Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree ofSarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
ALFINA PRAMITASARI
Student Number: 024214101
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
By
ALFINA PRAMITASARI
Student Number : 024214101
Approved by
Dr.Fr.B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. May 22, 2009
Advisor
By
ALFINA PRAMITASARI
Student Number: 024214101
Defended before the Board of Examiners On June 24, 2009
And Declared Acceptable
BOARD OF EXAMINERS
Name Signature
Chairman : Dr.Fr.B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A Secretary : Drs. Hirmawan W., M.Hum Member : Dra. B. Ria Lestari M.S. Member : Dr.Fr.B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A
Member : J. H. Hermansyah S., S.S.,M.Hum
Yogyakarta, June 30, 2009 Faculty of Letters Sanata Dharma University
Dean
All because we do not carry Everything to God in prayer We have trials and temptations? Is there trouble anywhere? We should never be discouraged! Take it to the Lord in prayer! Can we find a friend so faithful,
Take it to the Lord in prayer. Do thy friend despise, forsake thee?
Take it to the Lord in prayer. In his arms He’ll take and shield thee,
Thou wilt find a solace there.
(Written by Joseph M. Scriven, cited in Andar Ismail:Selamat Pagi, Tuhan!. Jakarta: PT BPK Gunung Mulia, 2005)
Charity
I dedicate this thesis to
My beloved father My lovely mother
& My best supporters (Adit and Nhanha)
with so much love and hope: I am really grateful for everything you have done in
my life.
I owe a debt of gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Francis Borgias Alip, M.
Pd., M.A., who kindly spared his time and knowledge to help me and guide me
during the thesis writing. I also owe a debt of gratitude toJ. Harris Hermansyah
S., S.S., M.Hum, co-advisor of my thesis. Thank you for your time and guidance
to help me finish my thesis. I am really grateful for the knowledge that I have got
from all of the lectures of English Letters Department, for the help from all of the
staff of the English Letters Department and for all of facilities I have received
from the staff of Sanata Dharma Library.
My deep thanks go to my father, who teaches me with so many lessons
about life that I would not forget in my lifetime; thank you so much for your
patience, cares and (of course) love that I would not get from others, and to my
mother who has opened my eyes widely about life; thank you for every word you
have in your prayer for me (I really appreciate it so much). For my best
supporters, Adit and Nhanha, thank you so much for your time, support and
patience. My deep gratitude also goes to all the members of the Mangun
Suwarnos and Margonos, who have helped me during my study. Thank you so
much for everything.
so much for all of the colors you have painted in my world), all of my friends in
Yogya (Mrs. Titi and family), Narlim, Ganjar’s House, Samen, Srikandi, Kalasan,
and Lingua International (Thank you so much for all the experience you have
shared with me.), all of my friends in my home town (Endah widi, Asih, Andri,
Dini, Tody and many others), and all of my cute little friends in Kayuwalang,
Wiladeg.
Last but not least my thanks go to friends, relatives, and people around me
who have helped me finish the graduating paper.
Alfina Pramitasari
MOTTO PAGE……… iv
DEDICATION PAGE………. v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………. vi
TABLE OF CONTENT...……… viii
LIST OF TABLES……… x
LIST OF FIGURES……….. xii
ABSTRACT……… xiii
ABSTRAK………. xv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION……… 1
A. Background of the Study……… 1
B. Problem Formulation……….. 3
C. Objective Study……….. 3
D. Definition Term……….. 3
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW……… 5
A. Review of Related Theories………... 5
1. Word and Words Formation………. 5
a. Morphology……… 5
b. The Relation of Word Formation and Grammar……… 6
2. Internal Structure of Word……… 7
a. Morpheme………... 7
b. Base………. 9
c. Affixation ……… 10
3. Word Classes……… 11
a. Open-class Words……… 12
b. Closed system Item……… 15
4. Theories of Suffix–eseand–(i)an……… 15
a. Suffix–ese……… 16
b. Suffix–(i)an………. 16
5. Morphophonemic Process/Changes……….. 17
a. Assimilation ……… 18
b. Dissimilation ……… 20
c. Segment addition or epenthesis……….. 21
d. Segment Weakening and deletion……… 21
e. Movement ……….. 22
f. Stress movement/shift……… 22
g. Vowel Change……… 23
B. Theoretical Framework………... 24
CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS……….. 29
A. Suffix–ese……… 30
1. The Class of Words Receiving Suffix–ese……….. 31
2. The Meaning Produced by the Suffix–ese……… 32
a. Noun Meaning……… 33
b. Adjective Meaning……… 35
3. The Morphophonemic Changes……… 35
a. Stress Shift……….. 36
b. Segment Weakening and Deletion……….. 38
c. Vowel Change………. 39
B. Suffix–(i)an……… 39
1. The Class of Words Receiving Suffix–(i)an……… 39
a. Nouns……….. 40
b. Adjectives……… 51
c. Polimorphemic Words……… 52
2. The Meaning Produced by the Suffix–(i)an……… 54
a. Noun Meanings………... 54
b. Adjective Meanings……… 60
3. The Morphophonemic Changes……… 61
a. Stress Shift……….. 61
b. Segment Weakening and deletion……… 61
c. Vowel Change………. 62
d. Assimilation……… 63
e. Segment addition………. 63
f. Dissimilation……… 64
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION……… 65
BIBLIOGRAPHY……… 67
APPENDIX……… 69
Table 2: Suffix –(i)an……….. 17
Table 3: Nasalization in Portuguese and French ………. 19
Table 4: Table stem of words with suffix –ese ………. 31
Table 5: The biographical names as stem words ………. 41
Table 6: City/port/principality/province/region/state/district names as stem words..………. 42
Table 7: Country/ancient country names as stem words……… 42
Table 8: Island names as stem words………. 43
Table 9: Mountain names as stem words………... 43
Table 10: River names as stem words……… 43
Table 11: Continent names as stem words………. 44
Table 12: Desert names as stem words……….. 44
Table 13: Peninsula names as stem words………. 44
Table 14: Rock shelter/cave names as stem words……… 44
Table 15: Straight names as stem words……… 45
Table 16: Animal species/group/class/subclass names as stem words…….. 46
Table 17: Legendary settlers of certain place’s name as stem words……… 46
Table 18: Flower names as stem words………. 47
Table 19: Contest/game names as stem words……….. 47
Table 20: Era/times names as stem words………. 47
Table 21: Group of people/organization names as stem words………. 48
Table 22: Planet names as stem words……….. 48
Table 23: Zodiac names as stem words………. 48
Table 24: Service club names……… 48
Table 25: Religious order names as stem words………. 49
Table 26: Dynasty names as stem words……… 49
Table 27: Method names as stem words………. 49
Table 28: Generic nouns as stem words………. 51
Table 29: Adjective words as stem………. 52
Table 30: The examples of words mean a native or inhabitant or descendant or citizen or resident of certain place……….. 54
Table 31: The examples of words mean languages of certain people……… 55
Table 32: The examples of words mean specialist on something or person professionally trained in something……… 55
Table 33: The examples of words mean members of certain animal /species/group/genus/class or subclass……….. 56
Table 34: The examples of words that mean members of organization/tribe/dynasty………. 57
Table 37: The examples of words means a student or former
student of certain school………. 58
Table 38: The example of word means a kind of typeface………. 59
Table 39: Other meanings of words with –(i)an……… 60
Table 40: The examples of words having adjective meaning………. 60
Table 41: The example of words with stress shift……….. 61
Table 42: The examples of words with vowel deletion……….. 61
Table 43: The examples of words with consonant deletion……… 62
Table 44: The examples of words with vowel weakening……….. 62
Table 45: The examples of words with vowel change……… 62
Table 46: The examples of words with assimilation……….. 63
Table 47: The examples of words with consonant addition………... 63
Table 48: The examples of words with vowel addition……….. 64
Table 49: The examples of words with dissimilation ……… 64
Figure 2: The tree diagram of wordsplayer,boysandunhappiness……….. 10 Figure 3: Types of noun………. 12 Figure 4: Palatalization/affrication induced by front vowels and [j]……….. 19
Word formation is a way of forming new words from old ones. In word formation, words that already exist in English can be combined with other words or morphemes to create new words that are different from the old one. The study of the word formation helps us to recognize the grammatical class of a word by its structure and teach us that there is flexibility in the application of the grammar rules. Unfortunately the scope of word formation is very wide. Therefore, the thesis writer has limited the scope only about words formation in the affixation with suffix–eseand–(i)an.
The purpose of this thesis is to analyze the word classes of words that receive suffix–ese and –(i)an, the meanings that are produced by the suffix –ese and –(i)an, and morphophonemic process/changes occur in the affixation process of words with suffix–eseand–(i)an.
In analyzing the words with suffix –ese and –(i)an the writer collects words with those suffix from some dictionaries such as Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2006), Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (2003) and Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1995). This action was taken to collect as many as possible words with suffix –eseand-(i)an. After the words are collected, the writer restricted the numbers of the data only 20 % of the all words, with 14 words with–eseand 237 words with–(i)an) as the result.
The research would be done in three steps, which were the organization of the stem, the organization of the meanings produced when a word receive suffix– eseand-(i)an, and the identification of morphophonemic process occurred when a word receives suffix –ese and-(i)an. At first the writer classified the stem. Then the writer compared the meaning before receiving suffix –eseand-(i)anand after receiving suffix –ese and -(i)an in order to get the information about the new meaning which is produced by the affixation process using suffix –eseand-(i)an. The last, the writer had to compare between the phonetic transcription of the stem and the phonetic transcription of the new words (stem that receiving those two suffixes) to get the morphophonemic process inside the internal structure of the words.
From the analysis for suffix –ese, it is found out that the word classes of the words (stem words) are nouns and adjective. The meaning that are produced by suffix –ese are classified into two groups of meaning, noun meaning and adjective meaning. The morphophonemic process or changes that happened in the internal structure of the words when they receive the suffix –ese can be stress shift, segment deletion, and vowel change.
and adjective meanings. The noun meanings vary in more specific meanings. The morphophonemic processes or changes in the internal structure of words with suffix –(i)an are stress shift, segment weakening and deletion, vowel change, assimilation, segment addition, and dissimilation.
Formasi kata merupakan sebuah cara untuk membentuk kata-kata baru dari kata-kata lama atau kata-kata yang sudah ada. Dalam formasi kata, kata-kata yang sudah ada dalam bahasa Inggris bisa dikombinasikan dengan kata lain atau morfem lain untuk membentuk kata baru yang berbeda dengan kata sebelumnya. Study tentang formasi kata membantu kita untuk mengenali kelas-kelas grammatikal sebuah kata melalui struktur yang dimilikinya dan mengajari kita bahwa terdapat keluwesan dalam pengaplikasian aturan-aturan grammar. Sangat disayangkan, pembahasan tentang formasi kata sangatlah luas. Oleh karena itu penulis skripsi membatasi skope bahasan hanya tentang formasi kata yang terjadi pada affiksasi dengan menggunakan suffik–eseand–(i)an.
Adapun tujuan dari skripsi ini adalah untuk menganalisa kelas-kelas kata dari kata yang menerima suffik –ese dan suffik –(i)an, makna yang dihasilkan oleh suffik –ese dan suffik –(i)an, dan proses-proses/perubahan-perubahan morphophonemic yang terjadi di dalam proses affiksasi dengan menggunakan suffik–esedan suffik–(i)an.
Dalam menganalisa kata-kata dengan sufik–ese dan suffik–(i)an, penulis mengkoleksi kata-kata dengan suffik tersebut dari beberapa kamus, seperti Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2006), Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary(2003) andOxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1995). Hal ini dilakukan untuk mengkoleksi sebanyak mungkin kata-kata dengan suffik– ese and –(i)an. Setelah kata-kata sudah terkoleksi, penulis membatasai jumlah data hanya 20 % dari semua kata-kata yang menghasilkan 14 kata dengan sufiks – esedan 237 kata dengan sufiks –(i)an.
Penelitian dilakukan dalam tiga langkah yaitu pengelompokan kata dasar, pengelompokan makna yang muncul ketika sebuah kata menerima suffik–eseand –(i)an, dan pengidentifikasian proses-proses morphophonemics ketika sebuah kata menerima suffik –ese and –(i)an. Langkah pertama, penulis mengklasifikasikan kata dasarnya. Kemudian, penulis membandingkan makna sebelum menerima suffik –ese and –(i)an dan setelah menerima suffik –ese and –(i)an. Terakhir, penulis harus membandingkan diantara transkripsi fonetic dari kata dasar dan transcripsi fonetik dari kata-kata baru (kata dasar yang menerima ketiga suffix tersebut) untuk mendapatkan proses-proses morphophonemic didalam struktur internal kata-kata tersebut.
Dari analisis suffik –ese diketemukan bahwa kelas-kelas kata (kata dasar) dari kata dengan –ese adalah kata benda dan kata sifat. Makna yang dihasilkan oleh suffik –esediklasifikasikan menjadi dua kelompok makna, yaitu makna kata benda dan makna kata sifat. Proses morphophonemik yang terjadi struktur internal dari kata-kata yang menerima suffik –ese adalah pergeseran tekanan, penghilangan segmen, dan perubahan vowel.
kelompok makna yaitu makna-makna kata benda dan makna-makna kata sifat. Proses atau perubahan morphophonemik yang terjadi di struktur internal dari kata-kata dengan suffik –(i)an antara lain pergeseran tekanan, pelemahan dan penghilangan segmen, perubahan vowel, assimilasi, penambahan segmen dan dissimilasi.
1 A. Background of the Study
Baugh and Cable say that the importance of the English language is very
great (1978). This language is spoken by more than 340 million people as a first
language in the United Kingdom, the United States and the former British Empire; it
is the largest language in the occidental languages (Baugh and Cable, 1978:3). From
what Baugh and Cable said we know that English is spoken in developed countries
like United Kingdom and United States, countries where the technology and the
culture are well developed. It means that the need for people from developing
countries like our country Indonesia to study about the English language is greater
and greater nowadays, because much information about technology is needed to
develop a better future. The opportunities to speak with many people from other
countries to share information also become the reason why people like to learn and
use the English language.
We already know that there are many words in English vocabulary. And in
English there are many ways or process to create words. The chief processes of
English processes, which are called the major word-formation process, by which the
base may be modified, are: affixation, conversion, and compounding (Quirk et al,
1972: 978).
The most interesting fact about words in English is many of the English
language called morphemes, which consist of two kinds: bound and free morphemes.
In here the position of the free morpheme is as the stem or base. And affixes stand as
the bound morpheme in the internal structure of a word that have to be attached to
one or more free morpheme to be meaningful.
There are many affixes in English. As a consideration, an English affix has
two kinds of type (Quirket al, 1972: 978). The first is called prefixes, affixes which
are added to the base, with or without a change of word-class. The second one is
suffixes, affixes which are added to the base.
In this thesis the writer is concerned with the suffixes in English, especially
those suffixes added to noun or adjective stems to produce nouns and adjectives.
The study of the suffixes is expected to give deeper understanding about the
base for each word that goes with these suffixes and the meaning of each word also.
The writer also tries to find morphophonemic processes that occur in the process of
the attachment of these suffixes, which added to nouns/adjectives.
The information about the suffix –ese, -(i)an and -ite are taken from many
sources. It states that those suffixes are suffixes which are added to nouns/adjectives
to form nouns/adjectives. Furthermore, the three suffixes are added names or proper
B. Problem Formulation:
The writer has formulated three problems that will be used to explain about
suffix–eseand-(i)an. The problems that will be analyzed in this thesis are:
1. What classes of words receive the suffix–eseand-(i)an?
2. What meanings are produced by the suffix–eseand-(i)an?
3. What morphophonemic processes occur in the affixation process of words
with suffix–eseand-(i)an?
C. Objective Study
This thesis has three goals or objectives. The first goal is to find out each
base of English words that goes with the two suffixes, suffix –ese and -(i)an. The
second goal is to find out the meaning of suffix–eseand-(i)an. And the third goal is
to find out the changes which happened when those suffixes are attached to the
words, because there are many words in English which change after undergo
affixation processes.
D. Definition Term
In studying the formation of words with the suffix–ese and-(i)an, it will be
very useful to have a short explanation about some terms that will be said very often
before we move on to the next chapter. The terms that we are going to discuss are
wordandsuffix.
There are many definitions aboutwords; however Fromkin states a very short
and clear definition about words, meaningful units that can be combined to form
built up a building. We arrange the bricks to give the bricks a new form. It can be a
house, a bridge, a gate, a school building, a church, a mosque or other. From 1, 2, 3,
or hundreds or even thousands of bricks, which are very small, a bricklayer can
arrange a bigger building. The same function happened with the function of words.
Wordis a small meaningful unit that has to be arranged in order to form phrases or
sentences that can be used by human to communicate with others. Aichitson gives
more complete definitions about what is a word. A word can be seen as a lexical
item, a syntactic unit, or a morphological unit. As a lexical item, a word is a unit of
sounds that is related in some way to a unit of meaning. As a syntactic unit, a word is
a unit of sound, which may occur in a certain syntactic environment. And the last, as
a phonological unit, a word may have more than one phonological realization
(Dwijatmoko, 2002: 9).
The second term is Suffix. It is explained in the beginning that a Suffix is an
affix that are attached after a root, a stem, or a base (Katamba, 1993:42). There are
many suffixes used in English, and –ese and -(i)an are some example about it. A
suffix is included into bound morpheme, a smallest meaningful unit or root that
always occurs with some other word-building element attached to them, which is a
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
A. Review of Related Theories
1. Word and Words Formation
a. Morphology
Talking about words, we have to study about morphology. This field of
linguistics is very important in this research because it concerns with the words and
words formation. From morphology we can get important insights into how language
works, revealing the need for different categories of words, the presence of
word-internal structure, and the existence of operations that create and modify words in
various ways (O’Gradyet all, 2005:112).
In many researches about morphology, words become a very important thing
to be discussed. It is because words are very important in a language, because they
are used in human everyday conversation. They become the mean for human to
communicate with others. Further research says that words are the smallest unit of
language that people can understand if it is said or written on its own (Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2006). Aitchison gives some more complete
definition about what is a word. He said that a word can be seen as a lexical item, a
syntactic unit, or a morphological unit. As a lexical item, a word is a unit of sounds
that is related in some way to a unit of meaning. Next is word as a syntactic unit, a
word is a unit of sound that may occur in a certain syntactic environment. Moreover,
the last, as a phonological unit, a word may have more than one phonological
realization (Dwijatmoko, 2002: 9). However, human system communication not only
use a word alone but they used it in a group of words that contain two or more words
to tell others about things, ideas, feelings and so on. Fromkin gives another
definition of words to explain this. He states that words are meaningful units that can
be combined to form phrases and sentences (2003: 25).
The next thing to be discussed is about word formation or ways of forming
new words from old ones. In here, words that already exist in English can be
combined with other words or morphemes to create new words that are different
from the old words. The example is the word user. The base or the root is the noun
use, meaning the action or fact of using something. This base can be combined with
the suffix –er, meaning someone who does something or is doing something. This
combination of a word and an affix form or produce worduser, which have a new
meaning: someone or something that uses a product, service etc. Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English (2006) gives examples to explain about the
usage of this new word, user, which are road users, a computer user, and library
users.
b. The Relation of Word Formation and Grammar
The relation of the word formation and grammar are important because in
word formation we study about the rules by which words are constructed. This study
helps us to recognize the grammatical class of a word by its structure and teach us
that there is flexibility in the application of the grammatical rules (Quirket al, 1972:
2. Internal Structure of Word
To analyze the internal structure of word we have to understand further about
some theories in Morphology. These theories are about elements that construct or
build what people called word. In order to get a deeper understanding about the
internal structure we have to understand about morpheme, base, and affixation.
Below are some theories from some linguist that will become the background
knowledge about the elements that build a word.
a. Morpheme
It should be recognized that a word is different from a morpheme. A
morpheme is the smallest difference in the shape of a word that correlates with the
smallest difference or sentence meaning or in grammatical structure (Katamba, 1994:
24). Moreover, Fromkin says that morpheme is the smallest word parts that cannot
be divided into even smaller part (2003: 26). In fact that a morpheme is the smallest
element, it means that it cannot be broken into the smaller one anymore because it
would make the units meaningless. The short way to understand this is that in a word
we can have one or more than one morphemes. Some morpheme can be a word but
others cannot be a word.
A word must be differentiated from a morpheme because sometimes a word
consists of more than one morpheme in the process of the word formation. The
example is redeclassify. This word consists of four morphemes; they are re-, de-,
class, and-ify. In analyzing the structure of the wordirreplaceable,we can use a tree
Figure 1: The tree diagram of the word redeclassify (taken from An Introduction to English Morphology, page75).
i. Free Morpheme
Free morphemes are morphemes that can occur by themselves in a large
language unit. Sometimes a free morpheme is also called as a root. Katamba says
that roots that are capable of standing independently are called free morphemes.
Moreover, the definition of the root itself according to Katamba is the irreducible
core of a word, with absolutely nothing else attached to it (Katamba, 1994: 41-42).
The examples of free morpheme are: man, boy, book, table, love, pure, red, hot,
ready, and cute. Free morphemes can be from lexical words, they are nouns
adjectives, verbs, preposition or adverbs. The examples are; man, book, tea, sweet,
cook, bet, very, aardvark, pain, walk. Such morphemes like that carry most of the
semantic content of utterance. Other free morphemes also come from function
words, which signal grammatical information or logical relationship in a sentence
(Katamba; 1994: 42). Function words are articles, demonstratives, pronouns, and
conjunction.
V
Af
re-V
Af V
Af N
de- class -ify
V
Af
re-V
Af V
Af N
ii. Bound Morpheme
Katamba said that bound morpheme is such a root that always occurs with
some other word-building element attached to them (Katamba, 1993:42). These
kinds of morphemes cannot stand as an independent unit. It needs help from other
morphemes in order to make it become the meaningful unit. The examples of bound
morphemes are;a-, ab-, un-, -ness, -ity, -ify, -less etc. From the examples, it shows
that affixes are included into bound morpheme because it needs help from other
morpheme which is free morpheme to be meaningful.
b. Base
To study the definition of base, we need to study what are a root and a stem
too. It is because those three words have similarities that can confuse the reader. The
base is any unit whatsoever to which affixes of any kind can be added, and all roots
are bases (Katamba; 1993:.45). The example is word boy. This word is called base
when attached to an inflectional affix like suffix–s to performboys. This word also
can be a base when it is attached to a derivational affixes such as -ish to form the
wordboyish. Katamba in his book also explained that a root is the irreducible core of
a word, with absolutely nothing else attached to it. According to Merriam Webster
Collegiate Dictionary(2002), irreducible means impossible to make less or smaller
and the wordcoremeans a central and often foundational part usually distinct from
the enveloping part by a difference in nature (2003). It means that the root is the
central form because it cannot be divided further into the smaller one. O’Grady,
when the outer affixes are removed (1976: 98). To make it easier to be analyzed we
can analyze the wordteacher, books, andunhappinessusing the tree diagram.
Figure 2: The tree diagram of wordsplayer, boys, andunhappiness(playerandboys taken fromContemporary Linguistics,page 115)
Inplayer, the wordplayis the stem, the base and the root of the wordplayer.
The same thing happened to wordboys. In the wordboys,boybecomes the stem, the
base, and the root. Nevertheless, when we talk about word unhappiness it is
different. Happiness is the stem and the base, andhappy is the base and the root of
the wordunhappiness.
c. Affixation
Affixation is the addition of an affix (O’Grady, 1996: 138). Affixation is the
most productive morphological process in English. We already know that the
making of new word in English using affixation process is very common; even many
experts said that it becomes the most productive ways in producing new word. There
are many examples in everyday use about the usage of the word with some affix. We
can also check through the dictionary that it has many words that are formed by the N
V Af
teach -er
N
N Af
boy -s
-ness Af
N
N
A
un- happy
adding of affixes in their structure. The examples are disable, contemporary,
abnormal, humanity, humidity, purity, honesty, safely, unpredictable, loneliness,
subjective, etc.
According to the function, affix morphemes can be classified in to two
different classes, they are derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes.
O’Grady in his book tells that derivation is one way to create a new word by
changing the category and/or the meaning of the base to which it applies (1996:134).
He also mentions that inflection is one of morphological process that helps people to
mark the contrasts in a language such as singular and plural, and past and present
(107). He also explains further by saying that instead of creating a new word as
derivation or compounding does, inflection modifies a word’s form in order to mark
the grammatical subclass to which it belongs.
3. Word Classes
Word class, or some linguist said part of speech, is a collection of words in
one language that all behave in a similar way.
Word class classifies words into classes that show the same characteristic and
function. In here we can classified the wordsbiginto adjective,girlsas Noun, which
are plural noun,seriouslyas adverb, and so on (Hurford, 1995; 148). Before we talk
about it further we should began with open class word and closed-system words. It is
because many Linguists divided all of English words into these groups (Quirket all,
a. Open-class Words
These words are classified as open class words because these words are
extendable. In here, the term extendable means that these word classes can easily add
new words so that the vocabulary of the language expands. The open-class words are
divided intonoun,verb,adjectiveandadverb, which are discussed clearly later.
Anounis a word that represent a person (such asMichael,teacherorpolice
officer), a place (such as France or school), a thing or activity (such as coffee or
football), or a quality or idea (such asdanger or happiness). Nouns can be used as
the subject or object of a verb or as the object of a preposition (Hurford, 1995; 139).
Noun words are divided into sub-classes that can be seen clearly in the figure 3 in
the next page.
Figure 3: Types of Noun, Taken fromA Grammar of ContemporaryEnglish, p.128 Noun
Common
Proper noun
Count
Mass
Concrete: bun,toy…
Abstract:difficulty, worry…
Concrete:iron, butter…
Abstract:music, homework…
From the table above, it is showed that wide group of noun words are divided
into two subclasses that are called common noun and proper noun.
Common nouns are the most common type of nouns, which refer to members
of classes of people, things, or masses stuff. Common nouns can be divided into two
large subclasses, count nouns and mass nouns. Count nouns are nouns that refer to
an individual object or to the object in a countable collection, rather than to a mass of
indivisible stuff. Meanwhile, a mass noun is a type of nouns that refers to stuff or
unsegmental material deal with as an indivisible mass. Furthermore, these subclasses
of common noun can be divided into others subclasses that are abstract and concrete
nouns. Abstract nouns are common nouns that typically refer to abstraction such as
activities, emotions, virtues, vices, forces, ideologies, religions, attitudes, times,
distance and professions. In other words, we can say that these kinds of noun are
nouns that we can sensibly talk about, so they do exist in some sense, but we cannot
experience them directly with our senses. On the other hand, we can say that abstract
nouns are immaterial things. Next is concrete noun. This kind of noun is the opposite
of the abstract noun; it refers to material things, things that can be experienced with
our senses (Hurford, 1995; 30-32).
The last type of noun is the proper noun, or proper name. There are many
sources explaining about what is proper noun and the position of proper noun in
English language. Fromkin states that words like Bianca, which is a name, is a
special class of noun (2003; 27). She also mentions that proper noun is used as
geographical entities such as cities or countries (London,France), and other things
that people gives name to, such as restaurants, stores, and commercial product
(Pepsi, Viagra). Other linguist, Quirk, explains that proper nouns are names of
specific people (Shakespeare), places (Milwaukee), countries (Australia), months
(September), days (Thursday), holidays (Christmas), magazines (Vogue), and so
forth (1972;160). Proper nouns are special because they do not have the full range of
determiners and lack article contrast (Quirk et all, 1972; 128) This characteristic
gives them a very clear difference to differentiate proper nouns from other nouns.
Different from nouns, averb is a word or group of words that describes an
action, experience, or state, such as come, see, and put on. Less typical verbs may
express meaning s such as events, habits, tendencies, and relationship between
people. Verbs and noun become the most basic parts of speech in English (Hurford,
1995; 244-245). However, in here the detail information about verb are not listed
because it is out of the discussion about these three suffixes.
The next word class is theadjective. An adjective is a word that describes a
noun or pronoun. Hurford also mentions that an adjective is a word typically used to
modify a noun, and describe some property of the thing referred to by the noun such
as its shape, color, age, value, size, origin or the impression it gives (1994: 8). An
adjective has very special characteristics compare with other word classes. There are
four characteristics. First it can freely occur in attributive position, ie it can
premodify a noun. Second, it can freely occur in predicative position, ie it can
can premodify them. The last, it can take comparative and superlative forms whether
inflectionally or by the addition of the premodifiersmoreandmost.
The last word class is adverb. An adverb adds specific information about
time, manner or place to the meaning of verbs and whole clauses. The most common
characteristic of the adverb is the addition of suffix –ly. This suffix is added to
adjectives and nouns to form adverb.
b. Closed-system Items
The next type is closed system item. Quirk states that the set of items are
closed in the sense that they cannot normally be extended by the creation of
additional member because it is rarely we invent or adopt a new or additional
articles, demonstratives, pronouns, preposition, conjunction, and interjections. These
types of words are not clearly discussed because affixation is the process to form
new words with the addition of one, two or more affixes to an open class word.
Moreover, these types of words are not accepting any addition from suffix.
4. The Theories of Suffix–eseand-(i)an
Theory about suffix –ese, -(i)an, and –ite are already researched by some
linguists. Therefore, we can get much information about this suffix from some
textbooks and dictionaries. One of the books that discuss these three suffixes is
Grammar of Contemporary English (1973). Below we will talk about the suffixes
a. Suffix–ese
Suffix–eseis suffix that the origin is from Portuguese (suffis-es) and Italian
(suffix-ese). Here some theories that discuss about this suffix.
TheMerriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary(2003) explains suffix -eseas a
noun suffix which has two meanings: native or resident of a specified place or
country (Chinese) and language of a particular place, country, or nationality
(Cantonese) or speech, literary style, or diction peculiar to a specified place, person,
group, discipline, subject, or activity (journaleseandbaseballese).
Quirk states some explanation about –ese. See the table below.
Noun/adjective→ noun/adjective suffixes
Added to → to
form
Meaning Examples comments
-ese Chiefly proper nouns→personal nouns and non-gradable
adjectives
nationality, etc.
Chi`nese, Portu`guese, Japa`nese
Used normally for language and dialect names: Cantonese, etc. Extended (usually pejoratively) to linguistic styled: Johnso`nese, journa`lese, etc. In attributive use, the stress generally shifts to initial position: `Japanese art.
Table 1; Suffix-esetaken fromGrammar of Contemporary English, page 997.
b. Suffix–(i)an
Suffix –an, -ean or –ian is suffixes that comes from old French suffix –en
and from Latin suffix–anus.
Explanation about this suffix can be seen from the table below written by
Quirk (1972).
Added to → to form
Meaning Examples comments
-(i)an Chiefly proper nouns→personal nouns and non-gradable adjectives
belonging to…., pertaining to….,
Indo`nesian, Pa`risian, Eliza`bethan, re`publican, dar`winian.
Often corresponding to place
nouns in –(i)a:
Persia/Persian, etc. Stress shift to the final syllable of the stem is common: Shakespeare/Shakes`pearean, etc.
Table 2: Suffix–(i)an, taken fromGrammar of Contemporary English, page 996.
In Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary listed that suffix –(i)an which is
attached to proper nouns forming nouns and adjectives such as:Bostonian,Brazilian,
Shakespearian, and Librarian, and suffix -ianwhich is attached to nouns ending in
-ics forming nouns, that means a specialist in, such as optician, and paediatrician
(1995).
5. Morphophonemic Process/Changes:
Morphophonemic or morphophonology is the study of the phonological
structure of morphemes, the phonetic variations that morphemes undergo in
combination with one another, and the study of alternation series (Malmkjaer, 1996:
320). From the definition above, we can make a simple definition that
morphophonemic process is a process that explains the change of sounds or
phonemes structure of a morpheme that happened when a morpheme is attached to
other morphemes. In here, this case happens when a word undergoes an affixation
process with the addition of the two suffixes,–eseand-(i)an.
The changes inside the word structure after receiving a certain kind of suffix
a. Assimilation
Assimilation is the process by which a sound changes to become phonetically
more like an adjacent sound (O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff and Rees-Miller, 2005).
According to Fromkin and Rodman this kind of change is the result of the
application of assimilation rules in phonological rules, rules that assimilates one
segment to another by copying or spreading a feature of a sequential phoneme,
making the two phones more similar (1988).
According to O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff and Rees-Miller in the
Contemporary Linguistics: Study of Language Change (2005), the assimilation is
consist of:
i. place and/or manner of articulation
The example of assimilation in place and /or manner of articulation is the
Old Spanish word semda which nowadays turn into senda. If we take a look the
change closer, both /m/ and /n/ have the same manner of articulation which is nasal,
but those two sounds have different place of articulation, the /m/ sound is bilabial
and the /n/ sound is alveolar.
ii. Palatalization/affrication
Palatalization is the effects that front vowel and the palatal glide (typically
have on velar, alveolar, and dental stop), making their place of articulation more
palatal. O’grady compares the pronunciation of keep with cot. He states that the
Paltalization is often the first step in affrication, a change in which
palatalizaed stop becomes affricates, either [ts] or [tſ] if the original stop was
voiceless, or [dz] or [] if the original stop was voiced. See the figure below.
Figure 4: Palatalization/affrication induced by front vowels and [j] (Taken from Contemporary Linguistics; page 251).
Below are examples from the Romance languages as shown in source above.
Latin centum [k] Old French cent [ts] one hundred
Latin centum [k] Italian cento [tſ] one hundred
Latin medius [d] Italian mezzo [dz] half
Latin gentem [g] Old French gent [dЗ] people
iii. Nazalitation
This refers to the nasalizing effect that a nasal consonant can have on an
adjacent vowel. This change occurs in both French and Portuguese, with the
subsequent loss of the nasal consonant.
Latin Portuguese French Meaning
bon-
un-bom [bə] um [u:]
bo [b:]
un []
good
one
Table 3; Nasalization in Portuguese and French (Taken from Contemporary Linguisticspage 251).
iv. Umlaut
tſ ts
t k
dЗ dz
Umlaut is the process by which the frontness feature of a vowel in one
syllable is added to the vowel of the preceding syllable (Wardhaugh, 1977; 199).
The vowel in sing and singe have different historical origin. In a pre-Old
English stage sing was [sngan] but singe was [sεngjan]. The presence of the [j] in
the second syllable brought about the raising of the vowel in the first syllable:
[ε]>[]. Some further examples of the process of umlaut can be seen in the
alternations process between mouse-mise, foot-feet, and goose-geese that can be
seen below (Wardhaugh, 1977; 199).
Germanic Old English Modern English
mūs mūs mas mouse
mūsi mys mas mice
fōt fōt ft foot
fōti ft fit feet
gans gōs gus goose
gansi gs gis geese
b. Dissimilation
Dissimilation is the process whereby one segment is made less like another
segment in its environment, is much less frequent than assimilation (O’Grady,
Archibald, Aronoff and Rees-Miller, 2005). This type of change typically occurs
when it would be difficult to articulate or perceive two similar sounds in close
These changes are appeared as the application of dissimilation rules in
phonology, rules in which the segment becomes less similar to another segment,
rather than more similar (Fromkin and Rodman, 2005). For example, many speakers
in English dissimilate the sequence of the two fricatives [fθ] in the word diphthong
and pronounce it with a labial stop [p] instead of the labial fricative [f].
c. Segment addition or ephenthesis
Epenthesis is the change that happened with the insertion of a consonant or
vowel into a particular environment (O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff and Rees-Miller,
2005). The examples are:
Latin schola [sk] Spanish escuela [esk] ‘school’
Latin scribere [sk] Spanish escribir [ask] ‘write’
These examples of epenthesis are taken from Contemporary Linguistics, page
253. For English word, the thesis writer takes the word mince as the example. Some
people sometimes pronounce the word mince with [mns] and some others
pronounce it with [mnts] (The English example taken from An Introduction to
Language and use Merriam-Webster’s 11th Collegiate Dictionary (2003) as a
comparative source.).
d. Segment weakening and deletion
Vowel deletion commonly involves a word final vowel (apocope) or a
word-internal vowel (syncope). A vowel in an unstressed syllable is particularly
of syncope are also apparent in the lost of the medial vowel in Modern English
words such asvegetable['vedətəbl], interest['ntərəst], and family['fæməl], which
are frequently pronounced as ['vedtəbl], ['ntrəst], and ['fæml] (O’Grady,
Archibald, Aronoff and Rees-Miller, 2005).
Consonant deletion is a very common sound change. For example, the word
initial cluster [kn] was found in Old English and Middle English, as the spelling of
such words asknight,knit,knot, andkneeimplies, but the [k] was subsequently lost
giving us our modern pronunciation (O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff and Rees-Miller,
2005). The example is the word knight. In Old English and Middle English, this
word was pronounced [knat], but in modern English it is pronounced with [nat].
This kind of change is also the impact of the phonological rules that used in
language, which is called segment deletion rules (Fromkin and Rodman, 1988).
e. Movement/metathesis
Metathesis is a switch in position of sounds (Wardhaugh, 1977 ; 202). This is
a kind of change involves a change in the relative positioning of segment and like
assimilation and dissimilation; this change can affect adjacent segments or segments
at a distance (O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff and Rees-Miller, 2005).
The example is the word comfortable. In English this word can be
pronounced [kmftəblə] or [kmfətblə] (Wardhaugh, 1977).
f. Stress movement/shift
Stress movement or stress shift is a kind of change that is not segmental as
five kinds of changes that are mentioned above. Stress is a property of a syllable
rather than a segment, so it is a prosodic or suprasegmental (Fromkin and Rodman,
Stress or word stress is the intensity with which a sound is pronounced
relative to that of other sounds (Wardhaugh, 1977).
In English and many other language, one or more of the syllables in each
content word (words other than the litlle words like to, the, a, of, and so on) are
stressed. In some words, more than one vowel is stressed, but if so, one of these
stressed vowels receives greater stress than the others. We have indicated the most
highly stressed vowel by an acute accent over the vowel. We say this vowel receives
the accent, or primary stress, or main stress, and the weaker vowel receive secondary
stress (Fromkin and Rodman, 1988).
Katamba mentions that according to the basis of their phonological behavior;
English suffixes are group into two broad classes, neutral and non-neutral classes.
From the theories, we know that non-neutral affixes have phonological effects. The
effects are the consonant or vowel segment, or the location of the stress in the base to
which they are attached (Katamba, 1994: 89).
The example of the non-neutral affixes is -ic and –ee are acrobatic, echoic,
advisee, and murderee. These word examples become the examples of the stress
movement or the position changing of the stress position inside the internal structure
of a word after receiving certain suffix. See the phonetic transcription below:
acrobat + -ic acrobatic [æk-rə-bæt] [-k] [æk-rə-bæ-tk] echo + -ic echoic
murder + -ee murderee [mз:-dər] [-i:] [mз:-də-ri:]
Moreover about stress, Baugh and Cable state that in unaccented syllables or
unstressed vowel the spelling does not accurately represent the pronunciation today.
This is because in all periods of the language the vowels of unstressed syllables have
had a tendency to weaken and then often to disappear (1978).
g. Vowel change
It is explained before that the word stress of words after receiving suffix–ese
moved. This fact trigger the vowel changed inside the words structure. It is because
the vowel of the old word that receive the stress do not receive strong stress so they
have tendency to weaken or even disappear in the new word. For example, according
to Baugh and Cable the schwa sound, [ə], in the words ago, upon, andopinion are
weaken because the sound [ə] are not stressed.
B. Theoretical Framework
This research study the word formation of words that add suffix –ese and
-(i)an to create other words with the process of affixation, a process when 1, 2 or
more affixes are added to produce a new word from the old word.
Talking about word and word formation we will talk about morphology
which are one of the field of linguistics that study the words and the word formation
in a language. In morphology, we learn more about what is a word and how a
process called affixation produces a word. From the morphology research it is found
English words to form or produce other nouns and adjectives which have different
meaning after undergo the process.
To answer the problem formulation number one which the classes of words
receive the suffix –ese and -(i)an, we use theory of morphology about words and
word formation, theory of internal structure of word and also theory of word classes
that are mentions above. The theories about words and word formation and the
internal structure of word give enough knowledge about the important of the study of
English word in grammar study and the process of words receiving certain affix in
English. These theories also give some important insight about the characteristic of
each type of affix, especially suffix, to support the research about the base of the
words which receive suffix –ese and -(i)an. The word class theory is needed to
examine each word class of the stem/base to be classified easier to differentiate the
bases that are going to be collected.
The meaning that are produced by the suffix –ese and -(i)an (problem
formulation number two) are analyzed using meanings from dictionaries which are
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2006) and Merriam Webster’s
Collegiate Dictionary (2003) and Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1995).
This research also used three dictionaries to collect the information about those
suffixes; the stem, the meaning, and the pronunciation search. In here, the writer
chooses these dictionaries because these dictionaries are used by most of the English
department student in Sanata Dharma University.
The writer uses the theory that have a relationship between morphology and
problem formulation number three. This theory explain the changes or alternation
that happed inside the structure of a word when a free morpheme or a stem or a base
word receiving suffix–eseand-(i)an.
Hopefully this research about suffix –ese and -(i)an can give good
contribution for the advance of the English morphology research in Sanata Dharma
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
A. Object of the Study
The object of this thesis is the word formation of words which receive the
suffix–eseand-(i)an. These three suffixes are added to noun or adjective words that
become the stems, to form new noun or adjective words that have different meaning
and/or category with the previous words (stems). In other words, this object of this
thesis research is to study the process of producing new words using the affixation
process, especially when it is done using–eseand-(i)an.
The thesis will study about three sub-topics. The first thing to do is study the
classes of words that receive the suffix –ese and -(i)an. Here, the words which
receive these suffixes are divided depend on each word class so they can be
classified easily. After collecting the words that receive one of the three suffixes, the
research about the stem are done to get enough information about the words that
receive the three suffixes. The second one is study the meanings which are produced
by the words that receive suffix –ese and -(i)an, but we should collect the meaning
of each word (stem) before receiving the three suffixes. The third thing to study is
the morphophonemic processes occurs in the affixation process of words that receive
the two suffixes, suffix–eseand-(i)an.
B. Data Collection
The analysis of the topic used in this thesis is literary research based on
morphology.
The writer researches and collects the words that receive the suffix–eseand
-(i)an from three dictionaries which are; Longman Dictionary of Contemporary
English (2006), Merriam-Webster’s 11th Collegiate Dictionary (2003) and Oxford
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary(1995).
This effort is taken in order to collect enough words that receive suffix–ese
and -(i)an to be analyzed. Moreover, about words collection, it will focus on
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (2003) as the main source for the
dictionary sources. This decision is taken because most of the words collection is
taken from this dictionary and the rest of the dictionaries become the additional
sources to support the research.
In collecting the words, the writer collected all of the words with those
suffixes listed on the dictionaries. This action was taken to collect as much as
possible words with suffix–ese and -(i)an. After the words are collected, the writer
restricted the numbers of the data only 20 % of the all words.
C. Data analysis
To make it well organized, the research would be done in three steps that
were taken by the researcher.
The first step was organization of the stem. Here, the writer identified the
classification of the stem according to their word class. In here, the writer classified
the stem not only into their subclass of the word class but also analyze it into the
subclass of the noun (if the information from the sources were possible to do). This
action was did to study the stem into the specific subclasses (which was the stem, for
example Noun stem, was proper noun or common noun and more over)
The second steps was organization of the meanings produced when a word
receive suffix –ese and -(i)an. In here the writer compared the meaning before
receiving suffix–eseand -(i)anand after receiving suffix–eseand-(i)anin order to
get the information about the new meaning which is produced by the affixation
process using suffix –ese and -(i)an. When the all information already taken, the
various kind of meaning appear in the process of the suffixation were analyzed. The
process continued into the classification of the each meaning appeared according the
classes of the meanings.
The third step was the identification of morphophonemic process occurred
when a word receive suffix –ese and -(i)an. To get the information about the
alternation of the internal structure of the words as the effects of the affixation
process using suffix –ese and -(i)an, the writer had to compare the phonetic
transcription of the stem and the phonetic transcription of the new words (stem that
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS
This thesis studies the word formation of words that goes with suffix –ese
and-(i)anaccording to the research that have been done by the writer.
This research is based on morphology but it does not reject any possibility
that this thesis would also use other field of linguistics to support the study.
From three dictionaries that have been analyzed by the writer, Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English (2006), Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate
Dictionary (2003) and Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1995), there were
many words collected, but many of them shared many similarities of the words. This
fact led the writer to chooseMerriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (2003) as the
main sources to collect the words. It was because this dictionary contained the
biggest number of words with those two suffixes than the other dictionaries
analyzed. From this dictionary the writer found about 85 words with suffix–eseand
1185 words with suffix-(i)an.
Since analyzing all of the words with those three suffixes were time
consuming, the writer restricted the words only 20 % from all of the data population
(words with suffix–ese and -(i)an ). The data taken had to fulfill the percentage of
the words in the dictionary. It caused the data to be less than 20 % from the
calculation. For more information, please see the Words Calculation in Appendix
number one.
After the calculation process, the words that were taken from this dictionary
were only 14 for words with–ese, and 237 for words with–(i)an.
The meanings of words were analyzed base on the dictionaries mention
above and some sources from the internet for examplehttp://en-wikipedia.org. The study of the morphophonemic changes is the most complex analysis in
this thesis because the Merriam-Webster dictionary has their own phonetic
transcription, so that the writer has to change it into IPA (International Phonetics
Alphabet) like the phonetic transcription in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary
English (LDOCE, 2006) and Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1995). To
identify the morphophonemic changes, the writer had to study the comparison of the
phonetic representation of words before and after receiving the three suffixes (–ese
and-(i)an).
A. Suffix–ese
The 14 words receiving–eseincluded in the analysis of this thesis are:
(Anti)Japanese Chinese
educationese Hunanese Lebanese
legalese Milanese
Pekinese/Pekingese Pentagonese
Rwandese/Ruandanese
Saigonese Saipanese
Sienese /Siennese telegraphese
These words can function as a noun or adjective, for example the words
Japanese:
1. He speaksJapanese.
S V N
2. He likesJapanesefood.
S V N
The sentences above show that the words with –ese in a sentence can be
1. The Class of Words Receiving Suffix–ese
The suffix –ese is one of the English suffixes that are attached to nouns
and/or adjectives to form other nouns and/or adjectives (Quirk, 1973).
From 14 words analyzed, the writer found that the stem of the words with
-ese were either nouns or adjectives. The noun stems are divided into 11 proper
names and 2 common nouns. The adjective stem is only show by one word.
Please, see the table below.
Table 4: Table stem of words with suffix–ese
STEM
The Classification of Each Stem Noun
NO WORDS WITH-ese
Word Stem
1 (anti)JapaneseN/A Japan
2 ChineseN/A China
3 educationeseN education
4 HunaneseA Hunan
5 LebaneseA/N Lebanon
6 LegaleseN legal
7 MilaneseN/A Milan
8 PekineseN/
PekingeseN
Pekin/ Peking
9 PentagoneseN pentagon
10 RwandeseA/N Rwanda
11 SaigoneseA/N Saigon
12 SaipaneseA/N Saipan
13 SieneseA/N
/SienneseA/N
Sienna
14 telegrapheseN telegraph
Notes: The words Japanese could be attached to affix anti- without changed the word class of the words, but the meaning changed.
Proper nouns mostly are geographical names such as country names
(Japanese, Chinese, Lebanese, and Rwandese), communes (Milanese and
city and port names (Saigonese), and island names (Saipanese). And there is one
word that is a building name.
Communes, provinces and municipalities are almost similar but have some
differences. A commune is the smallest administrative district of many countries
especially in Europe. A province is one of the large areas into which some
countries are divided, and which usually has its own local government. The last, a
municipality is a primarily urban political unit having corporate status and usually
powers of self-government (Merriam-Webster 11thCollegiate Dictionary, 2003).
As common noun stems, they consists of field of study/science (education)
and an apparatus for communication (telegraphese).
2. The Meaning Produced by the Suffix -ese
The meanings that are produced when certain words receive the suffix –
ese can be organized into two groups of meanings: noun meaning and adjective
meaning. The reason is because the class of the words which receive the suffix –
esecan be in a noun position and/or in an adjective position.
For example, the word Chinese can have three meanings in nouns and a
meaning in adjectives (LDOCE,2006).
The noun meanings ofChinesecan be the language used in China, people
from China or a native or inhabitant from China (the Chinese), and a meal of
Chinese food, or a restaurant that sells Chinese food.
An adjective meaning of Chinese mostly talks about something or
Below is the further explanation of the meaning of the words receiving the
suffix -esethat are classified into two group of meanings.
a. Noun Meaning
i. A Native/ Inhabitant or Someone Nationality.
When we talk about the noun meaning, we usually relate it with a person
who is a native or an inhabitant of a certain place or someone’s nationality or even
their descent. Hence most of the 14 words above have this meaning except;
educationese, legalese, pentagonese, and telegraphese. It is because these words
do not have stem words that refers to a certain place in this world. These kinds of
words usually have stem words from common nouns, not from proper nouns.
The words like Japanese, Chinese, Hunanese, Lebanese, Milanese,
Pekingese, Rwandanese, Saigonese, Saipanese, and Siennese are different. They
usually refer to persons who are natives /inhabitants of a certain place, because
their stem words already refer to certain place. Japanese for example is a word
that has a meaning a native or inhabitant of Japan or a person of Japanese descent,
because the stem word Japan refers to a country in East Asia (LDOCE, 2005).
And if these words are examined closely, we can draw a conclusion that most of
words with –esehave meaning as a native or inhabitant of certain place if the stem
words are come from proper noun words.
The place that the stem words denote can be various; it can be from a
certain island, city, region, province, commune, state or even country in this world
ii. Languages or Dialects of Certain People.
The words which mean languages or dialects are Japanese, Chinese,
Hunanese,Milanese, and Pekingese.According to Merriam-Webster, these words
mainly mean particular languages (Japanese and Chinese) and according to
Wikipedia some of them are dialects that certain regions of a country have
(Hunanese,Milanese, andPekingese).
This meaning has a close relationship with the previous meaning, because
the stems are the same, proper noun words.
iii. Special Languages Styles/Jargons.
The words are educationese, legalese, pentagonese, and telegraphese.
According to all the sources the writer have, these words refer to the styles of
language that are used in certain places (spoken and/or written) that have
uniqueness and difference from the language used by most people. These words
contain certain terms that are difficult for common people to understand.
According to the analysis done by the thesis writer, all of these four words
with –ese do not came from proper noun words. The stems of these words are
common noun words.
For detailed information, the word educationese is the jargon used
especially by educational theorists and legalese is a specialized language in the
legal profession (Merriam-Webster’s 11thCollegiate Dictionary, 2003). The same
meaning also happens with the wordpentagonese, it is a special jargon used in the
circle military of the U.S.A (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English). The
characterized by terseness and ellipses that are common in telegrams
(Merriam-Webster’s 11thCollegiate Dictionary, 2003).
iv. A Kind of Cooking Style
The word which refers to a kind of cooking style isChinese.
China has certain kinds of cooking styles that is different from other places
and it is a famous cuisine from Asia (http://wikipedia.org/wiki).
To make it clear, the writer takes the word Chinese from Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDOCE). LDOCE states that in informal
British English the meaning ofChinese is a meal of Chinese food, or a restaurant
that sells Chinese food.
b. Adjective Meaning.
The words that have meaning something or someone relating to something
are Japanese, Chinese, Hunanese, Lebanese, Milanese, Pekinese/Pekingese,
Rwandese/ruandanese, Saigonese, Saipanese,andSienese /Siennese.
The examples are the words Hunanese and Lebanese. Hunanese can be
analyzed into something or someone that is related to Hunan (please see,
http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunanese). The term Lebanese means an inhabitant of Lebanon and anything relating to Lebanon. The examples are Lebanese culture,
Lebanese cuisine, Lebanese music, Lebanese films, Lebanese wine
