DELAY OF PRINCIPLE B EFFECT IN INDONESIAN LANGUAGE BY INDIVIDUALS WITH DOWN SYNDROME.

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DELAY OF PRINCIPLE B EFFECT IN INDONESIAN LANGUAGE BY INDIVIDUALS WITH DOWN SYNDROME

A Research Paper

Submitted to the Department of English Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Sarjana Sastra Degree

By:

Galih Depri Lenggana 1002727

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION

THE FACULTY OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE EDUCATION INDONESIA UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

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DELAY OF PRINCIPLE B EFFECT IN INDONESIAN LANGUAGE BY INDIVIDUALS WITH DOWN SYNDROME

Oleh

Galih Depri Lenggana

Sebuah skripsi yang diajukan untuk memenuhi salah satu syarat memperoleh gelar Sarjana pada Fakultas Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra

Oktober 2015

Hak Cipta dilindungi undang-undang.

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DELAY OF PRINCIPLE B EFFECT IN INDONESIAN LANGUAGE BY INDIVIDUALS WITH DOWN SYNDROME

A Research Paper by

Galih Depri Lenggana 1002727

Approved by: Supervisor

Eri Kurniawan, M.A., Ph.D. NIP. 198111232005011002

The Head of English Education Department The Faculty of Language and Literature Education

Indonesia University of Education

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Galih Depri Lenggana, 2015

DELAY OF PRINCIPLE B EFFECT IN INDONESIAN LANGUAGE BY INDIVIDUALS WITH DOWN SYNDROME

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu ABSTRACT

DELAY OF PRINCIPLE B EFFECT IN INDONESIAN LANGUAGE BY INDIVIDUALS WITH DOWN SYNDROME

Supervised by Eri Kurniawan, M.A., Ph.D.

Motivated by the studies conducted by Chien & Wexler (1998) and Perovic (2001), the present study investigates the existence of Delay in Principle B Effect (DPBE) in individuals with Down syndrome and typically developing children. Six subjects are involved in the present study, three individuals with DS and three typically developing children. Adopting truth value judgment task from Chien & Wexler (1998), the present study is able to draw some findings. Both delay in Principle A and Principle B are not found in both participants groups. However, despite the fact that no delay is found, the participants exhibit the same pattern: scoring low in reflexive, and quantifier. Another intriguing finding found in the present study is pause. Some short pauses are exhibited by almost all participants. Keywords: Binding principles, DPBE, Down syndrome, typically developing children

Chien & Wexler (1998) dan Perovic (2001) merupakan penelitian yang mendasari penilitain ini. Penilitian ini meneliti fenomena kemunculan Delay in Principle B Effect (DPBE) yang terdapat di orang yang mengidap sindrome Down dan anak-anak normal. Enam subjek penelitian dilibatkan dalam penilitian ini, tiga diantaranya pengidap sindrome Down, dan tiga subjek lainnya merupakan anak normal. Dengan mengadaptasikan truth value judgment task yang diciptakan oleh Chien & Wexler (1998), penelitian ini menghasilkan beberapa temuan. Keterlambatan di Principle A maupun B tidak ditemukan dalam penelitian ini. Namun, meskipun keterlambatan tersebut tidak ditemukan, para subjek menunjukkan pola yang sama: memiliki nilai yang rendah di dalam eksperimen refleksif, dan kuantifier. Temuan menarik lainnya dalam penelitian ini ialah jeda (pause). Beberapa jeda ditemukan di hampir semua subjek.

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DELAY OF PRINCIPLE B EFFECT IN INDONESIAN LANGUAGE BY INDIVIDUALS WITH DOWN SYNDROME

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v TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORIZATION ... i

PREFACE ... ii

ACKNOWLEDMENT ... iii

ABSTRACT ... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... v

LIST OF TABLES ... vii

LIST OF FIGURES ... viii

LIST OF APPENDICES ... ix

CHAPTER I ... 1

1.1 Background of the study ... 1

1.2 Research Question ... 3

1.3 Aims of the study ... 3

1.4 Limitations of the study... 3

1.5 Significance of the study ... 4

1.6 Methodology ... 4

1.6.1. Participants ... 4

1.6.2. Data Collection... 4

1.6.3. Data Analysis ... 5

1.7. Organization of the paper ... 5

1.8. Clarification of the Key Terms ... 6

CHAPTER II ... 7

2.1 Down Syndrome ... 7

2.1.1 Definition and Etiology of Down Syndrome ... 7

2.1.2 Language Development of Individuals with Down Syndrome ... 9

2.1.2.1 Hearing Media and Oral Motor Skills ... 9

2.1.2.2 Pre-linguistic Development... 10

2.1.2.3 Linguistic Development ... 11

2.2 Binding Principles ... 13

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DELAY OF PRINCIPLE B EFFECT IN INDONESIAN LANGUAGE BY INDIVIDUALS WITH DOWN SYNDROME

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vi

CHAPTER III ... 20

3.1 Research Design ... 20

3.2 Formulation of the Problems ... 20

3.3 Participants of the Study ... 20

3.4 Research Instruments ... 21

3.5 Data Collection ... 24

3.4 Data Analysis ... 25

CHAPTER IV ... 26

4.1 Participants’ Score on Reflexives ... 26

4.1.1 Down Syndrome Participants ... 26

4.1.2 Typically Developing Children Participants ... 29

4.1.3 Reflexive Experiments Score Comparison of DS and TDC ... 31

4.2 Participants’ Score on Pronouns ... 32

4.2.1 DS Participants ... 32

4.2.3 Pronoun Experiments Score Comparison of DS and TDC ... 36

4.3 Comparison of Reflexive and Pronoun Experiments Score ... 37

4.3.1 Down Syndrome Participants ... 37

4.4 Pauses ... 39

4.4.1 Pauses in Reflexive Experiments ... 39

4.4.2 Pauses in Pronoun Experiments ... 40

4.5 Discussion ... 41

4.5.1 Reflexive ... 41

4.5.2 Quantifier ... 43

4.5.3 Brief Discussion on Pauses ... 44

CHAPTER V ... 45

5.1 Conclusions ... 45

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vii

REFERENCES ... 48

APPENDIXES ... 50

LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1 Overall Reflexive Score of Participants with DS ... 27

Table 4.2 Individual Correct Responses Percentage of Participants with DS ... 27

Table 4.3 Overall TDC Participants score In Reflexive Experiments ... 29

Table 4.4 Individual TDC Participants Score in Reflexive Experiments ... 30

Table 4.5 Reflexive Score of DS and TDC Participants ... 31

Table 4.6 Overall Score of DS Participants on Pronoun Experiments... 32

Table 4.7 Individual Score of DS Participants in Pronoun Experiments ... 33

Table 4.8 Overall Score of TDC on Pronoun Experiments ... 35

Table 4.9 Individual Score of TDC Participants in Pronoun Experiments ... 35

Table 4.10 Comparison of Pronoun Score of DS and TDC Participants ... 36

Table 4.11 Comparison of Reflexive and Pronoun Score of DS Participants ... 37

Table 4.12 Comparison of Reflexive and Pronoun of TDC Participants ... 38

Table 4.13 Total Pause in Reflexive by DS Participants ... 39

Table 4.14 Total Pause in Reflexive by TDC Participants ... 40

Table 4.15 Total Pause in Pronoun by DS Participants ... 40

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viii LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Tree Illustration of How a Node C-commands Other Nodes ... 14

Figure 2.2 Tree Structure of Sentence ... 15

Figure 2.3 Tree Structure of Sentence 5 ... 16

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ix LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1 The Instrument pictures ... 50

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DELAY OF PRINCIPLE B EFFECT IN INDONESIAN LANGUAGE BY INDIVIDUALS WITH DOWN SYNDROME

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter is the introduction to the study. It discusses the background of the study, research question, aim, limitation, significance of the study, and the methodology applied in the present study. This chapter is expected to provide some highlights on the present study.

1.1. Background of the Study

Individuals with Down syndrome (hereafter DS) encounter problems in many aspects. One of which is in cognitive aspects. According to Abbeduto et al (2007), most individuals with DS merely have IQ between 30 and 70. In 1960s, having low number of IQ, individuals with DS were often considered moderately to severely retarded (Evans-Martin, 2009). This may mean that individuals with DS have cognitive deficit. Since language is a cognitive property of human (Carnie, 2006), cognitive deficit makes negative impact on language learning and language use (Abbeduto et al., 2007). Abbeduto et al. (2007) further explains that linguistic success is determined by cognitive abilities.

One of linguistic areas contributing to the linguistic failure of individuals with DS is syntax. The problems individuals with DS encounter have triggered linguists to conduct research on various problematic aspects of syntax. One of problematic syntactic aspects for individuals with DS that has caught linguists’ attention is syntactic binding or also known as binding principles.

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Previous studies in regard to binding principles have revealed two trends. First, it is known as Delay of Principle B Effect (DPBE) and second is non DPBE (delay is found in Principle A).

DPBE is observed when the subjects have delay in understanding or acquiring pronouns (Principle B) and they do not have delay or difficulty in understanding reflexives (Principle A). Jakubowicz (1984) confirms that DPBE is found in typically developing children. His finding shows that the subjects initially miscategorize pronouns and interpret them as reflexive.

Chien & Wexler (1990) in their article entitled “Children’s Knowledge of Locality Conditions in Binding as Evidence for the Modularity of Syntax and

Pragmatics” also find that children have delay in pronoun acquisition but they do

not find difficulties in comprehending reflexives. However, Chien & Wexler (1998) propose a hypothesis that the reason why the children have delay in comprehending pronoun is because they have yet to acquire pragmatic principles not the Binding Principle B (Principle P).

The second trend reported in the previous study is the presence of delay in Principle A. With regard to this second phenomenon, Ring and Clahsen (2005) conducted a study on DPBE. They intend to seek a distinct pattern that occurs in individuals with DS and William’s syndrome by examining subjects’ comprehension of passive sentences and binding principle. They find that individuals with DS have some difficulties in both comprehending passive sentences and binding principle, specifically in comprehending the reflexive pronoun (Principle A) (Ring & Clahsen, 2005). In short, subjects in Ring & Clahsen (2005) do not observe the Delay of Principle B Effect in their subjects.

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between 17 and 21 years of age, she found that the subjects do not observe delay in Principle B, instead, they observe delay in Principle A.

Those previous studies indicate that individuals with DS may and may not have a delay in Principle B acquisition or DPBE. The present study is intended to observe the binding principles in Bahasa Indonesia used and learned by individuals with DS. The present study uses three individual with DS and three typically developing children. Picture judgment value task adapted from Chien and Wexler (1990) is applied in this study. By leaning on that fact, this study is conducted in order to confirm whether the individuals with DS violate Principle B and obey Princpile A (DPBE) or vice versa. This study is also conducted with the purpose of adding some more literature in respect to the language phenomenon of individuals with DS. Also, the small number of study on Bahasa Indonesia regarding individual with DS motivates the study in order to make contribution in gaining knowledge into how individuals with DS use and learn Bahasa Indonesia.

1.2. Research Question

The present study is carried out in order to discover the answer to the following question: how do individuals with DS observe the binding principles?

1.3. Aim of the Study

The study’s objective is to ascertain how individuals with DS observe the binding principles in Bahasa Indonesia; that is, whether they obey Principle A and violate Principle B or vice versa. Other objective of the study is to help researchers, and people to comprehend the language of individuals with DS. In addition, this study is intended to provide insight into how individuals with DS communicate.

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This study focuses on the reflexive and non-reflexive pronoun in Bahasa Indonesia of individuals with DS. The area of the present study is syntax, specifically binding principles. Pragmatic, semantic and other linguistic area are not included into the present study discussion. Picture judgment value task adapted from Chien & Wexler (1990) is the method applied in this study.

1.5. Significance of the Study

Since the study on Bahasa Indonesia of individuals with Down’s syndrome is still small in number, this study is expected to be a reliable literature for other researchers in conducting similar study and for everyone who wants to understand further how individuals with DS communicate in Bahasa Indonesia.

This study is also expected to provide insight into how Bahasa Indonesia is used and learned among the individuals with DS, specifically how they comprehend and use reflexive and non-reflexive pronoun in their communication. In addition, to a wider area, this study is also expected to contribute to the discussion of the innateness of binding theory which is currently topic to debate among linguists.

1.6. Methodology

1.6.1. Participants

The study will use six participants consist of three individuals with DS at a SLB-C in Bandung and three typically developing children at SD Labschool UPI. The age of the individual of the DS is between 20-30 years old. Meanwhile the age of typically developing children is ten years old.

1.6.2.Data Collection

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picture contains two characters representing the sentence contains reflexive or non-reflexive pronoun i.e. a picture of a bear and Hansel which represent the sentence “The Bear pinches himself” or “The Bear pinches him”. In quantifier experiments, three to four characters are depicted. Before each picture is presented to the subject, an introductory sentence will be read for them: “This is The Bear

and this is Hansel”.

1.6.3. Data Analysis

After collecting data, the data will be then analyzed in order to discover the tendency whether the participants have problems in Principle B or vice versa. The conclusion of the data is expected to be obtained by paying attention to number presented after the data is processed. The number of each participant’s score is also compared to each other in both the same and different conditions. By doing so, it is expected that some patterns would emerge indicating whether the subjects, especially the children with DS, have delay in either binding Principle A or in Principle B.

1.7. Organization of the Paper

This paper is divided into five chapters. Each chapter consists of subchapters that elaborate the content of the chapter.

The first chapter is the introductory part of the paper. It consists of background of the study, research question, aim, limitation and significance of the study, methodology and the organization of the paper.

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Research Methodology is the title of the third chapter. This chapter provides some explanations on methodology in conducting the present study. Subjects of the present study, research questions, research design, key terms clarification, data collection, and data analysis are explained in this chapter.

Chapter four, Finding and Discussion, explains the data and its analysis. Furthermore, in this chapter, the interpretation of the data analysis will be discussed. The answer of the research question is discussed in this chapter as well. Chapter four also discusses the result of the study and how it either differs from or is similar to the previous studies.

Conclusion and Suggestion is the last chapter of the paper. This chapter concludes the present study which consists of the summary of the answer to the research question, and result of the present study. Some suggestions for future study which can be drawn from the present study is provided in this chapter as well.

1.8. Clarification of the Key Terms

The present study contains some specific terminologies. To clarify these terminologies, this section provides a brief explanation on such terms

a. Typically Developing Children

This is a term referring to children who develop normally (normal children). b. Binding Principles

Binding Principles consist of Principle A, which deals with reflexive, Principle B, which deals with Pronoun and Principle C which is about R-expressions (Chomsky, 1981).

c. Down syndrome

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This is a phenomenon first found by Chien & Wexler (1998). The Principle B acquisition is slower than Principle A acquisition.

e. Delay of Principle A Effect

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DELAY OF PRINCIPLE B EFFECT IN INDONESIAN LANGUAGE BY INDIVIDUALS WITH DOWN SYNDROME

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the methodology employed in the present study as a guidance in answering the formulated research question. Research design, research participants, data collection, data presentation, and data analysis are included in the discussion.

3.1. Research Design

The present study aims to elucidate a phenomenon found in the acquisition of binding principles by individuals with Down syndrome in naturalistic data. Therefore, this study is conducted primarily under the framework of qualitative research method. The qualitative research method is expected to describe and discuss the findings of the present study. However, the present study also employs some quantification in form of percentage to ease data reading.

3.2. Formulation of the Problems

The present study is aimed to elucidate the binding phenomena found in individuals with DS. Therefore, this present study is intended to discover the existence of DPBE in the individuals with DS. A research question is formulated as follows:

- How do individuals with DS observe the Binding Principles?

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Since the present study focuses on how individuals with Down syndrome observe the Binding Principles, the present study involves six participants which consists of three individuals with Down syndrome (DS) and three typically developing children (TDC). The DS participants involve those whose age is between age 20-30 year old. TD is the oldest DS participants whose age is 20-30 year old. AR is 23 year old and IA is 20 year old. All DS participants are students of one SLB-C in Bandung. The DS participants in the present study are confirmed to meet the criteria of being mild to moderate mental retardation by the school principal through learning processes.

The present study involves three typically developing children as well. These participants are expected as a control group. The age of the TDC participants, LAD, IHA, and NEN, are 10 years old respectively. This age is believed to be around the mental age of the DS participants, which is 11 years old.

3.4. Research Instruments

In this section, some research instruments used to undergo the present study are presented and discussed. The present study uses a set of pictures as the main instrument to collect the data. Two cards, blue and red, are used as signs to signify the answers: blue card is for the right answer and the red card is for the wrong one. A standard video recorder is also required in the present study to record the experiments. An answer sheet is also used to decode the participants’ answer in each experiment.

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abstract characters. Thereafter, many studies use abstract characters in truth-value judgment task. Therefore, the present study modifies the instrument. A sample of the picture is shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3. 1. Sample Picture of the Instrument

In those pictures, four action verbs, i.e. menyentuh (to touch), menunjuk (to point), menyubit (to pinch), menjewer (to tweak one’s ear) are depicted by the characters. Each picture represents a sentence involving one of those action

words. For instance, the sentence “Abang menunjuk dia” (Abang is pointing [at]

her) is depicted in Figure 3.1. Therefore, those action verbs are formulated into sentences as follows.

a. menunjuk (to point) Name-pronoun: Abang menunjuk dia.

Abang is pointing [at] her.

Quantifier-pronoun:

Semua orang menunjuk dia.

Everyone is pointing [at] her.

Name-reflexive:

Abang menunjuk dirinya.

Abang is pointing [at] her.

Quantifier-reflexive:

Semua orang menunjuk dirinya.

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Name-pronoun: Anggi menyentuh dia.

Anggi is touching him.

Quantifier-pronoun:

Semua orang menyentuh dia.

Everyone is touching him.

Name-reflexive:

Anggi menyentuh dirinya.

Anggi is touching herself.

Semua orang menyentuh dirinya.

Everyone is touching themselves.

c. menjewer (to tweak one’s ear) Name-pronoun:

Idan menjewer dia.

Idan is tweaking his [ear].

Quantifier-pronoun:

Semua orang menjewer dia.

Everyone is tweaking his ear.

Name-reflexive:

Idan menjewer dirinya.

Idan is tweaking her [ear].

Quantifier-reflexive:

Semua orang menjewer dirinya.

Everyone is tweaking their ear.

d. mencubit (to pinch) Name-pronoun:

Anggi mencubit dia.

Anggi is pinching him.

Quantifier-pronoun:

Semua orang mencubit dia.

Everyone is pinching him.

Name-reflexive:

Anggi mencubit dirinya.

Anggi is pinching herslef.

Semua orang mencubit dirinya.

Everyone is pinching themselves.

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additional pictures are used in training session. In addition, pictures containing the depiction of fruits are also used in the training session. The use these additional pictures is to ensure that the participants understand the experiments.

There are also experiments condition involved in the experiments, namely match and mismatch condition. Match condition is where a sentence spoken is the same with the action represented in the picture. For instance, in Figure 3.1. the action verb is to point. The main character, Abang, is pointing at her. Therefore,

the sentence should be “Abang menunjuk dia” (Abang is pointing at her). Whereas

mismatch condition occurs when the sentence is “Abang menunjuk dirinya”

(Abang is pointing at himself) for the same picture (Figure 3.1).

In responding to the questions (statements), the participants are required to choose the cards according to their answer. In other words, if they believe the statement is true, they need to choose blue card, and vice versa. This technique is

used in order not to impose any bias or choice that will influence the participants’

answers.

3.5. Data Collection

To collect the data, the present study exploits the instruments designed for the present study. The data collection procedure is divided into two sessions, namely training session and experiments session.

Before the sessions was begun, the participants were given an explanation regarding what they are doing and what they should do. Moreover, the participants were familiarized with the research instruments, specifically the pictures and cards.

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they would choose a blue card. This training is meant to ensure that the participants understand how to use the cards.

In addition, in the training session, the participants were also shown the pictures that were similar to the pictures to be used in the experiments. However,

the participants’ wrong answers were corrected in this training session in order to

make the participants more aware of the concept of Binding Principles. In addition, this training is also conducted in order to make the participants more aware of how the experiments would be and more familiar with the instruments.

In the experiments session, the participants were shown all pictures and statements. This experiments was video recorded. There are two steps conducted in the experiment session. First, the participants are shown a picture and an introductory sentence was spoken to them. For instance, Figure 3.1 is shown to a participant. The introductory sentence would be “Ini Anggi, ini Abang” (This is Anggi and this is Abang). The action verb depicted in the picture was also told to the participants. Second, the match condition sentence was spoken and the participants responded to the sentence by choosing blue or red card. After the match condition, the mismatch condition of the picture was then spoken.

3.6. Data Analysis

The data collected from the video recording are decoded into answer sheet. The correct answers of each participant in each experiment condition are calculated and its percentage is made. After the date has been in number and percentage form, the data of each participants are compared in term of reflexive and pronoun and also in terms of group participants: DS and TDC participants. The data comparison is presented in form of tables.

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and discussed with related explanation or theory. The findings are also compared

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Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

Conclusion and suggestion of the present study are presented and discussed in this chapter. This chapter sums up the present study. In addition, some suggestions drawn from the present study that could be considered for other researchers in conducting further research regarding DPBE in Down syndrome is also included.

5.1. Conclusion

Motivated by Chien and Wexler’s (1998) and Perovic’s (2001) studies, the present study also investigates the Delay of Principle B Effect (DPBE) in individuals with Down syndrome and typically developing children. However, the present study investigates this phenomenon in Indonesian language.

By conducting the present study, it is expected that the contribution to the study of language of Down syndrome could be made. In a wider area, the present study is also expected to be able to make some contribution to Binding Principles discussion, specifically the discussion of the innateness of Binding Theory.

Elucidating the phenomenon and discovering the existence of DPBE in individuals with Down syndrome in Indonesian language are the present study’s aim. To achieve its aim, descriptive qualitative method is employed and the methodology and instruments from the previous study are borrowed and adapted by using photographs and real characters depicting a set of actions.

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The TDC participants did not reveal the indication of delay in either Principle A or B as well. Their score is 87.50% and 95.83% respectively for reflexive and pronoun experiments.

Despite the fact that both participants group performed above chance level, they still indicate a pattern in reflexive and quantifier. In reflexive experiments, both group scored lower than in pronoun experiments. However, this finding remains unsolved due to the explanation proposed by Perovic (2001), Jakubowicz (1984), and Ring and Clahsen (2005) regarding the participants misanalysing the reflexives as it were pronouns could not be applied. The reason why it could not be applied is that this proposed explanation could not yet reveal the cause of the participants misanalysing a lexical item as it were another.

In quantifier, both subject groups also exhibited the same: scoring lower than in name-condition. The possible explanation for this finding would be that numbers and quantifier involve a wide range of linguistic properties, i.e. syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. However, recall that almost all that range area of linguistics of individuals with DS is ‘disturbed’, the result for quantifier experiments would be much lower. Also recall that TDC at that age have been widely known to encounter no problem in such linguistic range. This explanation is rejected, therefore.

An intriguing finding emerges in the present study: pauses. Almost all participants exhibited pauses when they were responding to the questions. This pause would be caused by the verbal working memory (VWM). They seemed to need longer process to access their VWM. However, this finding is beyond the present study’s scope. Therefore, in the suggestion section, a suggestion regarding this finding would be advised.

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question of the present study is: the individuals with DS in the present study did not encounter delay in Principle B.

5.2. Suggestions

The present study is full of gap to be filled in the future studies. Some suggestions for the researchers interested in this field and for the future research are presented in this section.

The first suggestion would discuss the participants. The present study merely uses three DS participants. It would be much better if the number of the participants is increased so that the researcher would be able to sense pattern(s) exhibited by the participants. The age of participants also should be taken into consideration. The age difference between TD and two other DS participants is quite great. This would influence the result of the experiments as shown by the DS participants. No problem was encountered in TDC participants.

The instrument to be discussed in this section is a set of pictures depicting quantifier experiments. Some TDC participants encountered confusion when they were faced with this instrument despite the fact that they encounter the same instrument in the training session. They seemed to be confused with the characters doing the action: a picture consists of four characters, however, only three of them doing the action, the main character is doing nothing. The TDC participants did not count the main character as semua orang (every man). The suggestion is that in future research using similar instrument, all characters should do the actions so that the participants would not get confused.

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