose contaminants from larger items such as eggs or fruit.

Magneticcleaning is the removal of ferrous metal using permanent or electro-magnets. Metal particles, derived from the growing field or picked up during transport or preliminary operations, constitute a hazard both to the consumer and to processing machinery, for example cereal mills. The geometry of mag-netic cleaning systems can be quite variable: particulate foods may be passed over magnetised drums or magnetised conveyor belts, or powerful magnets may be located above conveyors. Electromagnets are easy to clean by turning off the power. Metal detectors are frequently employed prior to sensitive processing equipment as well as to protect consumers at the end of processing lines.

Electrostaticcleaning can be used in a limited number of cases where the sur-face charge on raw materials differs from contaminating particles. The principle can be used to distinguish grains from other seeds of similar geometry but dif-ferent surface charge; and it has also been described for cleaning tea. The feed

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is conveyed on a charged belt and charged particles are attracted to an oppo-sitely charged electrode (see Fig. 1.4) according to their surface charge.

1.4.2

Wet Cleaning Methods

Wet methods are necessary if large quantities of soil are to be removed; and they are essential if detergents are used. However, they are expensive, as large quantities of high purity water are required and the same quantity of dirty efflu-ent is produced. Treatmefflu-ent and reuse of water can reduce costs. Employing the countercurrent principle can reduce water requirements and effluent volumes if accurately controlled. Sanitising chemicals such as chlorine, citric acid and ozone are commonly used in wash waters, especially in association with peeling and size reduction, where reducing enzymic browning may also be an aim [12]. Levels of 100–200 mg l–1 chlorine or citric acid may be used, although their ef-fectiveness for decontamination has been questioned and they are not permitted in some countries.

Soaking is a preliminary stage in cleaning heavily contaminated materials, such as root crops, permitting softening of the soil and partial removal of stones and other contaminants. Metallic or concrete tanks or drums are em-ployed; and these may be fitted with devices for agitating the water, including stirrers, paddles or mechanisms for rotating the entire drum. For delicate pro-duce such as strawberries or asparagus, or products which trap dirt internally, e.g. celery, sparging air through the system may be helpful. The use of warm water or including detergents improves cleaning efficiency, especially where mineral oil is a possible contaminant, but adds to the expense and may damage the texture.

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Spray washingis very widely used for many types of food raw material. Efficiency depends on the volume and temperature of the water and time of exposure. As a general rule, small volumes of high pressure water give the most efficient dirt re-moval, but this is limited by product damage, especially to more delicate produce. With larger food pieces, it may be necessary to rotate the unit so that the whole surface is presented to the spray (see Fig. 1.5 a). The two most common designs are drum washers and belt washers (see Figs. 1.5 a, b). Abrasion may contribute to the cleaning effect, but again must be limited in delicate units. Other designs include flexible rubber discs which gently brush the surface clean.

Flotation washing employs buoyancy differences between food units and con-taminants. For instance sound fruit generally floats, while contaminating soil, stones or rotten fruits sink in water. Hence fluming fruit in water over a series of weirs gives very effective cleaning of fruit, peas and beans (see Fig. 1.6). A dis-advantage is high water use, thus recirculation of water should be incorporated.

Froth flotationis carried out to separate peas from contaminating weed seeds and exploits surfactant effects. The peas are dipped in an oil/detergent emul-sion and air is blown through the bed. This forms a foam which washes away the contaminating material and the cleaned peas can be spray washed.

Following wet cleaning, it is necessary to remove the washing water. Centrifu-gation is very effective, but may lead to tissue damage, hence dewatering screens or reels are more common.