CHAPTER II
THEORITICAL REVIEW
A. Speaking
1. Definition
According to Brown and Joyce cited in Fitriani (2008:11) who states that speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving information. The writer defines speaking as the ability to converse with others, much more than the ability to read, write or listen the language. The writer also regards speaking as the most important skill to be learned. A success of learning language is measured in term of the ability to carry out a conversation in language.
It is supported by Nunan (2003) says that speaking is the same as oral interactions which are conventional ways of presenting information, expressing our ideas and thought. Therefore, speaking is not only uttering ideas in our mind, but also delivering and presenting new information to other people. Its form and meaning depend on the context in which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective, experiences, the physical environment, and the purpose of speaking. In speaking uttering words and sentences, it is often spontaneous, open-ended and evolving.
2.Purpose of Speaking
a. To inform
The speaker informs the listener about everything they want or need and also inform ideas they want to share.
b. To Entertain
We will know someone’s feeling by speaking. Therefore, we will know how to entertain them by speaking to them to know their feelings, whether sad or happy.
c. To Persuade
Somebody use speaking to persuade others to do something in certain activity.
(Tarigan, 1997:16) In other hand Clark & Clark ( 1997 : 3 ) state that the nature of language is principle means for communication, it is assumed that two main activities, speaking and listening occur in it. Speaking also can develop self-awareness and can be the measurement whether a foreign language learner is successful in learning a foreign language or not, but in mastering speaking skill is not only can be seen not only from performance of learners in spoken but also from their competence in using language.
3. Basic Principles of Speaking
for the listener(s). Furthermore, she/he also should understand some basic principles of speaking, either in public or individual speaking.
Followings are some basic principles of speaking ( Tarigan 1997:16)
a. It needs at least two people. For example
Speaking activity can’t be done by one person except in special situation. For example, someone is studying about language sound while memorizing the meaning.
b. It uses a linguistic signal which can be understood together
By using linguistic signal, the listeners can understand what is talking about by the speaker.
c. It accepts or admits a common reference area
A common reference area is sometimes difficult to be found, but speaking can accept the tendency to find one of them.
d. It is an exchange activity among the participants
Both participants (speaker and listener) involved in speaking activity exchange information each other.
e. It relates every speaker with others and also the environment
The information given by the speaker is usually related to a real response from the listener or vice versa. So it can build a both side relation.
Speaking language can’t be separated with what is actually happened in the present time.
g. It involves tools related to vocal and auditory apparatus.
The most real form of speaking activity is an activity which involves vocal and auditory apparatus; for example, in face to face communication, speaking via telephone, and many others.
h. It treats a fact and also something which can be accepted as an argumentation
The whole environment which can be communicated is not only the real world around the speaker but also the wider idea or thought, because the participants in a speaking activity are human who can develop new idea or thought every time end everywhere.
4. Teaching Speaking
In teaching of speaking, the teacher must create the teaching process so that the students are interested in following the speaking class. The teacher should motivate the students to practice and to speak up. Give students the chance to do something with the language to actively use language they produce themselves for situation.
procedure in teaching learning process and the condition of the students. The procedure in teaching learning process become an important point in teaching, the teachers have to give a lot of chance to the students to speak up, it will help students to practice their ability and increasing their confidence. In other case the teacher should create an effective teaching learning process by using a good media and technique. Then the condition of the students, many students have different background, some of them feel shy to speak up in front class, so as the teacher should motivate them in order to increase their confidence and skill in speaking.
Speaking activity needs interaction from one person to others. Interaction needs emotion, creativity, agreement, nodding and so on, so another p eople understand what people say. It would be a better interaction, if the teacher give some communication model to their students
Students learn to speak English by interacting, Communicative language teaching and collaborative learning serve best for this aim. In this case, English teacher should create a good environment where students have real-life communication, authentic activities, and meaningful tasks that promote oral language.
B. Students’ Participation In Learning Process
1. Definition of Participation
participation is a level of how far member involve themselves in an activity and contribute the energy and thought in the implementation of the activity. Students’ participation in the process of teaching and learning process is absolutely needed to achieve the goal of learning. It can be said that participation is some involvement both thinking and energy to get the benefit from the activity.
2. The Importance of Participation In language Learning
Davis ( 1993 ) says that there are some reason why participation in language learning is important. They are :
a. Students’ participation shows the students activeness and creativity, so they realize that science just can be got through the hard effort.
b. Participating in speaking class make students have more roles, more open, and new ideas are easily received.
c. The learning process becomes more meaningful because there is a process of taking and giving information between the teacher and the students.
d. It can be a good measurement for the success of the implementation of the certain technique.
e. Students’ participation in learning process becomes good starting point for the students to get better achievement, especially in their speaking ability.
3. The Kinds of Participation
participation and initiative participation. Initiative means the power or ability to follow through energetically with a pant or task; enterprise and determination. While contributive participation is participation that supports students to follow learning well.
Based on definition above, the indicators of participation were stated below:
Table 3.1 Types of participation
Contributive Participation Initiative Participation Asking Question
Answering Question
Giving Opinion / Suggestion Giving rejection
Giving good explanation
Doing the task
The indicators of participation above have to be observed by the teacher or the collaborator during teaching learning process. In the implementation of using talking chips, those indicator should be observed by the teacher either students do or not. The teacher should give motivation when the students feel hard to speak up.
4. Factors of Students’ Low Participation
According to Abimanyu ( 2002 : 153 ) there are three causal factors of students’ low participation in TLP. Those are:
a. Students have less ability to form their ideas.
b. Students have less encouragement to give their opinion or suggestion to another.
c. Students do not have competitive habit to give their opinion or suggestion to other friends.
Based on the explanation above the teacher should know their students’ readiness, ability, disability and background of them, in order to help teacher to do their duty well.
5. Factors of Students’ High Participation
Davis (1993) says that there are tactics to increase participation, such as deviding students into small groups periodically, ask students to identify characteristic of an effective material, use poker chip or comment card to give their comment etc. In line the teacher should make the students more creative in learning.
Teacher is not only a motivator but also a facilitator, so they have to have a good ability on the lesson. They have to believe that students have a lot of potential that can be explored and the teacher has to facilitate it.
It can be concluded there are some factors that can improve students’ participation:
b. The background of the Students
c. The opportunities provided by the teacher d. The environment in the class
e. Class management
It can be concluded that students’ participation is important in learning language.
C. Talking Chip
1. Definition of Talking Chip
Barkley ( 2005 : 117 ) defines Talking Chips as a technique in which students can participate in a group discussion and throw a chip each time they speak. It means that talking chips is a technique which give roles to the students in a discussion but in this technique there is a specific difference with other discussion that is use of chips ( cards ) as atool to know how high students participate in the discussion. It will make the students feel more challenged to speak up because if he or she still has many chips, it means he or she loses in speaking than others.
2. The procedure of Talking Chips
In Collaborative Learning Technique book, there are some steps of using Talking Chips in speaking class. Those are:
a. Dividing students into some groups
c. Asking students to participate equally in group discussion, specifying that as they contribute comments, they should throw a chip and place it view of the group members
d. When all students have contribute to the discussion and all chip are down, ask students to retrive and redistribute the chips, so the procedure repeats for the next round of discussion, or end the discussion activity if it is complete.
3. The Purpose of Talking Chips.
Barkley (2005) says that there are some purposes of using Talking Chips:
a. To ensure equitable participation by regulating how often each group member is allowed to speak because it emphasizes full and even participation from all members.
b. It encourages reticent students to speak out and talkers to reflect. c. It is useful for helping students discuss controversial issues
d. It is also useful to solve communication or process problems, such as dominating or clashing group members.
4. Variation and Extension in Using Talking Chips
There are some variations and Extensions of Using Talking Chips, they are:
to examine the surrendered chips and to reflect on how the conversation has gone. Ask them to continue with their discussion but to try to work toward an equal number of chips from each group member.
b. To regulate the length of time each student speak more then the number of times they speak, give each student several chips and instruct them to surrender a chip every three to five minutes that they have the floor.
c. Give each students only one chip. When everyone has contributed, retrieve the tokens and start the process again. This variation could be useful in brainstorming or listing items.
d. Instead of using chips, assign a group member the task or recording individual contribution to a conversation. Do this by creating a grid sheet with one column for students; name and an additional column or columns for the recorder to note down when each individual speaks. The recorder can place a checkmarks or simply keep a tally by each person’s name. Explain that recorders will use the sheet for a set period of time and that the aim is to promote an even level of participation among group members. When time is up, ask group member to review the sheets and analyze the interaction.
( Barkley,2005: 120) 5. The advantages of Using Talking Chips
a. Talking chip can help to build communication skill because the students who tend to “spout off” consider more carefully what they have to say, since it will require their surrendering a chip.
b. Reticent students are encouraged to speak because the ground rules have created an environment that promotes participation by all.
c. It helps students to see how the participation during group work can develop teamwork skill and self-awareness.
d. Talking chips is probably best used to give students insight into effective teamwork and to solve problems of inequitable participation. e. Talking Chips divides the class into small group, so that each
individual has the opportunity to participate in the classroom.
( Barkley,2005: 120) 6. The Disadvantages of Using Talking Chips
Talking Chips has some disadvantages, they are: a. It can inhibit the natural flow conversation b. Make discussion feel stilted and artificial
c. There is a possibly for the students to be dishonest, for example that the students throw the chip but he or she doesn’t speak up.
( Barkley, 2005:120) 7. The Solution for Teacher in Facing the Problems in Using Talking Chips
a. The teacher has to manage the time to make the students have a lot af participation.
b. Teacher prepares some up to date topic which can encourage the students to speak up, so the flow of conversation can run well, without spaces.
c. Teacher has to observe the activity hard to make sure that all students getting participation into the activity.
