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Prototypical Feature Discovery: A
Method for Teaching Scientific Reading
Krlsmlyatl
Satya Wacana Christian University krismi@staff.uksw .edu
-ABSTRACT
Scientific reading could not be separated from post graduate students' academic life. They need to read scientific articles to support their study especially in accessing resources for their academic writing assignment. In order to effectively read in English of their specialization, students need to be aware of the features of the articles in their own field. This paper tries to propose the
ｩｭｰｬ･ｾ･ｮｴ｡ｴｩｯｮ＠ of one method useful for scientific reading i.e . prototypical features discovery. This has been carried out by involving 15 graduate students of Information System during their pre-graduate session using journal articles in Information Technology in EFL environment. The students are involved in discovering the features of articles they read and implement their obtained knowledge about research articles to analyze and screen the important information they need. After they have gone through processes of discovery then they practice their skill by reading journal or research articles and investigate whether or not those articles owns _the features they have discovered so far. This process and educational approach is quite important in introducing students to scientific reading as It focuses not only to the end product but also to the process. This method is successful enough in teaching scientific reading to graduate students. They could recognize the features of research article and proves that it is helpful for their learning process as they are going to the process of discovering the features even if they are exposed to a new research article.
Key words: scientific reading, research article, prototypical structure, educational approach.
INTRODUCTION
Scientific reading for graduate students is their day to day consumption, in a sense that their life could not be separated from this aspect. One of their reasons why they have to read scientific texts is that they need to keep them updated with the latest knowledge of their field. On top of that, they need to attach themselves with the discourse community they belong (Swales, 1990). Another reason they need to access scientific resources in their field is that they need it to support their study. This study tries to implement a method called prototypical features discovery in scientific reading, especi;lly research article. Graduate students who participate in this study are graduate students majoring in Information System. They participate in this study during their pre-graduate session. The IT department expects their graduate students to be able to refer their work later on to the scientific publication. The publication they need to refer to is often published in English, as "English is a language of international scholarship and research" (Fiowerdew, 1999).
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share that their experience so far when they meet resources written in English, they will just try to get the Indonesian version. Based on they have been through, it is important to introduce them how to familiarize themselves with scientific publication in English and its features. By familiarizing them with features of scientific publication, research articles, students could explore and improve their knowledge in their special field . Not only it will help them in understanding more about a research article but also it will enable them to write similar kind of work when they have to .
lhe students mvoived in this study are graduate students who have learned English as a foreign language since they are in primary school. Apart from that, most IT teachers assign them to refer to their work with international publication which is written in English. They are able to use English passively, though sometimes they need the help of translation tools or dictionary. However, they are familiar with the terminology in their specific are because most of the terminologies in IT are not translated into Indonesian. More or less they can get the idea of what they are reading by guessing from the context and activating their schemata.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A.
Scientific Reading
Scientific reading is inseparable part of graduate students' life. They will spend their time trying to go through any scientific text to support the work they are working on. In relation to that, they are expected to produce academic writing as a result of their work to contribute to their discourse community they belong to (Swales, 2004) . Correspondingly, Samraj (2004) supports this idea, saying that it is research article that the graduate students have to produce. Referring to the notion of scientific reading, it could not be separated from research article. As this is the media that member of discourse community could communicate and share ideas, it has it owns specific lexis that might be distinctive from other areas. This shows the characteristics of research article as a genre (Swales, 1990).
Research article in particular indeed serves as the type of academic writing that university students usually have (Paltridge, 2001). This can function as a bridge for novice member of discourse community to know and learn more about the specific field they are interested in. Through research article, they can also bridge themselves to give and receive feedback on the work they are working on. The discourse community discussed in this study is Information Technology. IT graduate students use articles as means of communication to other member of their discourse community; IT practitioners, IT researchers, IT educators, and those novice members who have just started immersing themselves in IT world (Swales, 1990).
B.
Research Article Move
In order to understand more about research article, it is necessary to look into what its move look like. As research article belongs to a concept called as genre , it is important to see what it ... Involves. This genre has particular moves that distinguish research article from other academic Writing types. Move, as it is defined by Swales and Feak (2008) is "a functional term that refers to a
ｾＭ
defined and bounded communicative act that is designed to achieve one main communicative··. objective" . In addition, they mention that move could be represented in one sentence or finite clause
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help the readers to catch the 'generic integrity' of that particular piece of writing (Bhatia, 2001).
Further he mentions that every discourse community of genre owns this 'generic integrity' which
distinguishes them from other discourse community (ibid).
Swales (2004) and li & Ge (2009) say that research article has its own conventional structure distinguishing from any other type of academic writing. In addition, the structure of research article is also wrapped in such a package that will be able to convey the information to achieve the intended goals set by the discourse of community (Rowley-Jolivet and Charter- Thomas, 2.005). The common move or structure of research article consists of Introduction, Method, Result, and Discussion, sometimes it has conclusion.
Introduction
Introduction could be considered as the most troublesome part (Swales, 1990). Most of the writers will find more difficult to start with the introduction than to continue the next part after it has been started with the introduction section. This is very important part of the research article as it gives the idea to the reader on what the writer is trying to address. It also contains the development of research area that the writer has been working on. As it plays an important role of a research article, sometimes it plays 'tricky part' as well ( Huckin & Olsen ,1991). The reason why it is considered to be the tricky part is that it has to present wealth of information in a very limited space. It is the one that shows the contribution of the writers to the area they are working on either to the past, present or even to the future researches (Swales, 1990; Huckin & Olsen, 1991). The common term introduced by Swales
(1999) about introduction is known as CARS (Creating Research Space). Introduction is where the writer could establish an area to introduce the topic, justify the present study in the topic
and describe the present study.
Method
This section normally describes the procedure or method employed in the study (Kanokshilapatham, 2005). This is the part where the scientific community could verify and
repeat what has been carried out in the study reported (Huckin &Olsen, 1991). This section also establishes the validity of the result of the study the have conducted . However the method section is usually the section that is quite difficult for non specialist readers to
understand the meaning as it has little cohesion. Swales (1990) maintains that it is usually those people specialize in that field with great amount of knowledge and experience in that particular area who could easily jump cross from one to the next part. In short, method
section ｩｾ＠ part of research article that offers the readers the picture of how the study has been carfied out so that it can sort out the problem defined previously in the introduction
section.
Result and Discussion
Result and Discussion (R/D hereafter) section sometimes are combined in one research article and in some other cases it is written separately (Swales, 2004). Basically, this
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context in which the study has been conducted. It represents the report of what has been discovered through the study to the member of discourse community in which they can reflect their sense of membership. Kanokshilapatham ( 2005), Swales (1990) and Holmes (1997) say that result/discussion section usually moves its discussion from 'inside- out direction'. It starts with stating the fir.ding of the study then places those findings into established literature and finally review its significances to the study it carries out. This often applies both to social and hard core science (Holmes, 1997). Swales (2004) says that in this part is the part where the writer or researcher outlines all the findings in details and provides discussion based on the literature the researcher has been working on and to investigate whether or not it proves the theory has been laid on in the previous section.
Conclusion
In general, there are often research articles that end with Result and Discussion part as Swales (1990) maintains. He states that in most academic reading papers this part will be the last section. On the other hand, conclusion does exist in several type of academic papers in specific major such as computer science. Posteguillo (1999) has investigated in some Computer Science research articles and found out that in this particular field, it offers conclusion section. He has gone through several publications such as Journal of Information Technology and Proceedings of the North American Symposium on Knowledge Organization, Journal of Software. He discovered that the research articles in those journals put conclusion as the last section of the article. The conclusion itself contains the statement of the result of the study in a brief manner and provides some suggestions for future research. Sometimes, it offers the implication of the study (Posteguillo, 1999).
C. Prototypical Structure
Swales (1990) mentions that the instances of certain type of genre, to be specific in this paper are research articles will vary based on its prototypical structure it offers. In other word, the prototype found in the research article is not fixed or rule governed, but it is usually subject to individual variation, such as the social science article offers IMR/D (Introduction, Method, Result and Discussion) sections meanwhile the hard core ones will cover the introduction section to the conclusion one. Analyzing the prototypical structure of research article could contribute to what is known as educational approach, in a sense that the objectives are general and it does not focus on the end product (Fiowerdew, 1993). It will put a heavy priority on developing individual competence to function in their particular discourse community. By focusing on the process the individual will be going through, it will also help them to participate in what type of text they are working on (ibid). The important thing in this educational and process approach is that the individual will have to identify and understand the prototypical structure of the research article.
METHOD
This study involves 15 graduate students in Master of Information Science at Satya Wacana Christian Unversity. Those students are in the pre-session of their graduate study. The method employed in this study is the activity proposed by Flowerdew (1993) i.e. "using the result of genre
analysis". The first step to do is that presenting students with an example of academic research paper that they are familiar with. The article is In Information Technology field. Having done with the presentation of research articles then present them with the structure of research article which consists of Introduction, Method, Result and Discussion, (sometimes with Conclusion) sections. The presentation part of Introducing the structure of research article is done by highlighting the part of research article containing those sections discussed before. This presentation section Is known as modeling as well. The students are presented a model that they can follow so that finally they will be able to do the analysis on their own.
Finishing with the presentation of the prototypical structure of research articles then students is given an article, same article of all participant and they are assigned to do the analysis based on the example provided. Students have to highlight as well the section of the research article. They have to identify in the move expressed in each section of the research articles. This stage is the prototypical feature discovery, as the students have to discover the prototypical feature of the given articles. After that they will discuss and cross check their work in pairs before whole dass discussion led by the teacher. The last part will be asking student to find a research article in their own Interest and do the prototyping discovery. Having discovered the prototype structure of the research article they are working on, they present the result to the class and have class discussion on each presentation to see whether or not they agree with the findings of their peers.
The
reason of choosing this method, prototypical feature discovery method is motivation. Motivation is an integral part of tea'ching -learning process. It Is important to build students willingness to actively participate in the teaching learning process. The activity should be at least contributed to either intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. By having the students to do the trial and error of doing the analysis it will give them experience that may result in two possibilities; either positive one that means they are encouraged to do more or the negative one which will discourage themto
do it. However, the presence of the teacher as facilitate may help them to build their motivation as wen. The teacher could posit himself/herself as a resource person that students could refer to when they are going through the process they do.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Introduction Introduc:doo ｾＭＭＭ Method
_,_,
__
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Oriikowslcl and Iacono (200 I) au!pbed eleiating HUdiea btl1ed Oil their central theorenc.I !oc=u•, for example on the r;ontat widi.ID wbid:l IT opennes, on the effects of IT deYelopment and u.., ｾＺ＾ｲｯｮ＠ the inlormation-proccnins
capabilities of IT as ｾ･ｰ｡ｲ｡ｴｴ｣ｬ＠ li:vm ift ｲｯｮｬ･ｾｴｴ＠ ur u1e.
Result and Discussion
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. , . SATYA ｗａｃａｾ＠ CHRISTIAN UNIVEitSITYbut !hey ｰｲｯｶｩ､ｾ＠ a basis for ｵｳＮｾｮｩｮｳ＠ the C\111'Ult number of and JVO"·th 1n broadb3nd and mllbilr. usas. Cu!Tf!rlt estimat"" are that theft 1vere 581 milli«! people on• line u. of Ma)' 2002 (Sua, 2002). OCU.., appromruwely 183 million wen American and Caaadi-. ENimara o£ broadband ｡｣｣｡ｾ＠ in the USA by !he Federal
Comrmmi-cadoaa Commiuion 121)00) were that theft ｷｾｲ･＠ 9.6
million •uU...TIDen iu June 200 I' • ＲＵＰｾ＠ aro...m ... I 999. Howeww-, rbe :SIIliunal Cable ud ｔｾﾭ
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in Europe had (ptii!Yri)J wire•lin.) ｾ＠ acccu _ (Nua, ＲＰＰｾＩＮ＠ The note of pml!trWcm 11'1 ｾ Ｍｾﾥｗｲｩ･ｳ＠
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and ilmitut>Daaiized sociCII pro""see.
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remains unc::ear exactl)' ｷｨ･ｾ＠ broadband and mobile :onnectiviry adds value (to users and providen). Third,
it ｩＱＱＱｾｾ｡ｲ＠ how indUSIJ)' ｰｩ｡ｾＢＧＢ＠ ohould lliign lhemselvn.
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pointlrd ID 1he cbaqa io both tiM rypn of infomwion
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and pri.,.c:y, that is who is on their network ｵｾｯＱ＠ their
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... SAT I'* INACAHA OUIISllAN-(200l) md Ha.ddllll .z .J. (2001) DOted. there is an
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broadband and mobile ac:cru in -...ork and life without " great dall of anention to how this i$ being done.
ｔｾｬｯｭＧ＠ and lnfruti'Ucture luun
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From • aocio-w:ec:IIDH:alpcnpcctiw dac liaka bctw•n
'technological' iuun (aucb u ｯ［［ｯｭｾｬ＠ power,
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such u the elearonaapetic spcc:mun and a.mmiuion power e1!1dently Ｈｾ･ＮｧＮ＠ Iraqi and Boutaba, 2000) in ｴｨｾ＠
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cue ..-In &i¥e5 an ｩｮｬｭｾｓｴｩｮＦ＠ exUDple when! on--line
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Prom a soc:i<Hcchnieal perspective, nud)'lns ｴｨ･ｾ＠
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ciple argDQ dl8t ldJlcr .pplic:atiOAI canoot be explained
purely on the bail ofinbmi'Dt tcc:hnolosicalmpcrioriry.
Thouch abc stud]' of killer spplieacione focuae5 laflely
liD ＭｉＧＮｉＡｉｃｨｬｬ｡ｾ＠ m.e c:h.lqe •d caminuirr piacipJe
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COIIIJiftiAs techavlasin and vatyi . . &ocial ptat:tic:a.
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include the foJio...;ng.
(1) Video on demand. Research has lovenigated arcllitcctutn for c:opinl with che strinpt dcm1111ds of t\a.ll-motion ndeo tranafcr in real lime (e.g. .!'allis tr ol., 20o2}, with particular concern lor ｨｯｮ､ｬｩｮｾ＠ mnsmisaion errors with ｾ＠ ＮｊＢＱＧＱｕｬＢｾＧﾷＡｌｾ＠
..
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SAfVA WACANA CHRISTIAN UNIYrullVnumbers only when I had to read a research article" (said Sl). Another student mention "Now I know what to look for when I am given a research article for my study reference". Students did the discussion and cross check their work together before they finalize their draft to present their class. This activity seemed to be interesting for those graduate students as they were actively involved in the process and they did experience of doing their own analysis. It also seemed to be engaging for them especially because of they got the freedom to choose their specific area in Information Technology. Apart from identifying the prototype structure of the research article, students also tried to Identify the move of each section expressed through the grammatical st ructure pattern used. From what they have identified, the result of move identification of each section is presented as following.
a. Introduction: Most writers/researchers in Information Technology (in the article used for this study) use the following expression to present the introduction section.
"In this paper we propose the use of social network analysis ... " (Daly & Haahr
,2007;ACM Journal) , "This study aims to contribute to the discussion on... "
(Research article from proceeding on Science System Conference, 2005)
Besides the type of the sentence used, the introduction section also outlines how the paper is organized. The following are examples that students found:
''The remainder oft his paper is organized as follows: Section 2 reviews related work in the area of message delivery in disconnected networks. Section 3 introduces the concept of node centrality in a network and shows how it can be used to forward information. Section 4 discusses social similarity and how it can be used to evaluate the strength of a relationship between two nodes. Section 5 presents SimBet
Routing. Section 6 compares the performance of SimBet Routing to Epidemic Routing [ 38] and the PRoPHET Routing protocol [24] using real trace data from t he MIT
Reality Mining project [ 1, 7] . Finally, Section 7 concludes the paper." ( Daly & Haahr
,2007, ACM Journal)
" Our approach explores how to apply those network analysis techniques in a more comprehensive and complete way. To expose it, we will start by introducing some basic concepts of social network analysis which are used later (section 2), and the definition of the networks we consider 3. In section 4 we Introduce the characterization we propose for those networks, and later, in section 5, we show some examples of the application of that characteri-zation to Apache, GNOME and KDE. To finish, we offer some conclusions and discuss some future work." (Lopez-Fernandez,L ,Robles,G, Gonzalez-Barahona,J 2004)
The introduction usually will provide the readers with the information of how their research article presented throughout the whole paper.
b. Method: The method section in Information Technology field is straight forward and easily identified. One of the example is " in the approach that we proposed ... (ACM Journal). It
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SATYA WACANA CHRISTIAN UNIIItasjijcould sometimes be shown in section called "Research Methodology" followed by explicit statement of what is being employed in the research. as seen in the following example: "The empirical data for this study was obtained through a survey investigating ERP system adoption in Finnish companies. The survey questionnaire was designed to address a variety of managerial issues regarding the selection and implementation of ERP system packages" (Laukkanen Sarpola, & Hallikainen, 2005)
c. Result and Discussion
This section usually answers what are stated on the statement of the problem found in the introduction part. This section incorporate the result of the research and place them in an established literature discussed in the previous section. Some research articles will put "Result and Discussion" as the heading of the section or sometimes the reader will have to identify by themselves that the section they are reading is Result and Discussion (R/D) ones. The following are the typical of result and discussion section found in the journal that IT
students find :
"In this section we present SimBet Routing, a forwarding algorithm based on betweenness
centrality and similarity as described in sections 3 and 4 respectively. The algorithm makes
no assumptions of global knowledge and forwarding decisions are based solely on local calculations" ( Daly & Haahr ,2007, ACM Journal).
"Analysis of our survey data indicates that significant differences exist between the small, medium-sized, and large companies in the constraints as well as in the objectives of ERP system adoption. Further, the application of ANOVA F-test and Kruskaii-Wallis test provided very similar results giving support to analogous interpretations. Next the results of the
analysis are presented and the differences identified between the three groups of companies are discussed." (Laukkanen Sarpola, & Hallikainen, 2005)
This section normally will be signed by the heading of the section or expressed in a manner such as " In this section some result of that ... are shown in ... .' (Lopez-Fernandez,L
,Robles,G, Gonzalez-Barahona,J 2004).
d. Conclusion
This section is very easily noticed, it comprises of almost what the reader expect after reading through the previous section. It is often signed by explicit heading of the section,
such as conclusion, conclusion and further work, or in some research articles it is possible to
have discussion and conclusion as a single section. This also contains the suggestion or ideas
for ｦｵｲｴｾ･ｲ＠ research on that specific area presented in the article. Some examples found on giving suggestion or ideas for further research are "We also offer some examples of how it
can be applied to ... " ;We feel that these .... may prove useful in other .... where ... " .
Based on the comment the students give (they write the comment unanimously), most of
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explore more in their area they are interested and they believed that will apply when they have to do their real study in the future facing all the research articles they have to digest. Apart from that they could still incorporate their skill before which is looking at the figure for outstanding information as they think that they are helpful in enhancing their understanding.
CONCLUSION
Implementing prototypical feature discovery method tor teaching students in scientific reading especially research article is helpful. It enables the students to understand the article they read easier and they could go directly to what they need without leaving out importance information . It has shifted their habit so far, they used to pay attention on chart, graphic and tables or outstanding visual presented in the article to the new strategy, understanding the content of the paper through its major sections presented. They even could come up with their inference about certain type of grammatical use in the research article sections they have analyzed. This practice has contributed motivation to the students to finally think that research article is not as "scarying" as before and it turns out to be digestible for them.
This prototypical feature discovery is a hands-on experience that students could have and help them to develop their skill and competence in particular area. In this case, this method has successfully helped the graduate students to read research articles in English . Something that students have thought to be something difficult before as they are EFL students that have to catch up and boost their competence in English for supporting the study, now it is pretty feasible to carry out and not frightening anymore. It is helpful for the students as they have got the chance to practice the analysis on their own with the teacher acting as facilitator. They always have the resource to turn to when they find any difficulty during the process. For further study, it could be implemented the
prototypical feature discovery method for a more complex area such as discovering the signaling words used in research articles, the pattern of the sentences used in a more detail analysis, and incorporate the practice with writing activity. It could be challenging as well for the students if it is expanded to producing the similar type of research articles and of course it might be useful for their writing in their future study.
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SATYA WACANA CHRISTIAN UNIIIERSrTLopez-Fernandez,L ,Robles,G, Gonzalez-Barahona,J (2004) Applying Social Network Analysis to the Information in CVS Repositories Proceedings 1st International Workshop on Mining Software Repositories. Edinburgh
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