xviii
ABSTRACT
Wartanta, Gabriel Adi. 2008. Students’ Errors in Producing the Non-finite Clauses. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
One of the things that should be learned by the English Language Education Study Program students is grammar. There are so many topics to be mastered by the students, one of which is the non-finite clauses. The students are expected to be able to express complex ideas using the non-finite clauses in order to convey the ideas more effectively. Moreover, based on some informal interviews conducted with several senior students, half of the respondents stated that the non-finite clauses were difficult. Knowing that the non-non-finite clauses are essential and should be mastered by the students, it is important to measure their ability in using the non-finite clauses through research.
The research discussed two problems. They were (1) What are the errors the students commit in producing the non-finite clauses? (2) What is the mastery of the non-finite clauses of the sixth semester students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University? In order to answer those questions, a test was used as the instrument to gather the data. The test was administered to two classes of the sixth semester students in the academic year 2007/2008. They were chosen because they had learned the non-finite clauses comprehensively in Structure V.
In order to answer the first question, the errors committed by the students were classified based on the types of subordinate clauses they belonged to. Overall, the errors committed by the students in producing the non-finite clauses were the occurrence of finite subordinate clauses, confusion between defining and non-defining adjective clauses, the occurrence of verbless clauses, the adjective clauses modifying wrong noun, wrong choice of main clauses and subordinate clauses, problems between active and passive sentences, retaining the relative pronoun, transforming into wrong types of subordinate clauses, inappropriate use of being + V-ed, inappropriate use of to be + V-ed, inappropriate use of –ed participle, problems in constructing negative clauses, lack of genitive case of pronoun, confusion to choose either to-infinitive or gerund, problems with clauses derived from question, incorrect use of comma, problems in perfect construction, problems with pronoun, retaining subordinator because for clause of reason, and the occurrence of coordinate clause. To answer the second question, the mean score of the test was calculated. The results of the research showed that the students’ mean score was 43.59 out of 100. This achievement was far below the minimum standard of mastery, which is 56% of the maximum score as the lower margin to pass with grade C or ‘sufficient’. Based on the scoring category, this score was categorized in the level of poor or grade E.
xix
xx ABSTRAK
Wartanta, Gabriel Adi. 2008. Students’ Errors in Producing the Non-finite Clauses. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
Salah satu hal yang harus dipelajari oleh mahasiswa Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris adalah kemampuan tata bahasa. Ada banyak topik mengenai kemampuan tata bahasa yang harus dikuasai oleh mahasiswa, salah satunya adalah klausa non-finite. Mahasiswa diharapkan untuk dapat mengutarakan ide yang kompleks dengan menggunakan klausa non-finite agar mereka dapat menyampaikan idenya secara lebih efektif. Terlebih lagi, berdasarkan wawancara informal dengan beberapa mahasiswa senior, setengah dari jumlah responden menyatakan bahwa klausa non-finite sulit dipelajari. Mengetahui bahwa klausa non-finite mempunyai peran penting dan harus dikuasai mahasiswa, maka mengukur kemampuan mahasiswa dalam menggunakan klausa non-finite melalui kegiatan penelitian menjadi sangat diperlukan.
Penelitian ini membahas dua permasalahan. Permasalahan tersebut adalah (1) Apa saja kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh mahasiswa dalam membuat klausa non-finite? (2) Bagaimana kemampuan mahasiswa semester enam Program studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma dalam menggunakan klausa non-finite? Untuk menjawab kedua pertanyaan tersebut, sebuah tes digunakan sebagai instrumen untuk mengumpulkan data. Tes tersebut ditujukan kepada dua kelas dari mahasiswa semester enam tahun akademik 2007/2008. Mereka dipilih karena telah mempelajari klausa non-finite secara mendalam melalui mata kuliah Structure V.
xxi
maksimum adalah batas bawah untuk lulus dengan nilai C atau cukup. Berdasarkan kategori penilaian, nilai ini termasuk dalam tingkat lemah atau nilai E.
STUDENTS’ ERRORS IN PRODUCING THE NON-FINITE CLAUSES
A THESIS
Presented as the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Gabriel Adi Wartanta
Student Number: 03 1214 016
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
i
STUDENTS’ ERRORS IN PRODUCING THE NON-FINITE CLAUSES
A THESIS
Presented as the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Gabriel Adi Wartanta
Student Number: 03 1214 016
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
iv
When you were born,
You were crying and everyone around you was smiling.
Live your life
so that when you die,
you’re smiling and everyone around you is crying.
(Taken from: The Story of Love)
Trust the Past to
The mercy of God…
The Present to
His love,
The future to
His providence
(Augustine)
I dedicate this thesis to
Jesus Christ,
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my greatest gratitude to Jesus Christ for everything
that He has given me. Without His everlasting love and wonderful blessing, it is
impossible for me to finish this thesis. I thank Mother Mary for accompanying me
through my hard times.
My deepest appreciation goes to my major sponsor, Made Frida Yulia,
S.Pd., M.Pd., for her willingness to spend her precious time to read and check my
thesis thoroughly. Her advice, criticisms, and suggestions are useful for me in
accomplishing this thesis. I am greatly indebted to my co-sponsor, Christina
Kristiyani, S.Pd., M.Pd., for her kindness to read my thesis continually and give
me beneficial inputs.
I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere appreciation to
Agustinus Hardi Prasetyo, S.Pd., M.A., Yohana Veniranda, S.Pd., M.Hum.,
and Dr. Retno Muljani, M.Pd., for the permission to administer the test in their
classes. I would like to thank the sixth semester students in classes A, B, and C of
RELT classes of the academic year 2007/2008 for their willingness to be the
respondents of this research.
I owe a great debt to all lecturers of the English Language Education Study
Program of Sanata Dharma University for guiding me during my study. I thank
them all for providing me with knowledge and other valuable things. I also thank
viii
I would like to express my deepest love and appreciation to my beloved
parents, Robertus Sutardjo and Agnes Sumiyati. I could not have finished this
thesis without all their love, supports, patience, and never ending prayers. My
sincere gratitude goes to all my brother and sisters, for always encouraging me to
finish my study and for their beneficial advice. I would like to express thanks to
my funny niece and nephews for cheering me up in my bad times.
My special thanks go to the English Education Production (EEPRO)
members for giving me the chance to express myself. My sincere appreciation
goes to PBI Play Performance’s Lighting Crew: Deddy Kurniawan, I Gede
Agus, Taufik, Galih Purnomo, Sudartomo, Satrio Nugroho, Eduardus
Erwan, Krisna, Dudy, Antonius Jido, Marshell, and Listiyan for the
unforgettable moments and spirit of working together in facing the exhausting
event we had every semester. I express my gratitude to my friends during
consultation time: Yusta, Mba Ayuk, Anas, Rere, Toni, Lala, Nita, and Ratna.
I thank them for their sharing and laughter.
I deliver my best thanks to Ratri Wahyuningtyas for the time allocated,
help given, and stories shared. I thank her for her assistance, supports, and
prayers.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to those whose names I cannot
mention here one by one. May God bless them all.
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL PAGES ... ii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix
LIST OF TABLES ... xv
LIST OF FIGURES ... xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xvii
ABSTRACT ... xviii
ABSTRAK ... xx
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study... 1
B. Problem Formulation... 3
C. Problem Limitation... 3
D. Objectives of the Study ... 4
E. Benefits of the Study ... 5
x
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Description ... 9
1. Complex Sentences ... 9
a. Adjective Clauses ... 10
b. Adverbial Clauses ... 12
1) Clause of Place ... 13
2) Clause of Time ... 13
3) Clause of Manner ... 13
4) Clause of Degree ... 13
5) Clause of Cause ... 14
6) Clause of Condition ... 14
7) Clause of Concession ... 15
8) Clause of Purpose... 15
9) Clause of Means... 15
c. Noun Clauses... 16
2. The Finite and the Non-Finite Clauses... 17
a. The Finite Clauses ... 18
b. The Non-Finite Clauses ... 18
1) The Non-Finite Adjective Clauses ... 20
a) –Ing Participle ... 21
b) –Ed Participle ... 22
xi
2) The Non-Finite Noun Clauses ... 23
a) –Ing Form ... 24
b) To-infinitive ... 25
3) The Non-Finite Adverbial Clauses ... 27
a) –Ing Participle ... 27
b) –Ed Participle ... 29
c) To-infinitive ... 29
3. Errors ... 30
a. Definition ... 30
b. The Importance of Studying Errors ... 31
4. The Mastery of a Language ... 31
a. Definition ... 31
b. The Criteria of Mastery... 32
B. Theoretical Framework ... 32
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Method... 34
B. Research Participants... 35
C. Research Instrument ... 36
1. Validity... 37
a. Content Validity ... 37
b. Construct Validity ... 39
xii
2. Reliability... 40
D. Data Gathering Techniques... 42
E. Data Analysis Techniques ... 42
F. Research Procedure... 43
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION A. Data Presentation ... 46
1. The Students’ Achievement in the Test ... 46
a. The Students’ Achievement in Each Part of the Test .... 47
b. The Students’ Achievement in the Whole Part of the Test 48 c. The Students’ Achievement in Each Type of Clauses ... 50
2. The Presentation of the Descriptive Statistics... 51
B. Discussion ... 52
1. The Errors Committed by the Students ... 52
a. The Errors in the Non-finite Adjective Clauses... 52
1) The Occurrence of Finite Subordinate Clauses ... 53
2) Confusion between Defining and Non-defining Adjective Clauses ... 56
3) The Occurrence of Verbless Clauses ... 57
4) The Adjective Clauses Modifying a Wrong Noun.... 58
5) Wrong Choice of Main Clauses and Subordinate Clauses ... 60
xiii
7) Retaining the Relative Pronoun ... 62
8) Transforming into Wrong Types of Subordinate Clauses ... 64
9) Inappropriate Use of being + V-ed ... 65
10)Inappropriate Use of to be + V-ed ... 66
11)Inappropriate Use of –ed Participle ... 66
b. The Errors in the Non-finite Noun Clauses ... 67
1) The Occurrence of Finite Subordinate Clauses ... 68
2) Transforming into Wrong Types of Subordinate Clauses ... 69
3) Problems in Constructing Negative Clauses ... 70
4) Wrong Choice of Main Clauses and Subordinate Clauses ... 71
5) Problems between Active and Passive Sentences .... 72
6) Lack of Genitive Case of Pronoun ... 73
7) The Occurrence of Verbless Clauses ... 74
8) Confusion to Choose Either to-infinitive or Gerund 75 9) Problems with Clauses Derived from Questions ... 76
10)Incorrect Use of Comma ... 77
11)Problems in Perfect Construction ... 77
c. The Errors in the Non-finite Adverbial Clauses ... 78
1) The Occurrence of Finite Subordinate Clauses ... 79
xiv
3) Wrong Choice of Main Clauses and Subordinate
Clauses ... 81
4) Transforming into Wrong Types of Subordinate Clauses ... 82
5) Problems between Active and Passive Sentences... 83
6) Incorrect Use of Comma ... 84
7) Problems with Pronoun ... 85
8) Problems in Constructing the Non-finite Adverbial Clauses in Perfective Form ... 86
9) Retaining Subordinator because for Clause of Reason 87
10)The Occurrence of Coordinate Clauses ... 87
2. The Students’ Mastery on the Non-finite Clauses ... 88
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions ... 89
B. Suggestions ... 92
1. Suggestions for the Lecturers of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University ... 92
2. Suggestions for the Students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University ... 93
3. Suggestions for Future Researchers ... 93
xv
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1 The Use of Relative Pronoun ... 12
3.1 The Content of the Test ... 38
3.2 The Distribution of Item in the Test... 39
3.3 The Classification of Reliability Coefficient ... 41
3.4 The Rubric... 43
4.1 The Students’ Scores in Part A of the Test ... 47
4.2 The Students’ Scores in Part B of the Test ... 47
4.3 The Students’ Final Scores in the Whole Part of the Test ... 48
4.4 The Students’ Scores in Relation to the Category ... 49
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
4.1 The Errors in the Non-finite Adjective Clauses... 53
4.2 The Errors in the Non-finite Noun Clauses... 68
xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix A: Surat Permohonan Ijin Penelitian ... 97
Appendix B: The Test of the Non-finite Clauses... 98
Appendix C: Key to the Test ... 101
Appendix D: The Sample of the Students’ Sheets ... 102
Appendix E: The Students’ Test Scores... 108
Appendix F: The Total of Correct and Incorrect Answers in Each Item 110
xviii ABSTRACT
Wartanta, Gabriel Adi. 2008. Students’ Errors in Producing the Non-finite Clauses. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
One of the things that should be learned by the English Language Education Study Program students is grammar. There are so many topics to be mastered by the students, one of which is the non-finite clauses. The students are expected to be able to express complex ideas using the non-finite clauses in order to convey the ideas more effectively. Moreover, based on some informal interviews conducted with several senior students, half of the respondents stated that the non-finite clauses were difficult. Knowing that the non-non-finite clauses are essential and should be mastered by the students, it is important to measure their ability in using the non-finite clauses through research.
The research discussed two problems. They were (1) What are the errors the students commit in producing the non-finite clauses? (2) What is the mastery of the non-finite clauses of the sixth semester students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University? In order to answer those questions, a test was used as the instrument to gather the data. The test was administered to two classes of the sixth semester students in the academic year 2007/2008. They were chosen because they had learned the non-finite clauses comprehensively in Structure V.
In order to answer the first question, the errors committed by the students were classified based on the types of subordinate clauses they belonged to. Overall, the errors committed by the students in producing the non-finite clauses were the occurrence of finite subordinate clauses, confusion between defining and non-defining adjective clauses, the occurrence of verbless clauses, the adjective clauses modifying wrong noun, wrong choice of main clauses and subordinate clauses, problems between active and passive sentences, retaining the relative pronoun, transforming into wrong types of subordinate clauses, inappropriate use of being + V-ed, inappropriate use of to be + V-ed, inappropriate use of –ed participle, problems in constructing negative clauses, lack of genitive case of pronoun, confusion to choose either to-infinitive or gerund, problems with clauses derived from question, incorrect use of comma, problems in perfect construction, problems with pronoun, retaining subordinator because for clause of reason, and the occurrence of coordinate clause. To answer the second question, the mean score of the test was calculated. The results of the research showed that the students’ mean score was 43.59 out of 100. This achievement was far below the minimum standard of mastery, which is 56% of the maximum score as the lower margin to pass with grade C or ‘sufficient’. Based on the scoring category, this score was categorized in the level of poor or grade E.
xix
xx
ABSTRAK
Wartanta, Gabriel Adi. 2008. Students’ Errors in Producing the Non-finite Clauses. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
Salah satu hal yang harus dipelajari oleh mahasiswa Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris adalah kemampuan tata bahasa. Ada banyak topik mengenai kemampuan tata bahasa yang harus dikuasai oleh mahasiswa, salah satunya adalah klausa non-finite. Mahasiswa diharapkan untuk dapat mengutarakan ide yang kompleks dengan menggunakan klausa non-finite agar mereka dapat menyampaikan idenya secara lebih efektif. Terlebih lagi, berdasarkan wawancara informal dengan beberapa mahasiswa senior, setengah dari jumlah responden menyatakan bahwa klausa non-finite sulit dipelajari. Mengetahui bahwa klausa non-finite mempunyai peran penting dan harus dikuasai mahasiswa, maka mengukur kemampuan mahasiswa dalam menggunakan klausa non-finite melalui kegiatan penelitian menjadi sangat diperlukan.
Penelitian ini membahas dua permasalahan. Permasalahan tersebut adalah (1) Apa saja kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh mahasiswa dalam membuat klausa
non-finite? (2) Bagaimana kemampuan mahasiswa semester enam Program studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma dalam menggunakan klausa non-finite? Untuk menjawab kedua pertanyaan tersebut, sebuah tes digunakan sebagai instrumen untuk mengumpulkan data. Tes tersebut ditujukan kepada dua kelas dari mahasiswa semester enam tahun akademik 2007/2008. Mereka dipilih karena telah mempelajari klausa non-finite secara mendalam melalui mata kuliah Structure V.
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, kesalahan-kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh mahasiswa dikelompokkan berdasarkan jenis anak kalimatnya. Secara keseluruhan, kesalahan yang dilakukan mahasiswa dalam membuat klausa non-finite adalah anak kalimatnya masih finite, kebingungan antara klausa ajektif yang
defining dan non-definining, kemunculan klausa yang tidak mempunyai kata kerja, klausa ajektif yang memodifikasi kata benda kata benda yang salah, kesalahan dalam menentukan anak kalimat dan induk kalimat, kebingungan antara kalimat aktif dan pasif, pengubahan anak kalimat menjadi ke dalam jenis klausa yang tidak tepat, penggunaan being + V-ed yang tidak tepat, penggunaan to be +
xxi
maksimum adalah batas bawah untuk lulus dengan nilai C atau cukup. Berdasarkan kategori penilaian, nilai ini termasuk dalam tingkat lemah atau nilai E.
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter explains the introduction of the study. It consists of six parts.
The first part is background of the study. This part conveys the reasons for
choosing the non-finite clauses as the subject of the study. The second part is
problem formulation. This part reveals the problems that are discussed in the
study. The third is problem limitation, whose function is elaborating the
boundaries on which the research is conducted. The fourth is objectives of the
study. The fifth is benefits of the study, which conveys the advantages of
conducting the research. The last part is definition of terms, which describes the
terms used in the research.
A. Background of the Study
As candidates of English teachers, the English Language Education Study
Program students are supposed to master all things related to the education system
and also English language as the subject matter. English itself consists of the four
language skills, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Besides, it also
contains the language elements, namely grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary
mastery. The teacher candidates should master all of those mentioned above, so
that later they are able to become good teachers and to help their students to learn
One of the problems in language learning is the mastery of grammar. There
are so many topics that should be learned by teacher candidates, and one of the
topics is the non-finite clauses. The teacher candidates, especially the senior
students, are expected to be able to express complex ideas by using either the
finite clauses or the non-finite clauses in order to convey the ideas more
effectively instead of using simple sentences. Mastering the finite and non-finite
clauses is important for them, but the non-finite clauses are considered more
difficult than the finite clauses.
Based on the writer’s experience, the non-finite clauses are difficult because
they are complex in relation to their syntactic functions. The non-finite clauses
can function as adverbial clauses, adjective clauses, and nominal or noun clauses.
Besides, there are rules which are restricted in use, which the students still
generalize. Those complexities cause difficulties for the learners. Moreover, tense
markers, modal auxiliaries, and sometimes subject are omitted in the non-finite
clauses (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 311). Those lacks make the non-finite
clauses difficult to be learned and make the students confused in constructing
them.
Furthermore, based on some informal interviews conducted with several
senior students of the English Language Education Study Program on July 2007,
half of the respondents said that the non-finite clauses were difficult. One of them
said that he was confused when to use to-infinitive and when to use gerund. In
addition, based on the interview conducted to two English lecturers who taught
clauses and of the finite clauses. In addition, the students also had interference
with Indonesian.
Knowing that the non-finite clauses are essential and should be mastered by
students of the English Education Study Program, it is important to measure their
ability of using the non-finite clauses through research. The research results can
show whether the students have the capability to use the non-finite clauses or not.
The research was conducted to the sixth semester students, with the consideration
that they have learned about the non-finite clauses comprehensively in their
Structure V course. Therefore, they are supposed to master and be able to use the
non-finite clause correctly. The research results were used by the researcher to
provide some suggestions especially for the lecturers who teach Structure V, in
which the non-finite clauses are taught.
B. Problem Formulation
The problems of the research are formulated as follows.
1. What are the errors the students commit in producing the non-finite clauses?
2. What is the mastery of the non-finite clauses of the sixth semester students of
the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University?
C. Problem Limitation
The research was conducted to the students of semester six of the 2007/2008
academic year in the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata
clauses comprehensively in Structure V course without considering whether they
passed the course or not. The research mainly discusses the errors committed by
the students in producing the non-finite clauses. A test was administered as the
instrument to gather the data. The results of the test were analyzed further to show
the errors in producing the non-finite clauses and to determine their mastery.
The non-finite clauses consist of non-finite verbs forms only (Quirk,
Greenbaum, Leech, and Svartvik, 1992: 149). The non-finite verbs include the
verbs in the form of to-infinitive, bare infinitive, -ing participle, and –ed
participle. In the study, the use of bare infinitive to introduce the non-finite
clauses is excluded since it is rarely used in the sentences.
The study puts the emphasis on the use of the non-finite clauses rather than
on the theories of the non-finite clauses. The focus is the ability of the students to
produce the non-finite clauses correctly. Thus, the questions in the instrument do
not check whether the students know the concepts of the non-finite clauses, but
rather on the application or the use.
D. Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are:
1. To observe the errors the students commit in producing the non-finite clauses.
2. To find out the mastery of the non-finite clauses of the sixth semester students
of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma
E. Benefits of the Study
It is hoped from the study that the readers, especially the English Language
Education Study Program students who take Structure V, will have better
understanding about the non-finite clauses. It might be useful for them because
not all English grammar books provide adequate information about the non-finite
clauses. This study may provide the readers with a sufficient explanation about
these matters and they can also enrich their knowledge.
The study discusses the errors the students committed in producing the
non-finite clauses. Therefore, it may give beneficial inputs for the Structure V
lecturers. The lecturers can see which parts of the non-finite clauses the students
consider difficult and in which they often make mistakes so that later on the
lecturers can give more attention to the difficult parts.
The study is also beneficial for the students. The research reveals the errors
in constructing complex sentences by using the non-finite clauses. Hence, this can
make students more aware not to make such mistakes as described in the study.
The study may also give opportunity to other researchers to explore the
non-finite clauses more. For example, one may seek out how the students’ mastery of
the non-finite clauses can help them in writing. The relevance of the mastery of
non-finite clauses to the students’ writing product can be conducted through
examining the students’ writing. Future researchers can develop this study by
changing the sampling or the format of the test. Besides, they can also employ
more than one instrument such as test and classroom observation in order to
F. Definition of Terms
In this part, several terms which are used in the study are explained. It is
necessary to define them since they are the key words of the research. The terms
are as follows.
1. The Non-Finite Clauses
The non-finite clauses are described as clauses with non-finite verb phrases
as the elements of the verbs (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 310). The non-finite
verb phrases themselves are verb phrases that consist of non-finite verbs forms
only (Quirk et al., 1992: 149). The non-finite verbs include the verbs in the form
of to-infinitive, bare infinitive, -ing participle, and –ed participle. In the study, the
use of bare infinitive to introduce the non-finite clauses is excluded since it is
rarely used in the sentences.
According to Quirk et al. (1992: 995), the non-finite verb phrases have no
tense or mood, and it is impossible for them to occur with the subject of a main
clause. It implies that the non-finite clauses cannot occur as the main clauses. In
the study, the non-finite clauses refer to clauses which contain the non-finite verb
forms as the verb element, and are always embedded to their main clauses.
2. Subordinate Clauses
Subordinate clauses are “parts of their superordinate or main clauses”
(Quirk et al., 1992: 991). Feigenbaum (1985: 211) states that “subordinate or
dependent clause can be a noun-equivalent, an adverb-equivalent, or an
adjective-equivalent.” In this study, the functions of subordinate clauses are classified into
3. Error
An error is “a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native
speaker, reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner” (Brown, 1994:
205). In other words, an error is caused by lack of knowledge. According to
Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982: 138), errors are parts of one’s saying or writing
which deviate from the rules of language.
People sometimes differentiate between errorrs and mistakes. Brown (1994:
205) defines a mistake as “ a performance error which refers to a failure to utilize
a known sytem correctly.” Further, Brown (1994: 205) explains that mistakes are
the imperfection of speech production such as hesitations and slips of the tongue.
Sometimes, it is difficult to judge whether a deviation is a mistake or an error.
This study does not differentiate between errors and mistakes. In the study, errors
refer to the students’ answers which are inappropriate and deviate from the rule of
the non-finite patterns without considering whether they are really errors or
mistakes.
4. Mastery
Fries (1948: 3) states that “a person has learned a foreign language when he
has thus first, within a limited vocabulary mastered the sound system, that is,
when he can understand the stream of speech and achieve an understandable
production of it and has, second, made the structural devices or the basic
arrangements of the utterances as a matter of automatic habit.” In the study, the
second criteria of mastery, that is making structural devices, is emphasized. It
study, refers to the understanding and ability to use the non-finite clauses correctly
9 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter consists of two major parts. The first part is theoretical
description, which elaborates some theories underlying this study. The second part
is theoretical framework. In this part, the writer explains the relevance of the
theories to the study.
A. Theoretical Description
In this theoretical description, there are four theories to be elaborated. They
are the theories of complex sentences, the finite and non-finite clauses, errors, and
the mastery of a language. These theories serve as the bases for the discussion and
the construction of the instrument.
1. Complex Sentences
According to Close (1977: 42), a complex sentence is “a sentence that
consists of two or more clauses, in which one of the clauses is subordinate to a
main clause.” This means that there are two elements of a complex sentence,
namely main or independent clause and subordinate or dependent clause.
Feigenbaum (1985: 209) states that these two clauses cannot be separated into
different sentences since a subordinate clause cannot stand by itself as a sentence
and has to be connected to a main clause.
(1) She walked up to the third floor although she was tired (Feigenbaum,
In example (1), although she was tired is the subordinate clause. Therefore, it
cannot stand alone.
Close (1977: 42) states that a subordinate clause must be able to replace a
noun phrase, modify a noun phrase, or replace an adverbial in the main clause.
Meanwhile, Feigenbaum (1985: 211) says that a subordinate or dependent clause
may be an equivalent of a noun, an adverb, or an adjective. In other words,
according to their syntactic functions, subordinate clauses can be classified into
three types, namely adjective clauses, adverbial clauses, and the last is nominal or
usually known as noun clauses.
a. Adjective Clauses
Adjective clauses, which are also known as relative clauses, refer to
subordinate clauses that explain, specify, or provide more information about a
noun (Azar, 1989: 238). It is already clear that adjective clauses are clauses which
are used to describe a noun.
(2) I thanked the woman who helped me (Azar, 1989: 238).
(3) The noise that he made woke everybody up (Thomson and Martinet,
1986: 81).
The clause who helped me is used to specify the noun of the sentence; that is,the
woman. In (3), the adjective clause that he madeexplains the noise.
In adjective clauses, it is important to put the clauses as close as possible to
their antecedent or the noun to which the clauses refer. Close (1977: 51) states that
clauses usually separate the antecedent which functions as the subject of the main
clause with the verb.
Adjective clauses themselves are of two types; those are, defining and
non-defining clauses. An adjective clause is said to be a non-defining clause when the
clause contains important information and helps to describe the antecedent
(Graver, 1981: 121). Therefore, it is unnecessary to put commas between the
antecedent and the adjective clause.
(4) I don’t like people who lose their tempers easily (Swan, 1988: item
525).
(5) The library didn’t have the book that I wanted (Graver, 1981: 123).
Meanwhile, non-defining adjective clause is an adjective clause which is not
an essential part of the meaning of the noun. Thus, it is separated from the noun
by using commas (Swan, 1988: item 528). The non-defining adjective clause is
used when the noun or the antecedent is definite already. The information
contained in the non-defining adjective clause is additional. The following are the
examples.
(6) Mr. Lee, whom I met yesterday, teaches chemistry (Azar, 1989: 250).
(7) This is Mr. Gallagher, who writes comic poetry (Swan, 1988: item 528).
Adjective clauses are often preceded by a relative pronoun. A relative
pronoun is a new word or phrase that substitutes a word or phrase in the main
clause (Feigenbaum, 1985: 217). In (7), the word who, as the relative pronoun,
There are three things to be considered in choosing the relative pronoun.
The first is whether the clause is defining or non-defining. The second is the
antecedent, whether it is person or thing. The last is the function of the relative
pronoun. The use of relative pronoun is presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: The Use of Relative Pronoun (Close, 1977: 51)
Defining Clause Non-defining Clause Position of
From Table 2.1, relative pronoun that can be used in defining clause if it
functions as the subject or object of the clause, both for person or thing. On the
other hand, relative pronoun that cannot be used in non-defining clause. Who and
which are the only pronouns that are applicable in non-defining clause where the
relative pronoun becomes the subject or object of the clause.
b. Adverbial Clauses
According to Curme (1966: 176), “adverbial clauses are divided into classes
which correspond to the adverbial elements; that is, clauses of place, time,
manner, degree, cause, condition, concession, purpose and means.” Those types of
1) Clause of Place
The conjunctions used for adverbial clause of place are where or wherever
(Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 323). Where is used when the place is already
specific, and wherever for nonspecific place (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 315).
(8) You may park your car where there is a parking sign (Close, 1977: 56).
(9) They sat down wherever they could find empty seats (Frank, 1972: 240).
2) Clause of Time
Adverbial clause of time can be introduced by when, while, since, before,
after, until, as soon as, as long as, by the time, now that, and once(Frank, 1972:
21). Quirk and Greenbaum (1985: 323) state that time clause usually occurs in
initial position. The following are the examples.
(10) When I last saw you, you lived in Washington (Quirk and Greenbaum,
1985: 322).
(11) Once having made a promise, you should keep it (Greenbaum and
Quirk, 1990: 314).
3) Clause of Manner
Clause of manner is usually located after the verb (Thomson and Martinet,
1986: 52). The conjunctions for clause of manner are as if and as though(Frank,
1972: 22).
(12) He looks as if he is going to be ill (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 328).
4) Clause of Degree
This type of clause is sometimes also called as clause of comparison. As it
more persons or things. The formulas as presented by Frank (1972: 22) are:
(14) George is quicker than I am (Close, 1977: 63).
5) Clause of Cause
The aim of clause of cause is to give reason for the thing that happens. The
conjunctions that can be used are because, since, as, now that,whereas, inasmuch
as, as long as, on account of the fact that, owing to the fact that,in view of the fact
that, because of the fact that, due to the fact that (Frank, 1972: 21). The following
are the examples.
(15)Since I was in the same class as George, I know him very well (Close,
1977: 63).
(16)He stole the money because he was out of work (Graver, 1981: 305).
6) Clause of Condition
The sentence that contains this type of clause is called conditional sentence.
The basic principle is that one thing will occur or happen when one certain
condition is fulfilled. The subordinate conjunctions for this type of clause are if,
unless, on condition that, provided that, providing that, in case that,in the event
that (Frank, 1972: 21). The examples are:
(18)You may leave the apartment at any time, provided that you give a
month’s notice or pay an additional month’s rent (Greenbaum and
Quirk, 1990: 317).
7) Clause of Concession
In some other books, this type of clause is also called by clause of contrast.
Clause of concession can be introduced by although, though, even if, while,
whereas (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 319).
(19) Although I felt very tired, I tried to finish the work (Frank, 1972: 22).
(20)Even if an icy wind blew from the north, we always slept with our
windows wide open (Close, 1977: 64).
8) Clause of Purpose
Clause of purpose expresses the aim for doing something. The conjunctions
for clause of purpose are so that, in order that, so, that, for the purpose that
(Frank, 1972: 22).
(21)He spent most of his time studying so that he might later get a better
job (Graver, 1981: 306).
(22)We issued this instruction in writing, for fear that a spoken message
might be misunderstood (Close, 1977: 65).
9) Clause of Means
The conjunction for clause of means is by. The example is:
(23)By holding on to the rope firmly, I came safe to the shore (Curme,
c. Noun Clauses
Noun clauses are clauses whose function is the same as a noun. Noun
clauses can be the subject, object, complement, appositive, and prepositional
complement (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 304). Besides, Frank (1972: 283)
classifies noun clauses into four types based on the kinds of sentences they
derived from; that is, statements, questions, requests, and exclamation.
The first type is noun clauses that are derived from statements. The
conjunction for this type of clause is that (Frank, 1972: 286). The example is:
(24)That the driver could not control his car was obvious (Close, 1977: 43).
That complex sentence is derived from two sentences. They are:
(25)The driver could not control his car.
(26)It was obvious.
Sentence (25) is a statement. Therefore, it should be preceded by conjunction that
to be a noun clause functioning as the subject of the main clause. That can be
omitted in clause that functions as the object, especially in informal situation, but
it should remain if the clause functions as the subject (Frank, 1972: 291).
The second type is noun clauses that are derived from questions. This type
of clause is classified into two types based on the form of the question. One is
question introduced by a question word, and the other is yes-no question. If the
question is preceded by a question word, the question word itself that functions as
the connector (Frank, 1972: 293).
(27)Question: What caused the accident?
Meanwhile,if and whetherare used for yes-no question (Azar, 1989: 268).
(29) Question: Does he need help?
(30)I wonder whether he needs help (Azar, 1989: 268).
One thing that is very important when changing a question into a noun
clause is the word order. If in a question the subject and verb are inverted, where
the verb precedes the subject, then in noun clause subject-verb inversion is not
needed. Frank (1972: 297) states that the subject and verb are put immediately
after the connector. In addition to that, the words do, does, and did should be
omitted because they are not used in noun clause (Azar, 1989: 264).
The third type is noun clauses that are derived from request. This type of
clause usually functions as the object of the verb, and is introduced by the
connector that (Frank, 1972: 297). The following is the example.
(31)He urged that the matter should go to arbitration (Thomson and
Martinet, 1986: 305).
The fourth is noun clauses that are derived from exclamation. This can be
introduced by what andhow(Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 309). The example is:
(32)I hadn’t realized what a pretty girl she was (Frank, 1972: 61).
2. The Finite and the Non-finite Clauses
Clauses based on the structure of the verb phrase are distinguished into two
a. The Finite Clauses
The finite clauses are clauses which contain finite verb phrases as the
elements of the verbs (Quirk et al., 1992: 150). The finite verb phrases are defined
as verb phrases containing a finite verb as the first or only word, and the rest of
the verb phrases are non-finite verbs (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 41). It implies
that a finite verb phrase is always introduced by a finite verb. Furthermore,
Greenbaum and Quirk (1990: 41) explain the characteristics of a finite verb
phrase. They are (1) a finite verb phrase can be the verb phrase of independent
clauses, (2) a finite verb phrase should be able to show tense and mood, and (3)
there is agreement between subject and verb. The examples of the finite verb
phrases are:
(33)He studies English (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 38).
(34)You have been smoking all day (Quirk et al., 1992: 151).
b. The Non-finite Clauses
The non-finite clauses are described as clauses with non-finite verb phrases
as the elements of the verbs (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 310). The non-finite
verb phrases themselves are verb phrases that consisted of non-finite verbs forms
only (Quirk et al., 1992: 149). The non-finite verbs include the verbs in the form
of to-infinitive, bare infinitive, -ing participle, and –ed participle. In the study, the
use of bare infinitive to introduce the non-finite clauses is excluded since it is
rarely used in the sentences.
According to Quirk et al. (1992: 995), the non-finite verb phrases have no
clause. It implies that the non-finite clauses cannot occur as the main clauses. In
other words, they are always embedded to the main clauses. Therefore, the
non-finite clauses are different from the non-finite clauses because the non-non-finite clauses
always function as subordinate clauses while the finite clauses can occur both in
main clauses and subordinate clauses. From the statement, it can be inferred that
main clauses are always finite clauses, but subordinate clauses can be either finite
clauses or non-finite clauses. Therefore, the three types of subordinate clauses;
namely adjective clauses, adverbial clauses, and noun clauses can occur either in
finite clauses or finite clauses. The following are the examples of the
non-finite clauses.
(35) Since coming to this country, Mary has made many friends (Azar,
1992, 1989: 315).
(36)We could see the distant hills covered with snow (Close, 1977: 89).
From (35) and (36), it is clear that the non-finite clauses are always subordinated
to their main clauses.
The non-finite clauses, which are written in italics, also lack some parts. In
(35), the italicized part does not have a subject and tense. Meanwhile, in (36), the
non-finite clause lacks a subordinate conjunction. Quirk et al. (1992: 995) state
that “since the non-finite clauses lack tense markers and modal auxiliaries and
frequently lack a subject and a subordinating conjunction, they are valuable as a
means of syntactic compression.” To conclude, finite clauses can also be changed
into the non-finite clauses by omitting the subject, tense, and sometimes also the
The following is the example of changing the finite clause into the non-finite
clauses.
(37)a. Finite: The police hope that they will solve the crime soon.
b. Non-finite: The police hope to solve the crime soon (Graver, 1981:
158).
In (37b), the subordinating conjunction that, the subject they and the tense will are
omitted, to-infinitive is used instead. The non-finite clause in (37b) operates as a
noun clause.
As it is stated before, subordinate clauses are classified into three types
according to their syntactic functions; namely adjective clauses, adverbial clauses,
and noun clauses. Those three types of clauses can occur either in finite clauses or
non-finite clauses. Since the focus of the study is on the non-finite clauses only,
detailed explanation about the three types of non-finite subordinate clauses will be
elaborated as follows.
1) The Non-finite Adjective Clauses
Azar, in her book entitled Understanding and Using English Grammar uses
the term adjective phrases to refer to the non-finite adjective clauses. Azar (1989:
257) states that the term phrase is used because it is actually a group of words that
does not have a subject and a verb. The subject and verb of the adjective clauses
have been omitted in the process of changing the finite adjective clauses to the
non-finite forms. Further, Azar (1989:257) states that adjective clauses can be
changed into the adjective phrases with the same meaning if they are introduced
reduced into the non-finite forms only when the relative pronoun introducing them
functions as the subject of the subordinate clauses. If the relative pronoun refers to
the object of the clauses, the clauses cannot be changed into the non-finite forms.
The forms of the non-finite verbs that can be used to introduce the non-finite
adjective clauses are –ing participle, -ed participle, and to-infinitive.
a) -Ing Participle
-Ing participle is used in two different conditions. The first is when the
adjective clauses have progressive meaning (Swan, 1988: item 455). It means that
the verbs in the clauses are be + V-ing. The way to change them into the non-finite
forms is by omitting the relative pronoun and the be form of the verb (Azar, 1989:
257).
(38)a. Finite: The man who is driving the bus is my brother.
b. Non-finite: The man driving the bus is my brother (Hewings,
2001: 148).
Another example is presented as follows.
(39)a. Finite: The men who were working on the site were in some danger.
b. Non-finite: The men working on the site were in some danger (Swan,
1988: item 455).
The following is another example of the non-finite clauses using –ing participle.
(40)a. Finite: The boys who are being chosen for the team are under 9.
b. Non-finite: The boys being chosen for the team are under 9
The non-finite clause in (40b) has passive meaning. Being followed by past
participle can indicate progressive aspect (Quirk et al., 1992: 1265).
The second condition is when the clauses do not have a be form in the verb.
The way to change them into the non-finite form is by deleting the relative
pronoun and change the verb into the -ing form (Azar, 1989: 257).
(41)a. Finite: The thieves took two mail bags that contained registered
letters.
b. Non-finite: The thieves took two mail bags containing registered
letters (Graver, 1981: 199).
The following is another example.
(42)a. Finite: The road that joins the two villages is very narrow.
b. Non-finite: The road joining the two villages is very narrow
(Murphy, 1987: 186).
-Ing participle, which is also called as present participle, can be used when the
verbs in the clauses expresses a habitual or continuous action (Thomson and
Martinet, 1986: 84).
b) –Ed Participle
-Ed participle clauses are usually the reduction of clauses in which the verbs
are in the passive voice (Close, 1977: 94). The adjective clauses in the passive
form are reduced into the non-finite clauses using –ed participle by omitting the
relative pronoun and the be form of the verbs.
(43)a. Finite: The man who was injured in the accident was taken to
b. Non-finite: The man injured in the accident was taken to hospital
(Murphy, 1987: 186).
c) To-infinitive
The finite adjective clauses can also be transformed into the non-finite
clauses using to-infinitive. The to-infinitive can be used to replace either subject
or object pronoun and verb (Thomson and Martinet, 1986: 222).
(44)a. Finite: The thing that you should do is what everyone else is doing.
b. Non-finite: The thing to do is what everyone else is doing (Close,
1977: 98).
The to-infinitive can also be used to reduce the adjective clauses in the passive
form. The following is the example.
(45)a. Finite: There are still many obstacles that must be overcome.
b. Non-finite: There are still many obstacles to be overcome (Close,
1977: 98).
From sentences (44b) and (45b), it can be inferred that the relative pronoun and
modal are omitted when changing the finite adjective clauses into the non-finite
adjective clauses using to-infinitive.
2) The Non-finite Noun Clauses
In the non-finite noun clauses, -ed participle cannot be used as the first word
of the clauses. Close (1977: 96) states that –ed have to be preceded by –ing.
Therefore, there are only two forms of the finite verbs to introduce the
a) –Ing Form
The -ing form that functions like a noun is called a gerund (Feigenbaum,
1985: 239). One of the characteristics of gerund is that it can be replaced by it.
According to Close (1977: 90), the gerund can function as subject, object,
complement of be, and object of preposition. The non-finite noun clauses using
gerund as the subject of a sentences is common in general statements with be as
the main verb (Frank, 1972: 320).
(46)Sitting here in the sun is very pleasant (Close, 1977: 90).
Meanwhile, gerund can also be the object of the verb. There are some verbs that
should be followed by gerund like admit, avoid, enjoy, and quit. Here is the
example of gerund functioning as the object.
(47)He enjoys playing practical jokes (Quirk et al., 1990: 1063).
Besides, gerund also occurs as the object of a preposition. Swan (1988: item
336) states that gerund is used after all prepositions including to.
(48)I am tired of being treated like a child (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985:
321).
The last function of gerund is as the complement of be. As it can be inferred from
the name, gerund is used after the be form.
(49)Her first job had been selling computers (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990:
312).
In addition, gerund can occur in passive and perfect forms. The following
(50)The soldier was accused of having betrayed his country (Graver, 1981:
147).
(51)No one likes being thought a fool (Graver, 1981: 147).
The possessives like my, your, and George’scan be used with gerund construction
(Swan, 1988: item 333).
(52)My forgetting his name was embarrassing (Greenbaum and Quirk,
1990: 312).
b) To-Infinitive
To-infinitive clauses can occur as subject, object, or complement (Close,
1977: 96). The to-infinitive is used as a subject of the verbs appear, be, seem
(Thomson and Martinet, 1986: 213).
(53)To be neutral in this conflict is out of the question (Quirk et al., 1992:
96).
A subject can be added into an infinitive clause by putting for to precede the
subject (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 311).
(54)For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable (Greenbaum and
Quirk, 1990: 320).
The second function of to-infinitive clauses is as the object of the verb. It
implies that there are some verbs that should be followed by the infinitive. The
verbs are classified into two groups. The first group is the verbs that are followed
directly by the to-infinitive such as afford, decide, plan, and want. This means that
the subject of the infinitive is the same as the subject of the main verb (Frank,
46
(55)They decided to divide the profits equally (Thomson and Martinet,
1986: 216).
Meanwhile, the second group consists of verbs which should be followed by a
pronoun + an infinitive. The pronoun here functions as the subject of the infinitive
(Frank, 1972: 335). Some verbs that belong to this group are advise, ask,
persuade, and teach.
(56)His wife persuaded him to buy a new car (Frank, 1979: 335).
The last function of to-infinitive is as a complement. Complement here
refers to the complement of subject + be (Close, 1977: 77). The following is the
example.
(57)The best excuse is to say that you have an examination tomorrow
morning (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 311).
Infinitive can also be used to compress noun clauses that are derived from
questions. If the clause is introduced by question word, just add to directly after
the question word. Azar (1989: 265) states that question words can be followed by
to-infinitive.
(58)a. Finite: Tell me how I can start this car.
b. Non-finite: Tell me how to start this car (Close: 1977: 78).
If the clause is originally from yes-no question, the conjunction which can be used
is only whether, if cannot be used in this case. To-infinitive is put after whether.
The example is:
b. Non-finite: Pam can’t decide whether to go or stay home (Azar,
1989: 269).
According to Frank (1972: 349), the infinitive replaces modal can/could or
should.
3) The Non-finite Adverbial Clauses
The finite adverbial clauses can also be changed into the non-finite clauses
using -ing participle, -ed participle, and to-infinitive. The non-finite adverbial
clauses usually lack a subject. If the subject of the non-finite adverbial clauses is
not present, it is assumed that the subject of adverbial clauses is the same as the
subject of the main clauses (Quirk et al., 1992: 1121). Further explanation about
the usage of each form is presented below.
a) -Ing Participle
The way of changing the finite adverbial clauses into the non-finite
construction is basically the same as the way of changing the adjective clauses
into adjective phrases. To change the finite adverbial clauses into the non-finite
clauses using –ing participle, the subject and be form of the verb are omitted or
omit the subject and change the verb into –ing form if the clauses do not contain
the beform of the verb (Azar, 1989: 315).
(60)a. Finite: When we arrived at the party, we saw Ruth standing alone.
b. Non-finite: Arriving at the party, we saw Ruth standing alone
(Hewings, 2001: 150).
The following is another example.
b. Non-finite: Feeling tired, I went to bed early (Murphy, 1987: 134).
The adverbial clause in (60b) is a time clause, while in (61b) it expresses clause of
cause. Being can also be used for clauses of time, following the word after,
before, and since(Close, 1977: 92).
(62)a. Finite: Since he was in the army, he has been in much better health.
b. Non-finite: Since being in the army, he has been in much better
health (Close, 1977: 92).
Beingis also used to express clauses of cause like in the example below.
(63)Being unable to help in any other way, I gave her some money (Swan,
1988: item 455).
-Ing participle can also occur in perfective form using the word having.
Having + past participle expresses a time which precedes the time used in the
main clause (Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman, 1999: 501). According to
Hewings (2001: 150), it focuses on the completion of an action before the activity
in the main clause starts. The following is the example.
(64)a. Finite: After he had finished all his work, he left his office.
b. Non-finite: Having finished all his work, he left his office (Frank,
1972: 306).
Azar (1989: 317) states that becauseis omitted in participle clause of cause.
Another important thing is that clauses using participle can be made negative by
putting notbefore the verbs (Frank, 1972: 305). The example is:
(65)Not wishing to continue my studies, I decided to become a dress
b) –Ed Participle
Like the non-finite clauses, –ed participle is usually used when the clause is
in the passive form (Close, 1977: 94). To transform the finite adverbial clauses
into the non-finite form using –ed participle, the subject and the be form of the
verb are omitted.
(66)a. Finite: If this house is painted white, it looks bigger.
b. Non-finite: Painted white, this house looks bigger (Close, 1977: 95).
In (66b), the subject of the adverbial have been omitted, therefore, the subject of
the main clause should be made very explicit. –Ed participle can be used to
express clauses of time and clauses of condition. Besides, -ed participle is also
used for clauses of concession.
(67)a. Finite: Although I was invited, I didn’t go.
b. Non-finite: Although invited, I didn’t go (Close, 1977: 95).
Being is followed by –ed participle is another possible form to express clauses in
passive. The following is the example.
(68)Being imported, the radios were more expended (Hewings, 2001: 150).
c) To-infinitive
To-infinitive clauses can be used to substitute finite adverbial clauses of
purpose (Close, 1977: 97). It can be made stronger by the use of in order to or so
as to(Frank, 1972: 343).
(69)To speed up the delivery of letters, the Post Office introduced
automatic sorting (Graver, 1981: 306).
(70)a. Finite: His work was so good, that it made him internationally
famous.
b. Non-finite: His work was so good as to make him internationally
famous (Close, 1977: 97).
3. Errors
This study deals with errors. Therefore, it is important to elaborate what
error is and the importance of studying errors.
a. Definition
Brown (1994: 205) describes error as “a noticeable deviation from the adult
grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the interlanguage competence of the
learners.” In other words, an error is caused by lack of knowledge. According to
Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982: 138), errors are parts of one’s saying or writing
which deviate from the rules of language.
People sometimes differentiate between errorrs and mistakes. Brown (1994:
205) defines a mistake as “ a performance error which refers to a failure to utilize
a known sytem correctly.” Further, Brown (1994: 205) explains that mistakes are
the imperfection of speech production such as hesitations and slips of the tongue.
Sometimes, it is difficult to judge whether a deviation is a mistake or an error.
This study does not differentiate between errors and mistakes. In the study, the
term errors refer to the students’ answers which are inappropriate and deviate
from the rule of the non-finite patterns without considering whether they are really
b. The Importance of Studying Errors
Dulay et al. (1982: 138) state two aims of studying the students’ errors.
First, it can serve as data to infer about the nature of the teaching learning process.
Second, it shows the difficult parts of the language. Studying the students’ errors
is essential for the teachers since that the errors can be used as feedback to
improve the teaching and learning processes.
4. The Mastery of a Language
The definition and the criteria of mastery will be elaborated further since
they serve as bases for conducting the research.
a. Definition
Fries (1948: 3) states that “a person has learned a foreign language when he
has thus first, within a limited vocabulary mastered the sound system, that is,
when he can understand the stream of speech and achieve an understandable
production of it and has, second, made the structural devices or the basic
arrangements of the utterances as a matter of automatic habit.” In the study, the
second criteria of mastery, that is making structural devices, is emphasized. It
means that the person knows how to construct a correct sentence. Dealing with the
study, one is said to have mastered the non-finite clauses if he or she understands
the rules of the non-finite clauses and is able to use the non-finite clauses correctly
b. The Criteria of Mastery
As it is written in Peraturan Akademik Universitas Sanata Dharma
Yogyakarta (2002: 14), 56 percent is the minimum standard of mastery, while the
overall grading system is determined by the lecturers. The following is the list of
score category which is used to classify the students’ scores.
Score Category 80-100 very good (A)
70-79 good (B)
56-69 sufficient (C)
50-55 insufficient (D)
≤ 49 poor (E)
Based on the list above, if the students’ scores are below the minimum standard of
mastery, it means that they still have difficulties and they have not mastered the
non-finite clauses.
B. Theoretical Framework
One of the language elements that should be mastered by students of the
English Language Education Study Program is grammar. There are so many
grammar topics to be learned, one of which is the finite clauses. The
non-finite clauses are learned by the students when they are in the fifth semester. The
non-finite clauses are important since they can make the sentences more
condense.
The non-finite clauses always function as subordinate clauses. Subordinate
embedded to a main clause. In other words, subordinate clauses cannot stand by
themselves. Subordinate clauses can be classified into three types according to
their syntactic functions. They are adverbial clauses, noun clauses, and adjective
clauses. Obviously, the three types of subordinate clauses can occur in the
non-finite forms.
One thing to keep in mind is that the non-finite clauses have no tense, modal
auxiliaries and sometimes also lack a subject and subordinating conjunction. If the
clauses still have tense and modal auxiliaries, it means that they are still finite.
Therefore, the first thing to do to construct the non-finite clauses is omitting the
tense and modal auxiliaries, then change the verb into the non-finite verb forms.
There are three forms of the non-finite verbs to introduce the non-finite clauses,
namely –ing forms, -ed participle, and to-infinitive.
In the study, the students are asked to do a test. The test requires the students
to transform the three types of subordinate clauses in the finite forms into the
corresponding non-finite forms, and also to combine simple sentences into good
complex sentences using the non-finite clauses. The errors commited by the
students are discussed further. The errors show some parts in which the students
still have difficulties. The results of the elaboration of the errors are used as
feedback for both the lecturers and the students to improve the teaching learning
processes. Meanwhile, the results of the test administered to the sixth semester
students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma
University is used to show their level of mastery in producing the non-finite
