A Full Immersion Program: The Teachers’ and Students’ Perceptions and Its Impact on Student’s Sense of Nationalism.

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Pritz Hutabarat, 2015

A Full Immersion Program: The Teachers’ and Students’ Perceptions and Its Impact on Student’s Sense of

Nationalism

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | \.upi.edu perpustakaan.upi.edu

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

English with its status as a global language has been an increasingly important subject to be taught in schools around the world including in Indonesian schools. In the big cities of Indonesia such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Medan and Bandung English is introduced from an early age whereas in the more remote areas it is taught from secondary level schools. According to Depdiknas, English as a subject is taught to support the development of the intellectual, emotional and social skills of the students, to assist the mastery of other subjects and to develop communication skills in English (Suherdi, Rekonstruksi Pendidikan Bahasa, 2012, p. 6). This statement implies the importance of English acquisition for Indonesian students to develop their academic and non academic skills. This is in line with the general assumption about English as stated by Crystal (2003) where a language achieves a genuinely global status, in this case English, it develops a special role that is recognized in every country. The acceptance of a language to become an international or a global language has a very strong connection with political, technological enhancement and economical power (Crystal, 2003, p. 9). This acceptance has made English taught and learnt across the globe.

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with puberty (Bot, Lowie, & Verspoor, 2005, pp. 65-69). As promising as it may seem, there have been no thorough and valid studies to support this claim.

Another aspect of the implementation of a full English immersion program which is worth consideration is the aspect of the social and cultural development of the students. The use of English as a medium of instruction is driven by the demand to create a universal and international standardization in the field of education (Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p. 452). However, according to the Indonesian Constitution Court in the case of the closure of international standard schools in Indonesia (RSBI), such practice displays an obvious threat to

students‟ sense of nationalism. Indonesian education system therefore should prepare its students

to be able to form their identity as Indonesian, who are abode to the nation‟s values and are proud of its culture while gaining the knowledge and skills they need to compete globally.

There have not been many researches conducted to investigate how this program is perceived by the involving parties and what are the observable impacts the program has on the

students‟ sense of nationalism. This research fills the gap in which it thoroughly examines the

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implementation of an FIP in a senior high school. The third area of discussion is related to the effects of the implementation of an FIP on students‟ sense of nationalism and identity as Indonesian.

1.2 Research questions

The research questions guiding this research are:

1. What are the general perceptions of the students and teachers regarding the implementation of a full immersion program at secondary school?

2. What are the underlying reasons of the students and teachers for favoring and not favoring an FIP at secondary level?

3. According to the perceptions of students and teachers, does the implementation of an FIP influence the instructional process at the school?

4. To what extent does learning in an English environment influence the sense of nationalism and shape the identity of the students as Indonesian citizens?

1.3 The significance of the study

This study is significant in four aspects namely theoretical, policy, practical, and social. In the area of theory, this study will give new insights in terms of how to organize a bilingual or immersion program within the national education system. In terms of policy, this study will provide a holistic perception of how a bilingual and full immersion program is implemented in concordance with local values and practices. Furthermore, learning about the difficulties and challenges faced by teachers and students in teaching and learning in a full immersion school, the government will be able to better regulate and provide assistance to bilingual schools.

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may lead us to curricular issues. The students will benefit, as the readiness they should have before entering a full immersion or bilingual school will be identified. School administrators will benefit as they will understand how the teachers feel about the programs and be made aware of the input given by the teachers and parents.

Lastly, socially, this study could better bridge the gap between the demands of having an international standard education on the one hand and building a solid foundation of being an Indonesian school on the other hand. The negative perceptions people have with regard to English speaking schools, which mostly are political, should be addressed by proving that the ability of using English does not threaten the student‟s identity and love of their country. This controversy is mainly related to the status of the Indonesian language as the language of unity, the national language, and the formal language of Indonesia (Muslich & Oka, 2010, p. 47).

1.4 The clarification of main terms

Full immersion program (FIP), also known as English-medium Instruction (EMI) or Content-Based Instruction (CBI): Refers to instruction of subjects through the medium of English. In the wording of the data collection instruments, namely both the survey questionnaire and interview protocols, English-medium instruction and immersion program has been used interchangeably with the latter being more frequently used especially in international standard schools in Indonesia.

Perceptions refer to evaluative concepts encompassing opinions and beliefs. Attitudes, opinions, beliefs, intentions, evaluative beliefs are interrelated concepts that have been areas of study for social psychologists (Tarhan, 2003). A conceptual overview of the umbrella term “attitude” in the literature is presented in Chapter two of this paper.

The impacts refer to the potential risks of the implementation of a full English immersion program within the Indonesian education context. The word impact here should not be treated as

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Instructional Process: Instructional process is a broad term that covers various aspects of instruction (Tarhan, 2003). Within the boundaries of the present study instructional process has been used to refer to the learning of the subject matter and teacher‟s teaching performance. Tarhan elaborates conceptual definitions of each of these terms below:

 Learning of the subject matter/ content: refers to the degrees to which learning takes

place during the process of instruction. This covers the extent of student‟s comprehension

of the subject matter as delivered in class by the teacher; the ability to express the content orally and in written form during class interaction and assessment (use of academic skills); learning of concepts; retention of content vs. memorization; student achievement in exams; and the use of academic sources conducive to learning of the subject matter in out-of-class tasks.

 Teacher‟s teaching performance: refers to the teachers‟ self-perception of 1) a teacher in general and as a teacher in an FIP context, and 2) ability to perform teaching tasks in the target language (Tarhan, 2003).

Airasian and Russel explain that the instructional process comprises three basic steps. The first is planning instruction, which includes identifying specific expectations or learning outcomes, selecting suitable materials to achieve these expectations or produce the desired outcomes, and organizing learning experiences into a supportive, coherent, reinforcing sequence. The second step involves delivering the planned instruction to students which means teaching the students. The third step involves assessing how well students learn or achieve the expectations or outcomes (Airasian & Russell, 2008, pp. 64-66).

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Another definition is given by Smith (2010) as he states that nationalism is simply “an

ideological movement for attaining and maintaining autonomy, unity and identity for a

population which some of its members deem to constitute an actual or potential “nation” (Essays, 2013). To this definition Hans Kohn argues that the two main types of nationalism are eastern

and western. His definition states, “Nationalism is a state of mind, in which the supreme loyalty

of the individual is felt to be due to the nation-state (Kohn, 1965).” Kohn believes that nationalism relates directly with eastern and western Europe and that it is also where the „state of

mind‟ of nationalism originated. (Essays, 2013).

From the definitions above it can be concluded that nationalism does not merely concern the political aspect of a nation but also the cultural and value system that lead a community to form an agreed entity of a nation. Koentjaraningrat states that nationalism shapes the identity of a nation, each of the members is expected to show particular traits to represent their nationality. With this definition it is obvious that a language plays a vital role as a mean of identification of a nation. He lists three shapes of culture; ideas, complex activities, and artifacts. Ideas are abstract and they can be documented in the forms of letters, books, recordings, database etc. This study limits the discussion on nationalism to four categories, namely the ability to speak and appreciation of Indonesian language, the knowledge and appreciation of Indonesian national days, the appreciation and knowledge of Indonesian dances and music, and the awareness and appreciation of the concept of collaborative community service or so called gotong royong (Koentjaraningrat, 1974, pp. 8-12).

Senior high school refers to grade ten to twelve of senior high school in Indonesia.

1.5 Thesis organization

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter covers the method employed in conducting the present study and elaborates the reasons why the preferred design has been used for addressing the research questions under study. The chapter begins with a section describing the overall research design accompanied with its schematic representation. In the following section, participants are described. In the third, the instruments are introduced with a full description including the piloting procedure. The last section offers a presentation of data collection procedures categorized as two distinct procedures, each corresponding to a specific data collection instrument.

3.1 Overall Design of the Study

This research was conducted as a case study research in which it employed naturalistic qualitative research design where the researcher did not manipulate or interfere with the classroom activities, but worked with the case specifically as the design point of qualitative research (Silverman, 2005). In addition, this research fits with the guidelines given by Yin (2003) as quoted by Baxter and Susan (2008) where it covers contextual conditions because it is believed to be relevant to the phenomenon under study (Baxter & Susan, 2008, pp. 544-559).

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Based on the classifications of case studies from Merriam, this research can be categorized as an evaluative case study because in this study the researcher describes and explains the positive and negative implications of the implementation of full immersion programs as it is perceived by the involved teachers, students, parents and administrators (Merriam, 1998, p. 26). Stake (1995) on the other hand identifies this kind of study as an intrinsic case study as it aims to understand the particular pre-selected case in question (Stake, 1995, pp. 450-452). The case being investigated in this study is the implementation of a full immersion program in senior high school at a national school in Indonesia.

3.2 Triangulation

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1996a); conceptual triangulation (Foster 1997); and collaborative triangulation (Tobin & Begley, 2004, pp. 388-396).

In this study, as is shown in figure 3.1, the triangulation used is methodological triangulation as it utilizes three data collection methods namely questionnaire, interview and observation and is applied to improve the validity of the results of data analysis process. With regard to the data sources, two groups were involved: students and teachers. Both types of data were collected from each group via self-designed instruments. The instruments consisted of a survey questionnaire, interview protocols, and unstructured observations. The former contained Likert scales as well as categorical and numeric items, which gave quantifiable data. The pilot study also comprised qualitative and quantitative procedures that involved validity and reliability check. In terms of data analysis, descriptive statistics was used in connection with the scales, all of which are quantitative procedures. As for the analysis of interviews and observation field notes, a qualitative procedure, content analysis was employed.

Figure 3.1 Research Design

Questionnaire

• 59 students

• 10 teachers

Interview

• 6 students

• 4 teachers

Observation

• Unstructured

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Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | \.upi.edu perpustakaan.upi.edu 1.3Participants

The participants of this research are fifty nine students and ten teachers of a secondary school in Indonesia.

3.3.1 The students

The students who participated in this study come from grade ten to twelve. The number of students in the class is small ranging from 13 to 16 students per class. This is done so that the teachers can give more attention to individual student which in turn will greatly benefit the student in terms of the mastery of the lesson as they get to ask questions as often as they need. This is in line with the suggestion given by Kennedy as he mentions several benefits of teaching small classes which include easier classroom management, greater attention is given to the students, and higher students‟ involvement (Kennedy, 2014). The students participating in this study are from grade 10, 11, and 12 of senior high school as shown in Table 3.3.1.1

Table 3.3.1.1 Student‟s grades

Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid

grade 10 14 23,7 24,6

grade 11 30 50,8 77,2

grade 12 13 22,0 100,0

Total 57 96,6

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2013). This particular characteristic will be examined in the discussion of the third research question of this paper. The gender distribution is fairly even between male and female students and the age range is from fifteen to eighteen years old. This qualifies the students as one of the participants in this research as it is supported by the theory given by Pennington stating that most high school students have achieved the formal operational stage, as described by Piaget so they can think abstractly and need fewer concrete examples to understand complex thought patterns (Pennington, 2009).

Table 3.3.1.2 Student‟s age

Valid

15,00 7 11,9 11,9

16,00 23 39,0 50,8

17,00 13 22,0 72,9

18,00 16 27,1 100,0

Total 59 100,0

The students who participated in this study are from grade 10 to grade 12 of senior high school with a minimum of three years of experience studying in a full English immersion school. Students of these grades are expected to be able to express their opinions effectively.

Moreover, the students involved in the study are those in grade ten, eleven and twelve as they have experienced studying in an FIP setting for at least three years. It was expected that they had sufficient knowledge and experience learning in an FIP school. The fact that the age of the students ranges from fifteen to eighteen years old provides an assurance of well thought out responses to the questionnaires and interview as by age sixteen, most teens are developing the ability to think abstractly, deal with several concepts at the same time, and imagine the future consequences of their actions (Kim, 2010).

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 At this age the students have close to maximum intellectual efficiency, but lack of experience limits both their knowledge and their ability to use what they know. Since many things can be learned through experience, students may still have difficulty in understanding abstract concept such as nationalism and identity.

 Students‟ realization that they need to develop their own “philosophies of life” in regard to ethical, political, and religious matters may be threatening to them, but it offers an excellent opportunity for guided discussion. Teachers, particularly those in the social sciences, can do much to clarify confused thoughts about “life” (Biehler, 1989, p. 70).

Looking at these characteristics, it is very important for the teachers and parents to provide the students with input which is needed for the development of the students‟ cognitive, affective and behavioral abilities in order to equip them with the necessary knowledge and skills they need to be able to function effectively within their society. Culture as defined by Koentjoroningrat needs to be learned so the school and home are the place where teachers and parents can instill the core values, culture and role of conduct to the students (Koentjaraningrat, 1974, pp. 6-8).

Table 3.3.1.3 shows that there are only two students who have been studying for less than 2 years but there are more than 66 % of them have studied at the school for more than 5 years. This indicates that the majority of the students have sufficient knowledge and experience of studying in an FIP setting school and therefore are able to discern and express their thoughts about a full immersion program at a senior high school level.

Table 3.3.1.3 The duration of studying at an FIP school

Valid

2 years 2 3,4 3,6

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4 years 6 10,2 17,9

5 years 7 11,9 30,4

more than 5 years 39 66,1 100,0

Total 56 94,9

Table 3.3.1.4 displays the abroad experience the students have as an influential factor on how well they adapt to a full English environment. As can be seen on the table there are only ten students who have experienced living abroad so it seems like this experience is not very significant to student‟s adaptability to a full English speaking school. From further investigation through interviews it is known that some of them use English at home with their parents and they feel that it is beneficial to boost their confidence in using English.

Table 3.3.1.4 Student‟s experience of living abroad

Valid

Yes 10 16,9 17,2

No 48 81,4 100,0

Total 58 98,3

Total 59 100,0

The English proficiency levels of the students are determined from their Toefl scores and from conversation the researcher had with them. As can be seen on Table 3.3.1.6 the majority of the students‟ English levels are at Intermediate and above. This indicates that the students are able to converse in general matters of daily life and topics of one's specialty, grasp the gist of lectures and broadcasts, are able to read high-level materials such as newspapers, and write about personal ideas.

Table 3.3.1.5 Student‟s English proficiency level

Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Valid lower

intermediate

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Intermediate 23 39,0 40,7

post intermediate 35 59,3 100,0

Total 59 100,0

From Table 3.3.1.5, it can be seen that the majority of the students are intermediate level and above. This indicates that they are able to converse about general matters of daily life and topics of one's specialty and grasp the gist of lectures and broadcast. At this level they are able to read high-level materials such as newspapers and write about personal ideas. Only 1.7 percent are on the lower intermediate level. In terms of their experience of living abroad, only 17 percent of the students have spent more than three months in an English speaking country. It is shown that most of them have studied in an FIP school‟s setting for more than 5 years and so are eligible to giving opinions with regard to the FIP system at their school.

3.3.2 The Teachers

The teachers who participated in the study teach different subjects within both natural and social science. All of the teachers have worked for more than two years and more than sixty percents have worked for more than four years. The number of male teachers is more double than their female counterparts. All of the teachers studied in ordinary Indonesian schools not in FIP schools where Indonesian language was used as the medium of instruction. One point worth noticing is that the majority of them (eighty percent) graduated from Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB). This is an important feature as ITB is known as one of the most competitive universities in Indonesia. Being graduated from ITB indicates that the teachers have a high academic potential which probably helps them teach their subjects using English as the medium of instruction.

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Table 3.3.2.1 Duration of teaching at the school

Valid

2 years 1 10,0 10,0

3 years 3 30,0 40,0

4 years 4 40,0 80,0

5 years 1 10,0 90,0

more than 5 years

1 10,0 100,0

Total 10 100,0

Table 3.3.2.2 Teacher’s overseas experience

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Valid

Yes 5 50,0 50,0 50,0

No 5 50,0 50,0 100,0

Total 10 100,0 100,0

From Table 3.3.2.2 it can be seen that 50% of the teachers have experienced living abroad, such experience could be valuable in helping them to adapt to a full English speaking environment. From the interviews, it was discovered that three of them have joined a comparative study to some American schools and this is very beneficial for them as they are currently working together with six American teachers at the school.

Table . . . Teacher’s level of proficieny

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

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Valid

Intermediate 3 30,0 30,0 30,0

post

intermediate

7 70,0 70,0 100,0

Total 10 100,0 100,0

All of the teachers under study can communicate in English effectively although some claim to have difficulty in teaching within an FIP school. In terms of their English level, as can be seen in Table 3.3.2.3 all of them have intermediate or above levels of English. This indicates that they have the ability to converse in general matters of daily life, topics of one's specialty, grasp the gist of lectures and broadcasts, are able to read high-level materials such as newspapers, and write about personal ideas. These skills are highly important especially as they need to plan, teach, and evaluate their teaching practice in English on a daily basis.

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Table 3.3.3 Group sample size

No of participants by data-collection method

Questionnaire Interview techniques to gain information namely questionnaires, interviews and classroom observations. Prior to collecting the data, a set of information letter and consent letter will be distributed to and collected from all of the participants and student participants‟ parents. This is done to ensure the openness of the study and to gain trust from the participants and the school administrators. The information and consent forms used in the study are based on an Australian Catholic University‟s information and consent forms. Samples of information and consent forms are attached with this proposal in the appendixes section.

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respondents mainly due to its advantages in efficiency in terms of researcher time, researcher effort, and financial resources (Dornyei & Taguchi, 2010, p. 6). By administering a questionnaire to the teachers, parents and administrators this research will get a vast amount of information in less than a month. The type of data about the respondents gathered by the questionnaires is attitudinal information as the questionnaires are used to know what people think which include attitudes, opinions, beliefs, interests, and values (Dornyei & Taguchi, 2010, pp. 6-8). The questionnaires will be administered following group administration method (Dornyei & Taguchi, 2010, pp. 68-69) because the targets of the questionnaires share some common characteristics. Group administration is also easier to conduct as the large group of respondents will give their response simultaneously.

2) Semi-structured interview questions. The researcher did a semi-structured interview to clarify and to better understand some of the responses given by the teachers. Semi-structured interviews were used because they give a general idea of what information we need through a set of prepared questions without being constrained by them (Bailey & Nunan, 2009, p. 316). Only those whose information needed some clarification will be asked to participate in the interview. The interviews will be done outside of class hour to avoid unnecessary disturbance of the participants‟ time. The setting of the interviews will be relaxed and not too formal to encourage openess from the respondent side. According to the types of interviews given by Patton as quoted in Cohen, Manion, and Morrison, this study make use of interview guide approach where the topics and issues to be covered are specified in advance, in outline form and the interviewer decides sequence and working of questions in the course of the interview (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, Research Method in Education, 2007, p. 363). The lists of questions which will be asked to the respondents are attached in the appendixes section. 3) Observations. Observations are needed to capture the effect of the full immersion program in

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Morrison, Research Method in Education, 2007, p. 179). The participants know that the observer is part of the system being studied but this is not to say that the researcher in any way will try to direct the responses made by respondents. To get insight on how the English immersion program at the school is implemented especially in relation to the strategies the teacher and students employ to create and maintain effective classroom interaction, this research will use Fanselow‟s FOCUS system, as quoted by Nunan and Bailey (2009), as the guidelines in determining what aspects should be observed during classroom observations. The notes have five column headings and the subcategories are:

a) Who communicates? (teacher, individual student, groups, whole class)

b) What is the pedagogical purpose of the communication? (to structure, to solicit, to respond, to react)

c) What medium is used to communicate content? (linguistic, non-linguistic, paralinguistic) d) How are the mediums used to communicate areas of content? (attend, characterize,

present, relate, re-present)

e) What areas of content are communicated? (Language, life, procedure, subject matter). (Nunan & Bailey, 2009, pp. 267-268).

Semi-structured observations were also employed in order to see the interactions between the students and teachers and among the students themselves. A semi structured observation will have an agenda of issues in a far less predetermined or systematic manner (Patton, 1990 as cited by Cohen, Manion and Morrison) (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, Research Methods in Education, 2007, pp. 397-403). The agenda of interest were the types of music the students listen to, the preferred language in social interaction among the students, the topics of discussions, and the way they show respect to each other and to their teachers.

A template of the observation notes can be seen in Appendix 4.

3.5 Reliability and validity of the instruments

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procedure was repeated for the final version of the instrument. In addition to the final check of the instrument‟s validity, the reliability of the survey questionnaire was tested. The internal consistency estimates of reliability, coefficient alpha were computed for individual scales in each version on the SPSS Program. Table 3.5 presents Cronbach alpha values for each of the scales on the three versions of the questionnaire. As can be seen, all the figures indicate high levels of reliability.

Table 3.5 Cronbach Alpha Values for Survey Questionnaire Scales Questionnaire Alpha values

Part 1 Perception toward FIP as a teaching and learning strategy

Part 2 The effect of FIP to student‟s sense of nationalism

Students 0.817 0.741

Teachers 0,871

3.6Procedures in collecting the data

3.6.1Questionnaire

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from the day it was received. Should the participants have problems in understanding any parts of the questionnaire, they were encouraged to contact the researcher on mobile phone or by email. The researcher reminded some of the participants one day before the due date of collecting the questionnaires. Some participants failed to return the questionnaire on time, they were reminded and encouraged to complete and return the questionnaire within an additional week. The researcher did not find any difficulties in collecting the questionnaires from the students and teachers because they meet everyday. The researcher offered to give a copy of an article which will be composed based on this research to the participants should they desire one. This is done as an appreciation of the participants‟ willingness to take part in the study.

3.6.2 Interview

A series of interviews conducted in this study followed the recommendation made by Kvale which follow seven stages in administering interviews (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, Research Method in Education, 2007).

1. Thematizing: the questions asked in the interview must be according to the theme of the study to ensure only relevant information is gathered.

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3. Interviewing: interview is a social interaction, not merely a data collecting activity, therefore the interviewer should appear to be interested to the responses given by the respondents. In order to make an interview to be effective, Kvale gives what so called „an ideal‟ interview which include spontaneous, rich, specific and relevant answers; the responses are longer than the questions, the interviewer follows up the answers given by the respondents, the information is interpreted during the interview, the interviewer verifying his interpretation and it should be able to describe itself without so many explanation.

4. Transcribing: after the information from interviews is collected, they will be transcribed to transfer the information into useful, meaningful and manageable data to be analyzed. The transcribing must be done carefully to ensure that not too much information is lost in the process. The transcriptions will include the tone of voice of the speakers, the inflection of the voice, emphases placed by the speaker, pauses, interruptions, mood of the speaker, whether the speaker was speaking continuously or in short phrases, and other events that were taking place at the same time that the researcher can recall (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, Research Method in Education, 2007, pp. 361-365).

3.6.3 Observation

The steps to conduct observations in this research were:

1. Meeting with the principal of the school to discuss the research project and the need of doing observations.

2. Getting permission to observe some of the classes.

3. Discussing with participant teachers about the research objectives and ensure them that the research is not about measuring their performance in the class.

4. Conducting the observations. 5. Taking notes during observations.

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Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | \.upi.edu perpustakaan.upi.edu 3.7 Procedures in analyzing the data

Freebody (2003) emphasizes the opportunities in analyzing the data gathered by multiple data collection process in three ways:

1. to compare and contrast interpretations

2. to expand on the relevance of the project by developing unforeseen findings and interpretations; and

3. to explore findings that are anomalous or to disconfirming of original hypotheses and impressions (Freebody, 2003, p. 174).

3.7.1 Questionnaire

The data gathered from the questionnaires underwent a process recommended by Ezzy (2002) as quoted by Cohen, Manion and Morrison, which involves coding, categorizing (creating meaningful categories into which the units of analysis-words, phrases, sentences etc.- can be placed), comparing categories and making links between them, and concluding (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, Research Method in Education, 2007, pp. 157-158). Nunan and Bailey (2009) recommended meaning condensation as a tool to reduce the large amounts of text (whether spoken, written, or graphic) to manageable proportions that allow for patterns in the data to emerge (Nunan & Bailey, 2009, p. 418). This process involves abridging free-form questionnaire responses, interview transcripts, and observer‟s field notes into shorter forms without losing the essence of the content.

Another set of questionnaires was developed based on Gardner‟s Attitude/Motivational Test Battery questionnaire to assess student‟s attitude and motivation in learning within an English speaking environment in Indonesia. The questionnaire is adapted to suit the situation under investigation.

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This study will follow the suggestion given by King (2004) which includes:  Creating the interview guide

The guide includes topics to be covered can be based on three sources; the research literature, the interviewer‟s own personal knowledge and experience in the area, and informal preliminary work such as discussion with people who have done research in similar area.

 Piloting the interview.

This can be done with some of the members of the population being studied or with fellow researchers to get input on how to improve the questions or topics covered.

 Starting the interview

Start the interview with relatively easy-to-answer questions. Keep the sensitive and more thoughtful questions for later session.

 During the interview

Maintain the interview by appreciating the response given by the interviewee. Wherever necessary paraphrase the questions to make them clearer.

 Closing the interview

It is important to note that we should try to finish the interview in such a way that can give positive feeling to the interviewee. Sometimes it is useful to ask comments from the interviewee about topics which have not been covered in the interview (King, 2004, pp. 11-22).

3.7.3 Observation

The data from observation notes will undergo a series of processes which are in line with Berkowitz (1997) suggestions considering codification of qualitative data:

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 Are there deviations from these patterns? If so, are there any factors that might explain these deviations?

 How are the environments or past experiences of participants related to their behavior and attitudes?

 What interesting stories emerge from observations? How do they help illuminate the study‟s hypotheses?

 Do any of these patterns suggest that additional data may be needed? Do any of the hypotheses need to be revised?

 Are the patterns that emerge similar to the findings of other studies on the same topic? If not, what might explain these discrepancies? (University of Texas, 2011)

The data from observation notes will undergo a series of process which include:

1. Coding is a process where symbols or codes are given to particular events, speech, etc.

2. Categorizing. Codes will be grouped into categories to help analyzing a huge quantity of data.

3. Comparing and making links. The categories are compared and linked one to another to create a category.

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