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Journal of Education for Business
ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20
Impromptu Presentations: Boosting Student
Learning and Engagement Through Spontaneous
Collaboration
Karen J. Thompson , Bob Switky & Armand Gilinsky
To cite this article: Karen J. Thompson , Bob Switky & Armand Gilinsky (2012) Impromptu Presentations: Boosting Student Learning and Engagement Through Spontaneous Collaboration, Journal of Education for Business, 87:1, 14-21, DOI: 10.1080/08832323.2010.547232
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2010.547232
Published online: 21 Nov 2011.
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ISSN: 0883-2323 print / 1940-3356 online DOI: 10.1080/08832323.2010.547232
Impromptu Presentations: Boosting Student Learning
and Engagement Through Spontaneous
Collaboration
Karen J. Thompson, Bob Switky, and Armand Gilinsky
Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California, USAThis article describes impromptu presentations, a new pedagogical approach for college class-rooms that produces full engagement and rapid information processing by students. The technique offers an additional tool to the growing literature on active and collaborative learn-ing. Given a short timeframe, students are required to investigate, analyze, or solve problems assigned by the instructor. This brief critical thinking phase is followed by group presentations in which the students must support their arguments and teach others about relevant course concepts. The traditional idea of learning by teaching serves as the foundational principle behind this approach. Various ways of employing impromptu presentations in the classroom are also described. Finally, the merits of the impromptu presentation approach are highlighted by drawing on the active learning, peer teaching, and levels of learning literature streams.
Keywords: active learning, collaborative learning, impromptu presentations, peer teaching
The one exclusive sign of thorough knowledge is the power of teaching.
–Aristotle(Howe, 2006)
It is common wisdom that people learn a topic well when they are forced to teach it to others. Explanations for this phenomenon include the need to understand a topic better so as to be able to explain it to others as well as the social pressure involved in providing accurate information to other individuals. This article builds on this age-old truism that teaching enhances an individual’s knowledge by proposing that the broader use of impromptu presentations in the col-lege classroom can actively accelerate students’ learning of class concepts. The innovative approach described in this ar-ticle has been effectively used to stimulate critical thinking, higher level learning, and curiosity among students in a va-riety of college courses. Student responses to the approach have been overwhelmingly positive, with students displaying enthusiasm and a strong commitment to task completion. Fur-thermore, the immediate, in-class nature of the impromptu presentations can create an automatic expectation of shared
Correspondence should be addressed to Karen J. Thompson, Sonoma State University, School of Business and Economics, 1801 E. Co-tati Avenue, Rohnert Park, CA 94928, USA. E-mail: Karen.Thompson @sonoma.edu
workload among the groups of students. In addition, the free-rider problem, which is so common in groups with long-term, out-of-class projects, is less salient.
The impromptu presentation is a new tool for greater stu-dent engagement that fits within the realm of active and collaborative learning. In the following section, we discuss the research addressing the merits of active and collaborative learning in general as well as the literature on the benefits of peer teaching. In the second section we describe the purposes of using impromptu presentations as a pedagogical tool. In subsequent sections we address the various ways in which instructors can implement impromptu presentations in their classrooms, including suggested assignments and grading strategies. Next, we provide a description of the instructor’s role before, during, and after the impromptu presentation. Following that topic is a section in which common problems (and their proposed solutions) are highlighted. In the final section of the article we provide a variety of examples of how impromptu presentations can be used in a course.
THE BENEFITS OF ACTIVE AND COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
Active learning has a long history. Rubin and Hebert (1998) showed that active learning dates at least from the dialogues
IMPROMPTU PRESENTATIONS 15 of Socrates and includes Dewey’s reflective thinking and
Bruner’s discovery methods of the 1960s. The impromptu presentation approach is inspired by a desire to increase stu-dent engagement in course material, a central thrust of the active learning movement. Compared with the standard lec-ture in which students are passive learners, active learning techniques engage students more effectively and enhance the learning experience. Collaborative learning techniques are a subset of active learning in that students work together to learn course concepts in an interdependent fashion (Bruffee, 1999). Thus, the impromptu presentation is a type of collab-orative learning exercise. And, similar to collabcollab-orative teach-ing techniques in general, impromptu presentations provide the stuff of collaborative learning: exploration, discussion, debate, and criticism of ideas (Boud, Cohen, & Sampson, 2001).
Huba and Freed (2000) suggested that the learner-centered approach (as opposed to the teacher-centered approach) of-fered by active and collaborative learning makes the stu-dents and the instructor responsible for delivering content. In short, the approach encourages students to become much more actively involved in their own learning. Kolb (1984) also showed that active and collaborative learning can pro-mote a deeper understanding of key concepts. In general, col-laborative learning techniques help frame “pedagogic con-tent in ways that enable students to discover the relationship of academic concepts to their own life experiences” (Chan-dler & Adams, 1997, p. 24). And, as Bloom (1953) found, student-centered methods are better than the standard lecture at developing higher order intellectual skills. Similar results have been found by Sorcinelli (1991), Gerlach (1994), and M. Wagner and Gansemer-Topf (2005).
PEER TEACHING
The positive experience of active learning applies to peer teaching as well. L. Wagner’s (1982) research traced peer teaching from the time of Aristotle to 19th-century student monitoring systems (in which students drilled each other) to more contemporary uses a generation ago. More specifically, Rubin and Hebert (1998) found that collaborative peer teach-ing is supported in three vital areas. First, from a cognitive perspective, peer teaching helps in information processing beyond the standard lecture (see also Bargh & Schul, 1980). Second, peer teaching is supported by motivational theory re-garding how learning is initiated and sustained. Third, from a social context approach, dialogue from peer teaching of-fers an extremely conducive environment for learning. We also found that benefits from peer teaching accrue to the peer teachers and the student audience. In addition, Ther-oux and Kilbane (2004) found that students benefit from live group problem identification and presentation of well-supported solutions and action plans. Likewise, Boud et al. (2001) demonstrated that collaborative learning in general
allows students to develop interpersonal skills and a stronger ability to reflect on and critique class concepts. In their pre-vious work, Goldschmid and Goldschmid (1976) came to similar conclusions.
PURPOSES
The two driving purposes behind impromptu presentations are a) to promote greater student learning and participation in the classroom and b) to improve students’ oral speaking skills. In terms of the first purpose, our view is that if people learn better when they teach others, then incorporating this idea more into the structure of a class should create a greater opportunity for increased learning. In addition, impromptu presentations, by their very nature, demand intensive activ-ity by all class members. As a result, these activities may achieve a higher level of participation and contribution than lecture–discussion formats or the typical in-class group ac-tivity in which some students may be tuned out or loafing while the rest of their group works on a problem or exer-cise. We have also found that impromptu presentations pro-mote a more equal distribution of labor than do the typical group project presentations in which students work primarily outside of class to prepare an oral presentation for in-class delivery.
With respect to the second purpose mentioned previously, the vast majority of instructors share a strong belief in the importance of augmenting the oral communication skills of students. This belief is based on continuing evidence from the working world that one of the most important skill sets needed for job success is an ability to communicate effec-tively (Bell, 1994; Hunsicker, 1978; Luthans, Rosenkrantz, & Hennessey, 1985; Maes, Weldy, & Icenogle, 1997). Edu-cators strive to service many goals, and one significant goal is to provide students with classroom experiences that will help them succeed in their future careers (Hynes & Bhatia, 1996). Interestingly, most undergraduates are not innately aware of how important communication skills will be to them in their jobs (McPherson, 1998). The perspective of graduate busi-ness students is particularly instructive and supportive of the need for developing speaking skills in the classroom. In a study by Hynes and Bhatia, graduate students of business rated making oral presentations and impromptu speaking as the top two most important topics that were covered in a business communication course. These students also rated the value of course assignments in terms of their usefulness for the students’ jobs. The oral communication-based assign-ments of informative presentation, persuasive presentation, and impromptu presentation were rated as the first, second, and fifth most valuable, respectively, out of nine types of as-signments. Thus, it follows that there is great justification for providing more opportunities to develop oral communication skills during class time. It is also clear that instructors need
to emphasize the importance of these activities for helping students achieve their career goals (McPherson).
There are other worthwhile purposes that merit the use of impromptu presentations as well. First, the activities pro-mote critical thinking by students because they are compelled to analyze a problem or information and then explain their analysis to their peers. Second, we have repeatedly found that impromptu presentations produce an impressive jump in student engagement levels. Although some researchers may think that students would dread this approach, students in our classes generally appeared to be energized and stim-ulated by the task. Third, students are pushed to employ their information-processing skills under stringent time con-straints. These activities can help prepare them for similar situations that may arise in their future jobs. Fourth, these presentations clearly give students more practice with pub-lic speaking and in thinking on their feet. Fifth, impromptu presentations force students to distill information into es-sential points. There is great value in helping students learn how to express complicated information in a concise man-ner. Finally, these activities provide some nice variety to class sessions.
THE IMPROMPTU PRESENTATION APPROACH
The impromptu presentation approach begins with the in-structor assigning a problem, case, or other exercise to stu-dent groups during class time. Thus, instructors need to have determined the method for creating student groups prior to the class meeting. Instructors may choose to assign students to groups, allow students to choose their own groups, or use a random selection method (e.g., having students count off from one to six and then having all of the ones, twos, threes, etc. become groups). Impromptu presentations can work ef-fectively in classes of up to 35 students, although smaller class sizes (30 and under) are preferable. In our experience, having a maximum of six groups is optimal for audience attention during the presentations. Group sizes should range from three to five students. Groups with more than five stu-dents tend to be cumbersome.
Once groups have been determined, they are each given their in-class exercise on which they will deliberate and then present. It is most effective if each group receives a different exercise, so a variety of conceptual areas can be presented by each group. The instructor will also need to be sure to structure the exercise in a way that encourages students to utilize higher order intellectual skills. Examples of the types of exercises that can be used include the following:
• analyzing a short case,
• synthesizing key points in a series of short articles, • teaching a chapter or part of a chapter or reading, • gathering data and analyzing it,
• explaining research findings, graphs, or tables, or • solving a problem (e.g., mathematical, statistical,
science-based).
There are three phases to the group’s task. First, the group works on the exercise on its own. This phase involves group members engaging in such activities as analyzing informa-tion, solving a problem or problems, discussing relevant con-cepts, finding information (e.g., in a textbook or online), and deciding how to present information. This group-work phase is followed by the group’s presentation to the class to show the logic, steps, concepts, key points, and process involved in arriving at its solution or answer to the assigned task. To facil-itate each group’s sharing of information with the class, it is recommended that the instructor provide each group with one or two overhead projector transparencies. One transparency is usually sufficient and preferred for speed of information transmission and for motivating students to be concise, an important skill for the working world (instructors will also need to bring overhead transparency pens for students to use during the activity and then return at the completion of the presentations). Alternatively, if students have access to com-puters, the groups could rapidly prepare a few PowerPoint slides to aid them in their presentation. The third phase of the exercise involves a question-and-answer session in which the presenting group must field questions from the class and, if appropriate, the instructor.
Depending on the task, students may be given 20–40 min for the preparatory first phase. Generally, the amount of time allowed for the group analysis phase and then for each pre-sentation varies depending on the complexity of the exercise. The presentation itself, the second phase, can last 5–10 min-utes per group. The timing of the question-and-answer phase varies depending on how many questions are raised by the audience. The instructor needs to balance the class’s time constraints with the benefits of further dialogue among stu-dents.
Grading Possibilities
The grading approach for impromptu presentations can take many forms. One strategy is to make it one component of a class participation grade. The syllabus description of class participation (or class contribution) could include participa-tion as an individual in class discussion and participaparticipa-tion in impromptu group presentations. The participation grade ought to be substantial enough to reward the extra work that is required of students with this approach. Another accept-able option is to have a separate grade component that is entirely based on a student’s work in the impromptu presen-tations. Another possibility is to grade not only the group’s presentation, but also its overhead transparencies or Power-Point slides (which they could turn in to the instructor at the end of the activity). The most straightforward grading ap-proach is to evaluate the group’s output as a whole and then
IMPROMPTU PRESENTATIONS 17 give everyone in the group the same grade. If several
pre-sentations are used during the semester, the instructor may choose individual grading methods such as intrateam peer evaluations.
The type of grading method employed is somewhat de-pendent on how often the impromptu presentation activity is used during a semester or quarter. If an instructor opts to use the activity twice during a semester, it would probably be easiest to include the students’ performance as a part of the standard participation grade. However, if an instructor seeks to use the activity repeatedly, making it a significant part of the course, then having it as a separate grade component would make more sense.
Instructor Roles
It is probably apparent from the description of the impromptu presentation approach that the instructor serves as a facilitator and a coach. Because the central focus of the activity is the student groups as they analyze their topic and present their findings, the instructor is primarily charged with behind-the-scenes motivation, support, and guidance. As Ettington and Camp (2002) found, getting student teams to work together effectively requires instructors skilled in preparing, coaching, and debriefing.
The facilitator role emanates from the need first to provide the groups with their assigned exercise. This role is also evi-dent as the instructor manages the transition from the group analysis phase to the presentation phase. In this transition, the instructor needs to call an end to the group-work phase and shift the class’s attention to the presentation phase. The in-structor needs to manage the flow of group presentations and keep things moving smoothly. The instructor is also charged with promoting discussion and dialogue between present-ing groups and the nonpresentpresent-ing groups. This could occur either during a group’s presentation or during the question-and-answer session immediately following each presenta-tion. Last, as mentioned previously, the instructor provides transparencies and pens to the groups.
The coach role is critical to these exercises, as it greases the wheels of the group-work phase. Instructors need to con-tinually walk around the room visiting the groups during this analysis phase, so the groups can ask questions and get clar-ification. The instructor serves as a guide during this first phase, helping students dig deeper in their analysis or break-ing down roadblocks to the exercise. The coach role is also important in steering groups toward an effective visual pre-sentation of their information. Groups are often unclear as to the best way to represent their findings on the overhead transparencies, with the result being less than helpful visual aids for student audience. This issue is discussed in more detail in the next section.
Common Problems and Suggested Solutions
The impromptu presentation approach, similar to all active learning techniques, can sometimes encounter a glitch or two. In general, problems can be avoided or at least minimized with advance planning. The exercise should be impromptu for the students but not the instructor. One critical problem that may occur is the inadvertent failure to give students strict time limits. Because these activities are engaging for students, they can eat up a lot more time than an instructor originally intended, simply because students get so drawn into the activity. Thus, it is of paramount importance that instructors provide a clearly stated deadline for the groups’ work. It also helps to write the deadline on a board for all to see. A similarly strict timeline should be imposed for the presentation as well.
Another frequent problem involves the written work done by groups on the transparencies or PowerPoint slides. Stu-dents typically write too much, resulting in a messy visual aid that often uses a very small font. Instructors can reduce this potential problem by coaching each group on ways to provide information in a concise and readable manner. Stu-dents very quickly pick up the ideas of writing in bullets and key phrases, but they definitely need to be prompted and guided to achieve this outcome. Another idea for instructors to consider prior to running the impromptu exercise is to give a short tutorial on what makes an effective overhead trans-parency or PowerPoint slide, with examples of good and bad overheads. A final option for instructors could be to run a practice impromptu presentation session with students on a simple, fun topic (such as what the best food is on campus and why). The instructor could use this opportunity to highlight the positive and negative features of each group’s presenta-tion and overhead transparencies or PowerPoint slides.
Another potential problem that may occur is that the non-presenting groups are not engaged when another group is making its presentation. Although this situation is not com-mon in our experience, it can be addressed with a piggy-backed requirement. Each group can be responsible for de-veloping one or two questions for the presenting group. The instructor can then randomly ask groups to pose their ques-tion(s) to the presenters. Another way to fully engage the other groups is to assign one or more groups to be evalua-tors or judges. This forces those particular groups to listen more closely to the material being presented and can pro-duce deeper dialogue between the presenting group and the judging group(s).
Some Examples of the Technique
The following examples are provided as a way to illustrate how different instructors can employ the impromptu presen-tation technique. Note that these examples are just the tip of the iceberg in terms of how this technique can be used in
the classroom. The instructor’s possibilities for designing the impromptu exercise are limitless.
Using impromptu presentations to introduce stu-dents to a new course. The first example of the use of impromptu presentations comes from a course on employee training and development. It will be described here in detail while other possible uses of the impromptu presentation fol-low in a more concise format. To get students engaged in the topic and its importance right from the start, the impromptu exercise is used on the second day of class. Students have had a chance to read the first chapter of the textbook before this second class day. The instructor gives an introductory lec-ture on the meaning of employee training and development, the significance of the topic for organizations, the types of training programs that organizations typically provide, the prevalence of training programs in the workplace, and the impressive expenditures that organizations make on work-force training. Following any discussion or questions about the broad overview, the instructor tells students that they will be working on an exercise in groups. The instructor has predetermined who will be in those groups and shows a PowerPoint slide (or a transparency) that lists the group mem-bership information. In this course, students are assigned to semipermanent in-class groups with membership rotations at one third and two-thirds of the way through the semester. This course typically has 25–30 students in it, resulting in 5–7 groups.
After the students have organized themselves into their groups, the instructor displays the impromptu exercise on a PowerPoint slide (or other visual aid). The instructor explains that each group will be gathering and presenting information on one organization from a predetermined list of the Top 10 organizations in terms of training. This exercise is an exten-sion and elaboration of a suggested exercise in the course textbook by Noe (2007). The students are told the following:
Your task is to gather training-related information about your chosen organization that helps explain why it is rated as a “Top 10” training organization. You will need to research where the company stands in terms of many of the topics we have touched on today including training expenditures, number of employees trained per year, hours of training per employee per year, types of training offered, percentage of classroom training versus e-training, existence of a corporate university, evidence of commitment to training (e.g., in the mission or values statements), size of the training staff, use of training in recruitment efforts, and any other evidence of the exemplary nature of the company’s training programs. Your group will be given 30 minutes to collect the information. Then, your group will have 10 minutes to prepare a brief presentation to the class about why your company merits its “Top 10” placement. Each group will have 5 minutes to present its findings to the class and field questions about their company.
Once students have read the assignment and have asked clarifying questions, the instructor tells them that their first task is to select a company from the Top 10 list that is shown on a PowerPoint slide. This process is done on a first-come, first-served approach. The 30-minute time limit for the information-gathering phase needs to be emphasized by the instructor, verbally and by writing the ending time on the chalkboard or whiteboard. It usually takes about 3 min-utes to get all of the groups settled on a company, after which they are off and running with their research. Groups in which students have laptops tend to do their online investigation in the classroom, whereas other groups go to a nearby computer lab to gather their information.
Groups should return to the classroom at around the 30-minute mark to begin organizing their presentations. At this point, the instructor distributes one overhead transparency to each group along with one transparency marking pen. The in-structor moves from group to group as students design their transparencies, and coaches students on the importance of being concise on their visual aids. It helps to remind stu-dents that it is not necessary to write every word on their transparencies because they will be able to explain short bul-let points verbally. This lesson is always an important and eye-opening one for students.
Finally, the instructor calls an end to the preparation phase and invites a group to volunteer to present its findings. The volunteering approach works very well and communicates to the students that they have ownership over their learning in the class. From this point forward, each group presents on its chosen company and fields questions from the instructor and audience. The instructor merely helps facilitate the tran-sitions between groups by encouraging applause at the end of each group’s presentation and then asking for the next group to volunteer to present. This impromptu presentation exer-cise engages students in the first chapter’s broad overview of the training field in a wonderful and exciting way. They are energized and eager to learn about the companies, are forced to interface with the new terminology, are given an immedi-ate message that this class is different and will ask them to be active contributors right from the start, and become united as a group and as a class by a common bonding experience.
Using impromptu presentations to promote strate-gic analysis. This exercise is used to introduce students to industry analysis and competitive positioning in a cap-stone strategic management course. Students are asked to read Porter’s (1979) book, “How Competitive Forces Shape Strategy” or watch a videotaped 2004 interview by Charlie Rose with Michael E. Porter at the Harvard Business School (Jay et al., 2004). For homework, students gather as much data as they can on the bottled water industry. Alternatively, instructors may wish to use a published case study that covers this industry in general or companies operating in this indus-try in particular. The impromptu presentation exercise is then
IMPROMPTU PRESENTATIONS 19 handed out when students arrive in class. Student teams are
assigned to answer one of three study questions:
1. How would you rate the attractiveness of the bottled water industry?
2. Perform a Porter “5 Forces” analysis: What do these five forces reveal about the opportunities for profitabil-ity in the bottled water industry?
3. How would you characterize the competitive posi-tion(s) of each of the major bottled water companies that you have come across in your research? Which companies occupy strong positions? Which are not so strong? Why?
A student group representing judges may also be used. This group reads carefully the above questions and prepares ratings of the presenting teams and provides feedback on their performances using the grid in Appendix A.
Using impromptu presentations to dissect a textbook chapter. Impromptu presentations may also be used to an-alyze a textbook chapter. For example, if a chapter is broken down into 5 or 6 sections, the instructor may assign one of the chapter’s sections to each group. Each group then pro-vides a summary and critical evaluation of the content of that section of the chapter. While groups craft their presentation, the instructor should circulate around the room and answer any questions that students may have about the material in the chapter. If time permits, each group should also offer to the class one or two discussion questions and then lead that discussion.
Using impromptu presentations to develop student research skills. The impromptu exercise can also be used to motivate students to research a topic. For example, stu-dents could explore the economic and political dynamics of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). In this exercise, each student group is assigned to gather in-formation on one OPEC member country with the tasks of providing a basic country profile, a review of the country’s economic health, and its approach toward production quotas within OPEC. Depending on the course, the instructor may wish to offer a minilecture on OPEC’s desire to maintain sta-ble prices for maximizing profits and minimizing customers’ urge to conserve or look elsewhere for oil. In addition, the instructor should explain the dilemma OPEC member states face in (a) trying to make as much money as possible by pro-ducing as much oil as possible, and (b) sticking to a cap on oil production to ensure a relatively high price for oil. Students should explore why the country is (or is not) seeking greater oil output targets. Each group could also speculate about the short- and long-term benefits of its country’s strategy within OPEC. Among the themes that may be explored by the in-structor are collective action problems and the tragedy of the commons.
Using impromptu presentations to motivate students to take ownership of their learning. Impromptu presen-tations are suitable for the nonbusiness classroom as well. In a political science course such as comparative politics or European politics, this exercise can engage students by assigning each group to investigate a political party from a particular country. Typical instructions to students may include the following tasks: provide a summary of the po-litical party’s history, its platform, and its present electoral situation (e.g., how many seats it holds in the legislature). Students should also be asked to critique the party’s platform and to explain what the student group finds appealing and unappealing about the party’s policy preferences.
CONCLUSION
The impromptu presentation approach is an innovative and flexible pedagogical tool that can serve many purposes for the instructor. As the previous section suggests, impromptu pre-sentations can be used in almost any course. Similar to other active learning approaches, its applicability is limited only by the instructor’s imagination. The approach fits squarely within the collaborative learning realm because it engages students more fully in their own learning. As with many ac-tive learning tools, these presentations have the beneficial effect of motivating students to take ownership of their ed-ucation. This effect, combined with evidence that suggests that peer teaching enhances learning, supports the broader use of this approach in the college classroom. Because most of today’s jobs demand effective verbal communication, it is in teachers’ students’ best interest to provide more opportu-nities for them to develop their oral skills, which will serve them well in their careers, promoting more effective work environments and better customer relationships. Of course, further research is needed to determine the effectiveness of the impromptu approach in increasing student learning. How-ever, if our anecdotal experience is any indication, we expect that the findings will be positive.
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IMPROMPTU PRESENTATIONS 21
Appendix A
REVIEWER’S NAME
TEAM NUMBER DATE:
[Key: 0=Marginal; 1=Satisfactory; 2=Superior] [Comments]
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Specified problem and solution 0 1 2
Depth of understanding of issues 0 1 2
Logical call to action 0 1 2 Total (0–6)
ANALYSIS
Internal assessment & financial analysis 0 1 2 External and competitive assessment 0 1 2
Factual support and relevance 0 1 2 Total (0–6)
RECOMMENDATIONS
Reasonable range of alternatives 0 1 2 Appropriateness of alternatives 0 1 2 Risks and contingencies clearly identified 0 1 2
Implementation timeline 0 1 2
Feasibility in terms of know-how, time, cost 0 1 2 Total (0–10)
TEAMWORK & PRESENTATION
Visual aids, sharing of workload, clarity, effectiveness in Q&A Marginal=0
Satisfactory=1 Total (0–2) Superior=2
TOTAL POINTS
NOTE: Total possible points=24 points. A=20–24 pts., B=16–19 pts., C=12–15 pts., D=9–11 pts., F=<9 pts.
