ABSTRACT
Subagyo, Anggun Wahyu Purnomo Sidi. (2014). A Study on Washback of English National Examination among 12th Graders of a Private Religion-based Vocational High School in Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Indonesia implements national examination (NE) as one of the considerations for deciding students’ graduation from secondary schools. As a high-stakes testing, NE has inevitably given washback. The washback appears to impact students, teachers, and school during the NE preparation. The washback itself can be positive or even negative. It depends on the nature of the response shown by the parties. Thus, the researcher was interested to study what washback happens to the parties and how it can happen.
This study has two research problems. First, it is 1) What washback do the twelfth graders of a private religion-based vocational high school in Yogyakarta experience in response to National Examination preparation? Second, it is 2) How does the washback happens to the students, teachers, and the school? Therefore, the objectives of this study are 1) to find what washback happens to the parties and 2) how the washback happens to the parties.
This study is qualitative research. It used case study method. The data was obtained from nine participants consisted of seven twelfth graders, an English teacher, and a vice principal of a private religion-based vocational high school in Yogyakarta. The researcher obtained the data through observation and interviews. To solve the first research problem, the researcher employed some theories from some educationists to comprehend the concept of washback. To solve the second research problem, the researcher used some theories from some educationalist as well to comprehend and picture of how washback happen.
The data in this research is reflection and interview record. The researcher conducted inductive analysis to investigate the data. Afterwards, the researcher presented the findings and discussions deductively.
This study supports learning, teaching, and school management, especially about preparing the NE. Secondary school students become more aware of the impacts of NE. Besides, it also encourages them to be more prepared with the potential challenges such as feeling of pressure and time constraints. For teachers, they can comprehend the phenomenon faced by their students. Their comprehension facilitates them to find the best way to engage with the situation. For future researchers, this research inspires those who are interested in conducting research about washback.
ABSTRAK
Subagyo, Anggun Wahyu Purnomo Sidi. (2014). A Study on Washback of English National Examination among 12th Graders of a Private Religion-based Vocational High School in Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Indonesia menerapkan ujian nasional (UN) sebadai salah satu penentu kelulusan para siswa di jenjang sekolah menengah. Sebab UN sangat menentukan, terjadinya washback menjadi tidak terelakkan. Washback memberikan dampak kepada siswa, guru, dan sekolah selama persiapan UN. Washback sendiri dapat menguntungkan ataupun merugikan. Oleh karena itu, peneliti tertarik untuk meneliti washback apa yang terjadi dan bagaimana washback itu terjadi.
Penelitian ini mempunyai dua pertanyaan, yaitu 1) Washback apa yang dialami oleh para siswa kelas dua belas di sebuah sekolah menengah kejuruan keagamaan di Yogyakarta dalam menanggapi persiapan UN? dan 2) Bagaimana
washback tersebut dapat terjadi pada para siswa, para guru, dan sekolah? Maka dari itu, tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah 1) menemukan macam washback yang dialami oleh para siswa kelas dua belas di sebuah sekolah menengah kejuruan keagamaan di Yogyakarta dalam menanggapi persiapan UN dan 2) mengungkap mekanisme terjadinya washback pada siswa, guru, dan sekolah.
Penelitian ini adalah penelitian kualitatif studi kasus. Data diperoleh dari sembilan responden yang terdiri dari tujuh siswa kelas dua belas, seorang guru bahasa Inggris, dan seorang wakil kelapa sekolah dari sebuah sekolah menengah kejuruan keagamaan di Yogyakarta. Data dikumpulkan dari observasi dan wawancara. Jawaban pertanyaan pertama didapat dari memanfaatkan beberapa teori dari para pakar pendidikan untuk memahami konsep tentang washback.
Pertanyaan ke dua dijawab menggunakan beberapa teori dari para pakar pendidikan untuk memahami dan menggambarkan proses terjadinya washback.
Data penelitian ini berupa refleksi dan hasil wawancara. Peneliti melakukan analisis induktif untuk meneliti data. Seletah itu, peneliti menampilkan penemuan dan pembahasan secara deduktif.
Penelitian ini mendukung pembelajaran, pengajaran, dan pengelolaan sekolah khususnya tentang mempersiapkan UN. Para siswa sekolah menengah menjadi waspada tentang dampak UN. Selain itu, mereka menjadi terdorong untuk lebih mempersiapkan diri dengan tantangan UN seperti perasaan tertekan dan waktu persiapan yang singkat. Bagi para guru, mereka akan mendapatkan pemahaman tentang fenomena yang dihadapi siswa-siswanya. Pemahaman tersebut membantu mereka untuk menemukan cara terbaik untuk menyikapi situasi tersebut. Untuk para peneliti lain, penelitian ini memberikan inspirasi bagi mereka yang tertarik untuk membuat penelitian tentang washback.
A STUDY ON WASHBACK OF ENGLISH NATIONAL
EXAMINATION AMONG 12
thGRADERS OF A PRIVATE
RELIGION-BASED VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL IN
YOGYAKARTA
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Anggun Wahyu Purnomo Sidi Subagyo Student Number: 101214180
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUACATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
i
A STUDY ON WASHBACK OF ENGLISH NATIONAL
EXAMINATION AMONG 12
thGRADERS OF A PRIVATE
RELIGION-BASED VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL IN
YOGYAKARTA
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Anggun Wahyu Purnomo Sidi Subagyo Student Number: 101214180
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUACATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
iv
Trust in the Lord with all thine heart ;
and lean not unto thine own understanding.
In all thy ways acknowledge him,
and he shall direct thy paths.
Proverbs 3:5-6
I dedicate this thesis to the Almighty Jesus Christ,
my parents, my sister,
vii ABSTRACT
Subagyo, Anggun Wahyu Purnomo Sidi. (2014). A Study on Washback of English National Examination among 12th Graders of a Private Religion-based Vocational High School in Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Indonesia implements national examination (NE) as one of the considerations for deciding students’ graduation from secondary schools. As a high-stakes testing, NE has inevitably given washback. The washback appears to impact students, teachers, and school during the NE preparation. The washback itself can be positive or even negative. It depends on the nature of the response shown by the parties. Thus, the researcher was interested to study what washback happens to the parties and how it can happen.
This study has two research problems. First, it is 1) What washback do the twelfth graders of a private religion-based vocational high school in Yogyakarta experience in response to National Examination preparation? Second, it is 2) How does the washback happens to the students, teachers, and the school? Therefore, the objectives of this study are 1) to find what washback happens to the parties and 2) how the washback happens to the parties.
This study is qualitative research. It used case study method. The data was obtained from nine participants consisted of seven twelfth graders, an English teacher, and a vice principal of a private religion-based vocational high school in Yogyakarta. The researcher obtained the data through observation and interviews. To solve the first research problem, the researcher employed some theories from some educationists to comprehend the concept of washback. To solve the second research problem, the researcher used some theories from some educationalist as well to comprehend and picture of how washback happen.
The data in this research is reflection and interview record. The researcher conducted inductive analysis to investigate the data. Afterwards, the researcher presented the findings and discussions deductively.
This study supports learning, teaching, and school management, especially about preparing the NE. Secondary school students become more aware of the impacts of NE. Besides, it also encourages them to be more prepared with the potential challenges such as feeling of pressure and time constraints. For teachers, they can comprehend the phenomenon faced by their students. Their comprehension facilitates them to find the best way to engage with the situation. For future researchers, this research inspires those who are interested in conducting research about washback.
viii ABSTRAK
Subagyo, Anggun Wahyu Purnomo Sidi. (2014). A Study on Washback of English National Examination among 12th Graders of a Private Religion-based Vocational High School in Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Indonesia menerapkan ujian nasional (UN) sebadai salah satu penentu kelulusan para siswa di jenjang sekolah menengah. Sebab UN sangat menentukan, terjadinya washback menjadi tidak terelakkan. Washback memberikan dampak kepada siswa, guru, dan sekolah selama persiapan UN. Washback sendiri dapat menguntungkan ataupun merugikan. Oleh karena itu, peneliti tertarik untuk meneliti washback apa yang terjadi dan bagaimana washback itu terjadi.
Penelitian ini mempunyai dua pertanyaan, yaitu 1) Washback apa yang dialami oleh para siswa kelas dua belas di sebuah sekolah menengah kejuruan keagamaan di Yogyakarta dalam menanggapi persiapan UN? dan 2) Bagaimana
washback tersebut dapat terjadi pada para siswa, para guru, dan sekolah? Maka dari itu, tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah 1) menemukan macam washback yang dialami oleh para siswa kelas dua belas di sebuah sekolah menengah kejuruan keagamaan di Yogyakarta dalam menanggapi persiapan UN dan 2) mengungkap mekanisme terjadinya washback pada siswa, guru, dan sekolah.
Penelitian ini adalah penelitian kualitatif studi kasus. Data diperoleh dari sembilan responden yang terdiri dari tujuh siswa kelas dua belas, seorang guru bahasa Inggris, dan seorang wakil kelapa sekolah dari sebuah sekolah menengah kejuruan keagamaan di Yogyakarta. Data dikumpulkan dari observasi dan wawancara. Jawaban pertanyaan pertama didapat dari memanfaatkan beberapa teori dari para pakar pendidikan untuk memahami konsep tentang washback.
Pertanyaan ke dua dijawab menggunakan beberapa teori dari para pakar pendidikan untuk memahami dan menggambarkan proses terjadinya washback.
Data penelitian ini berupa refleksi dan hasil wawancara. Peneliti melakukan analisis induktif untuk meneliti data. Seletah itu, peneliti menampilkan penemuan dan pembahasan secara deduktif.
Penelitian ini mendukung pembelajaran, pengajaran, dan pengelolaan sekolah khususnya tentang mempersiapkan UN. Para siswa sekolah menengah menjadi waspada tentang dampak UN. Selain itu, mereka menjadi terdorong untuk lebih mempersiapkan diri dengan tantangan UN seperti perasaan tertekan dan waktu persiapan yang singkat. Bagi para guru, mereka akan mendapatkan pemahaman tentang fenomena yang dihadapi siswa-siswanya. Pemahaman tersebut membantu mereka untuk menemukan cara terbaik untuk menyikapi situasi tersebut. Untuk para peneliti lain, penelitian ini memberikan inspirasi bagi mereka yang tertarik untuk membuat penelitian tentang washback.
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to greatly thank Lord Jesus Christ for His great blessings in my life. He gives me health, spirit, and strenght to finish my study and to arrive at another milestone of my life.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Markus Budiraharjo, M.Ed., Ed.D. for generously guiding and assisting me during the process, making himself available for consultations anytime and anywhere, and giving attention and suggestion until the final process of writing this thesis. It is a great blessing for me to have a super kind advisor like him. I specially thank Barli Bram, Ph.D. for helping me to check my grammar. I got precious suggestions even though it was only one meeting. I also specially thank my academic advisor, Henny Herawati, M.Hum. I thank all lecturers of English Language Education Study Program for lecturing along the study in Sanata Dharma University. I would also thank all secretariat staff of English Language Education Study Program and Faculty of Teachers Training and Education of Sanata Dharma University and all librarians for giving the best and friendly service.
x
Disa, Nana, Nutnut, Ineke, Amel, Lina “Makibo”, Nadia “Ijah”, Estu
“Kapuk”, Ratri, Sunu, Edo,Ega “Gaplek”, Veni, Yona, Nono, Ria, and Chaca.
The last, I would like to thank all who have support and help me to finish my thesis. May God bless them always.
xi
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... vi
ABSTRACT ... vii
4. For Future Researchers ... 7
F. Definition of Terms... 7
1. Washback ... 7
2. National Examination... 8
3. Vocational High School ... 8
xii
5. Deductive Narrative ... 8
CHAPTER II. REVIEW ON RELATED LITERATURE A. Theoretical Description ... 10
1. Exploring the Concept of Washback... 10
a. The Origin of Washback ... 10
b. The Definition and Scope of Washback... 12
c. Washback Defined in this Strudy ... 15
1) Negative Washback ... 16
2) Positive Washback ... 17
d. The Function of Washback ... 18
2. Exploring the Research Phenomenon ... 22
a. Influences of High-stakes Testing ... 22
b. Measurement-driven Instruction ... 24
3. Washback within Vocational High School Context... 27
xiii
D. Instruments and Data Gathering Technique ... 36
E. Data Analysis Technique ... 37
F. Research Procedure ... 39
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION A. Justification of Epistemology ... 42
B. Washback Happen to the Parties ... 44
1. Students ... 45
2. Teachers ... 46
3. The School ... 50
C. Areas Affected by Washback ... 51
1. Curriculum ... 51
2. Teaching Materials ... 52
3. Teaching Methods ... 53
4. Feelings and Attitudes ... 55
a. Students’ Feelings and Attitudes ... 55
b. Teachers’ Feelings and Attitudes ... 56
c. The school’s Feelings and Attitudes ... 57
5. Learning ... 58
D. How the Washback Happened ... 59
xiv
3. For Future Researchers ... 65
xvi
LIST OF TABLES
Table page
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure page
xviii
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix page
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter consists of six subchapters. They are research background, research problems, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.
A. Research Background
Indonesia has administered National Examination (NE) since 2005 whose results are used as one of the considerations to decide students’ graduation from secondary schools. Due to the deterministic nature of NE, it brings positive and negative impacts. On one hand, NE can motivate students to work harder as a response to achieve good result (as cited in news.okezone.com, April, 2013). On the other hand, NE can also create unnecessary anxiety and injustice among students, even teachers and schools (the parties: all that are involved). It is as expressed by an article entitled Fear of Failing in NE, A Girl Hangs Herself (Takut Tak Lulus UN, Seorang Siswa Gantung Diri) (megapolitan.kompas.com, May, 2013). Consequently, the implementation of NE also brings heated controversies and debates. Those are in line with Alderson and Wall (1993) who state that tests are conducted to be powerful determiners of what happens in classroom. The way in which NE affects teaching and learning is commonly known as washback or
Tests that have important consequences will have washback (Alderson & Wall, 1993). The important consequences here refer to a test in high-stakes situation. High-stakes tests themselves refer to the tests whose results are seen– rightly or wrongly–by the students, teachers, administrators, parents, or general public as being used to make important decisions that immediately and directly affect them (Madaus, 1988). In the other words, tests will have greater influence on teaching and learning in high-stakes situations than if it is not in high-stakes situations. Greaney and Kellaghan (1996) state that “an examination or test is said to have high-stakes attached to it when sanctions or rewards are linked directly to performance” (p. 37). Meanwhile, McNamara (2000) defines “a high-stakes test as a test which provides information on the basis of which significant decision are made about candidate” (p. 48).
Bachman and Palmer (1996) and Messick (1996) state that washback can be positive or negative, even neutral. Whatever the washback is, it always contains intended and unintended consequences (Qi, 2005). Meanwhile, the amount and type of washback depend on the extent to which: the status of the test, the degree to which the test counters to the current teaching practices, what teachers and textbook writers are willing and able to innovate (Alderson & Hamp-Lyons as cited in Cheng & Watanabe, 2004). High-stakes tests commonly appear in tests with important decisions such as admissions, promotion, placement, or passing out decisions that directly depend on the test scores. Meanwhile, for schools themselves, high-stakes decisions may include potential detachment of certain title or cuts in funding that may be directly dependent on score averages. Thus, the washback in high-stakes situations obviously give strong impacts to the parties.
Alderson and Wall (1993) say that the study of a washback phenomenon is always interesting. It is because washback is a complex phenomenon. Besides, they assume that teachers and learners do things they will not necessarily otherwise do because of the test. Furthermore, NE is still controversial in Indonesia. On the one hand, people who agree NE base their argument on the importance of NE as national quality control for education and motivation for educators and students to increase their quality. On the other hand, the chief of 10th commission of the parliament, Heri Ahmadi, states that NE causes school, which is a place to study, to lose its value since schools only focus on graduating their students (as cited in Pikiran Rakyat, December, 2007). Thus, this study seeks to display empirical evidence upon which NE brings either negative or positive washback effects, in particular, concerning a group of students, an English teacher, and a vice principal of an inner-city vocational high school in Yogyakarta.
A private religion-based vocational school in this research is a Christian-based private school that is under the authority of one of Christian-Christian-based foundation in Indonesia. This school is located in city of Yogyakarta. It happens to the context-bound of this study. Meanwhile, the participants also came from that school. The participants consist of students, teachers, and school management. For the consideration of ethical conduct, the researcher must not mention the name of the participants, the school, and the foundation.
will also be reviewed to identify what kind of washback phenomena happen in the field of study. The researcher will also review some current models of teaching and learning in the context of theoretical and practical considerations of washback to identity how washback affect the teaching and learning in classroom.
B. Research Problems
This study has two research problems:
1. What washback do the twelfth graders of a private religion-based Vocational High School in Yogyakarta experience in response to National Examination preparation?
2. How does the washback happens to the students, teachers, and the school?
C. Problem Limitation
The study will only focus on four aspects. Those are the washback will occur, areas affected by washback, response toward washback, and mechanism of how the washback happens.
D. Research Objectives
The objectives of this study are:
1. To find what washback experienced by the twelfth graders of a private religion-based Vocational High School in Yogyakarta in response to National Examination preparation.
2. To find how the washback happens to the students, teachers, and the school.
E. Research Benefits
This study gives benefits for students, teachers/English teachers, schools, and future researchers.
1. For students
This study is beneficial for students to give pictures to students of what they will face in preparing NE. Students will be able to anticipate the potential problems through the problems identified in this study. Furthermore, the suggestion presented in this study will help them more prepared for their NE in the future.
2. For Teachers/English Teachers
preparation. Therefore, they can formulate some scenarios to give best anticipation for their students to reduce impacts from tests.
3. For Schools
School management, that acts as the policy makers in school, will understand more what phenomenon faced by their students relating to NE preparation. Hence, school management is expected to be more humble to students and even teachers rather than only standing in the administrative stages. Thus, schools can be closer to their students and together reducing the impacts of tests. 4. For Future Researchers
This study is also beneficial for future researchers who are interested in a washback phenomenon. Since the washback phenomenon is so complex, the washback phenomenon still provides many valuable issues to be studied. Thus, this study may inspire them in conducting the other research related to the washback phenomenon.
F. Definition of Terms
1. Washback
2. National Examination
According to the Regulation of National Agency of Education Standard number 0022/P/BNSP/XI/2013, National Examination of SMP/MTs, SMPLB, SMA/MA, SMALB, SMK/MAK that is also known as NE is a measurement and assessment activity of achievement toward graduate competence standard of SMP/MTs, SMPLB, SMA/MA, SMALB, SMK/MAK nationally covered certain subjects.
3. Vocational High School
Evans states that vocational education is a part of education system that prepares its graduates to be able to work specifically on a certain field (as cited in Djojonegoro, 1997). Meanwhile, according to Law of National Education System number 20 year of 2003 article 15 stated that vocational education is a high school that prepares its graduates to work on a specific field.
4. Inductive Inquiry
Ary, Jacobs, and Sorensen (2010) state that inductive inquiry is a way in data analysis technique by using a particular set of facts to form a general idea. In this technique, researchers will usually categorize the data into many categories to ease composing conclusion. Categorization will ease researchers to conclude a particular set of facts.
5. Deductive Narrative
10 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter consists of two subchapters, namely the theoretical description and theoretical framework. Theoretical description presents the theories related to this study matter. Theoretical framework discusses all the major relevant theories to assist the researcher in answering the research problems.
A. Theoretical Description
Theoretical description gives a clear description of the theoretical underpinnings that shape and guide this study. It consists of three parts. The first part is exploring the concept of washback. The second part is exploring the research phenomenon. The third part is exploring the washback within vocational high school context.
1. Exploring the Concept of Washback
This part consists of three sections: the origin of washback, the definition and scope of washback, the washback defined in this study, and the function of washback.
a. The Origin of Washback
consequential validity (Messick, 1996), measurement-driven instruction (Popham, 1983), curriculum alignment (Shepard, 1990, 1991), and possibly other terms, all refer to different aspects of the same phenomenon–the influence of testing on
teaching and learning (Cheng, 2005). The researcher has chosen the term washback as the most commonly used in applied linguistics and references.
Alderson (1986) notices an additional area to which language testing research needed to turn its attention in years to come called the washback effect. He discusses the potentially powerful influence offsets. Washback is commonly introduced in testing for teachers as a powerful concept of which most classroom teachers are all too aware. Morrow (1986) uses the term washback validity for describing the quality of the relationship between testing and teaching and learning. He continues saying that conducting a study in washback validity of an examination is interesting for researchers.
studies into the relationship between teaching, learning, and testing. This is highly related to this study.
b. The Definition and Scope of Washback
Washback is a term commonly used in language testing, yet it is seldom found in dictionaries. However, the term backwash can be found in certain dictionaries. New Webster’s Comprehensive Dictionary of the English Language defines it as “the unwelcome repercussionsof some social action”. Meanwhile, the
Collin’s Cobuild Dictionary of English Languagedefines it as the “unpleasant after -effects of an event or situation”.
Washback, commonly used in the field of applied linguistics, refers to the impact of a test on teaching (Alderson & Wall, 1993). It refers to the extent to which a test influences language teachers and learners to do things they will not necessarily otherwise do because of the test (Alderson & Wall, 1993). Messick (1996) notices that washback, a concept prominent in applied linguistics, refers to the extent to which the introduction and the use of a test influences language teachers and learners to do thing they will not otherwise do that promote or inhabit language learning. He continues to comment that some proponents have even maintained that a test’s validity should be appraised by the degree to which if it
manifests positive or negative washback, a notion to akin to the proposal of “system validity” (Frederiksen & Collins, 1989) in the education measurement literature.
Biggs (1995) uses the term backwash to refer to the fact that testing drives not only the curriculum, but also teaching methods and students’ approaches to
learning (Crooks, 1988; Frederiksen, 1984; Frederiksen & Collins, 1989). However, after reviewing the definitions of the term backwash from the Collin’s
Cobuild Dictionary of English Language, Spolsky (1994) comments that backwash is better applied only to accidental side effects of examinations, and not to those effects intended when the first purpose of the examination is control of curriculum. According to Alderson and Wall (1993), the notion that testing influences teaching is referred to as backwash in general educational circles, but it has come to be known as washback among British applied linguistics, though they see no reason, semantic or pragmatic, for preferring either term.
examination has had a demonstrable effect on the content of language learning. This effect is the narrowing down the curriculum to those areas most likely to be tested. It is similar to what Lam (1994) notes that he reports an emphasis in teaching on those parts of exam carrying the most marks. In the teaching materials, Alderson and Wall (1993) point out the rising use of past papers and commercial exam-public publications, as the exam is getting closer. Teaching methods refer to the teaching approaches and techniques. Shohamy (1996) states that teaching toward high-stakes EFL exam lead the teachers to teach through simulating the exam tasks or carrying out other activities directly aiming at the developing exam skills or strategies. Engaging with feelings and attitudes, Cheng (1998b) mentions that students show mixed feelings towards the examination itself, recognizing on one hand that examination makes students work to achieve good scores but at the same time thinking that examination are not an accurate reflection of all aspect their study. The examination itself has the potential to generate an atmosphere of high anxiety and fear of test results among teachers and students (Spratt, 2005). Alderson and Hamp-Lyons (1996) say that most of the teachers have negative attitude towards the examination and teaching. They also mention that teachers’ feelings of guilt and
Messick (1996) mentions that for promoting positive washback, teacher should involve different activities between in regular learning and preparing for the test. Alderson and Wall (1993) argue that washback is likely to be a complex phenomenon that cannot be related directly to a test’s validity. The washback
should refer to the test itself on aspects of teaching and learning. Besides, other operating forces within the education context also contribute to or ensure that washback effect takes its place on teaching and learning.
Bailey (1996) summarizes, after considering several definitions of washback, that washback is defined as the influence of testing on teaching and learning, that it is widely exist and to be important to pay attention at. He comments further that there are also some concerns about what constitute both positive and negative washback, as well as about how to promote the former and inhabit the latter.
c. Washback Defined in this Study
The term washback, after reviewing some definitions of washback, can be defined into two major perspectives, i.e. the narrower view or washback within the classroom (micro level), and the broader view beyond the classroom (macro level). Bachman and Palmer (1996) suggest that washback at macro level refers to the extent to which a test influences within the society, ranging from the government policy making, school administration, publishing, and general opportunities, to parents’ expectation of their children. Meanwhile, at micro level,
the influence of students’ learning. Bailey (1996) uses the phrases “washback to the
learners” to indicate the effects of test on students, and “washback to the
programme” to indicate effects of the test on teachers, administrators, curriculum
developers, counselors, etc.
In short, the narrower definition washback focuses on the effect that a test has on teaching and learning. The broader definition looks beyond the classroom to the educational systems and society. Thus, tests can have “significant impact not
only on individuals, but also on practices and polices–in the classroom, the school, the educational system, and in the society (Wall, 2005).
In this study, the researcher prefers to use the term washback to describe the narrower interpretation of washback to investigate the impact of NE on teaching and learning, and also by looking at some possible factors of macro level of washback that may involve.
1) Negative Washback
becomes narrow and uninspired. Shoahamy (1996) also points out that many teachers detail high anxiety, fear, and pressure to cover the material, as they feel that their job performance is assessed by the students’ test scores. Alderson and
Wall (1993) refer to the negative washback as the negative or undesirable effect on teaching and learning of a particular test.
Noble and Smith (1994a) point out that high-stakes testing affects teachers directly and negatively, and that “teaching test-taking skills and drilling on
multiple-choice worksheets is likely to boost the scores but unlikely to promote general understanding” (1994b). Smith (1991) concludes that testing programs
substantially reduce the time available for instruction, narrow curricular offerings and modes of instruction, and teach content and to use methods and materials that are incompatible with standardized testing formats.
2) Positive Washback
less directly usable for testing purposes, even though practical or financial constrains limit the possibilities.
Shohamy (1992), Alderson and Wall (1993), and Cheng (2005) maintain the view that decisional makers use the authority power of high-stakes testing to achieve the goals of teaching and learning, such as the introduction of the new textbooks and curricula. Heyneman (1987) concludes that testing is a profession, but it is highly susceptible to political interference. In the large extent, the quality of tests rely on the ability of a test agency to pursue the professional ends autonomously. If the consequences of the teaching and learning are to be evaluated, the educational context in which the test takes place need to be investigated. Thus, whether the washback is positive or negative will largely depend on how it works within which educational contexts it is situated (Cheng, 2005).
d. The Function of Washback
and the effects may be independent towards the test takers, due to the complex interplay of forces and factors both within and beyond the school.
Such influences are linked to test validity by Shohamy (1993a), who points out that the need to include aspects of test use in construct validation originates in the fact that testing is not an isolated event; rather, it is a connected to a whole set of variables that interact in the educational process. In the same way, Linn (1992) encourages the measurement research examination system should pay greater attention to investigations of both the intended and unintended consequences of the system than was typical of previous test-based reform efforts.
The complexity motivates Messick (1989) to recommend a unified validity concept, in which he shows that when an assessment model is designed to make inferences about a certain construct, the interferences drown from that model should not only derive from test score interpretation but also from other variables in the social context (Messick, 1992). Messick (1975) points out that researchers, other educators, and policy makers must work simultaneously to develop means of evaluating educational effectiveness that accurately represent a school or district’s
progress towards a broad range of important educational goals. Relating to this context, Linn (1992) emphasizes the important to pay greater attention to investigations of both the intended and unintended consequences toward any high-stakes examination system.
to recognize those three may be affected by the nature. In the framework, participants include language learners and teachers, administrators, material developers, and publishers, all of whose perceptions and attitudes toward their work may be affected by the test. The term process encompasses any actions taken by the participants that may contribute to process of learning. Hughes says that such processes include materials development, syllabus design, changes in teaching methods or content, learning and/or test-taking strategies, etc. Meanwhile, the last term, product, refers to what it learned (facts, skills, etc.) and the quality of learning (fluency, etc.). He continues to use tracheotomy to illustrate the mechanisms how washback occurs in actual teaching and learning environments (see Table 2.1). He explains his model as follows:
The tracheotomy … allows us to construct a basic model of backwash. The nature
of a test may first affect the perceptions and attitudes of the participants towards their teaching and learning tasks. These perceptions and attitudes in turn may affect what the participants do in carrying out their works (process), including practicing learning outcomes, the product of the work.
Table 2.1 The Tracheotomy of Backwash Model
(a) Participants–students, classroom teachers, administrators, materials developers and publishers, whose perceptions and attitudes toward their work may be affected by test
(b) Processes–any action taken by the participates which may contribute to the process of learning
(c) Product–what is learned (facts, skills, etc.) and the quality of the learning
(as cited by Hughes in Bailey, 1996)
(Bailey, 1996a, p.264)
Figure 2.1 Basic Model of Washback
Alderson and Wall (1993), on the other hand, focus on micro aspects of teaching and learning that may be influenced by examinations in their Sri Lanka study. They propose 15 hypothesis regarding washback (1993, p. 120 – 121), to illustrate areas of teaching and learning affected by washback. The hypothesis are as follows:
1. A test will influence teaching. 2. A test will influence learning.
3. A test will influence what teachers teach; and 4. A teacher will influence how teachers teach 5. A test will influence what learners learn
6. A test will influence how learners learn
7. A test will influence the rate and sequence of teaching; and 8. A test will influence the rate and sequence of learning 9. A test will influence the degree and depth of teaching 10. A test will influence the degree and depth of learning
11. A test will influence attitude towards the content, method, etc. of teaching and learning
12. Tests that have important consequences will have washback; conversely, 13. Tests that do not have important consequences will have no washback 14. Tests will have washback on all learners and teachers
15. Tests will have washback effects for some learners and some teachers, but not for others.
Wall (1996), following the above study, stresses the difficulties in finding explanation of how tests maintain influence on teaching. Alderson and Wall (1993) concludes that further research on washback is needed, and the research must specify the above washback hypothesis more.
2. Exploring the Research Phenomenon
This section consists of two parts, namely high-stakes testing and measurement-driven instruction.
a. Influences of High-stakes Testing
High-stakes testing refers to tests whose results are seen–rightly or
wrongly–by the students, administrators, parents, or the general public as the basis upon which important decisions are made that immediately and directly affect the student (Madaus, 1988). Cheng (2004) states high-stakes tests offer academic and employment opportunities based on their results. They are usually public examination and standardized tests.
that later will be combined with 60% from the school score to get the final decision of graduation. Meanwhile, NE also functions as a basis selection towards the above level of education (university). In addition, NE in past two years has administered 20 test packets (NE Socialization for VHS from Educational, Youngster, and Sport of Yogyakarta, 2013, 2014). It means each person in the examination room has different test packet. Thus, the subject of the study, the NE in a religion-based private Vocational High School in Yogyakarta, is such a high-stakes test.
Cheng (2004) finds quite a number of studies, both general in nature and in language education, illustrating that high-stakes standardized testing influences teaching and learning. The major areas that have been studied are as follows:
School (organization, practices, and achievement; accountability pressure)
Teachers (their attitudes and responses to standardized tests; teachers’
attention to testing in instructional planning and delivery; teaching contents; time spent on test preparation; teachers’ sense of professional
pride; and teachers’ general attitudes about the fairness and utility of
testing, etc.)
Students (their reactions, self-concepts, and self-assessment; and student learning outcomes)
Parents (familiarity with the changes in evaluation of their children’s school progress, and their knowledge about attitudes towards standardized testing).
sure that their instruction includes all or most of the test content, and plant to ensure that they cover all test objectives (Herman & Golan, 1991). Furthermore, Madaus (1988) notes that teachers teach to the test when they believe important decisions will be based on the test scores. In conclusion, it appears that the grater the consequences brought by the test, the more likely it will be to have an impact on teaching (Alderson & Wall, 1993).
b. Measurement-driven Instruction
Cheng says examinations as an encroaching power that is influencing education, blurring, distinctions between liberal and technical education, and narrowing the range of learning through forcing students to prepare by studying with crammers and in cramming schools (as cited in Lathan, 1877). Spolsky (1994) emphasizes that the encroaching power also permits any external body so-called a university or a government agency to exert control over the internal operations of educational systems that are becoming increasingly complex.
Popham (1987) says that MDI happens when a high-stakes standardized test influences a teacher’s instructional program in order to prepare students for the test.
He also outlines the traditional notion of MDI to illustrate the relationship between instruction and assessment. He suggests that assessment directs teachers’ attention
to the content of test items, acting as powerful “curricular magnets”. Furthermore,
build better test that will drive school towards more ambitious goals. It, in turn, will drive a shift from behaviorism to cognitive-constructivism (a shift to a curriculum and pedagogy run more towards thinking instead of rote memory and isolated skills) in teaching and learning beliefs.
Cheng (2005) states that beliefs about testing reflect beliefs bout teaching and learning. Whatever the objectives covers, tests can be written to measure them, can be administered to all, and re-administered as necessary to those who fail (Noble & Smith, as cited in Cheng, 2004, p. 36).
Cheng (2005) states that behaviorist psychology and pedagogy underlies the traditional teaching and learning views from which views of traditional testing are derived. The view says that the desired performance of students is brought by reinforcing successive approximations of correct performance. Students are presented with the academic tasks that are broken down into discrete units. Correct performance bases rewards and progress through an ordered hierarchy of tasks and skills. Inadequate responses from high order skills instruction used will cause repetition and repeating through the same material until it is mastered. In behaviorist model, students are considered passive recipient of knowledge. Teachers ignore their intentions.
On the contrary, the more recent psychological and pedagogical view, labelled cognitive-constructivism, emphasize three interrelated dimensions.
2. Learning is knowledge-dependent. It is not merely an act of receiving, but one of interpreting information through earlier learning. the role of prior knowledge and experience is given special attention, for what a student learns on a given occasion is dependent on what has been already learned. It is much easier for individuals to learn more areas of their expertise than it is for them to learn about other topics outside their experiences.
3. Learning is situated in a context (Biggs, 1992, 1993, 1995; Resnick, 1989; Resnick & Resnick, 1992). Knowledge is not independent of the context in which it develops. Learning not only occurs in a context but also is social. Learning cannot be separated from the context in which it occurs (Gergen, 1995).
(Cheng, 2005, p. 36-37)
The perspective above proposes that effective instruction must connect with how students think. Cheng (2005) says that the direct instruction from behaviorism does not match with how students learn. Cognitive-constructivist teaching and learning view is likely to be more holistic, integrated, long-term, discovery-based, and social. Hence, Cheng further states that cognitive-constructivism see performance assessment or testing as parallel to the above belief of how students learn and how they should be taught. Gipps (1994) states that teachers will use previously acquired knowledge to measure learners’ ability in solving novel
problems or completing specifics tasks. In performance assessment, a qualified judge uses real life or simulated assessment exercises to elicit original responses that are directly observed and rated.
testing can drive reform if it follows better psychology and pedagogy and employ more appropriate measurement forms–the performance assessments.
In addition, one important assumption related to high-stakes testing (or public examination), as mentioned before), is that the deleterious impacts associated with performance-based assessments closely linked to curriculum framework. The argument is instruction directed towards preparation for a performance-based assessment promotes better instructional practice (Cheng, 2005). She argues that better test will produce better results. Performance-based assessment can be designed to be closely linked to the goals of instruction as to be almost indistinguishable from them. In spite of being a negative consequence, as it is now with some high-stakes uses of existing standardized tets, teching to these proposed performance assessment, accepted by schoalars as inevitable and teachers as necessary, become a virtue, according to this line of thinking (Noble & Smith, 1994b).
Cheng (2004) concludes that measurement can drive instruction in positive a positive way. However, it will happen in a condition if measurement is properly conceptualized, or in the above namely performance-based assessment.
3. Washback within Vocational High School Context
stated that vocational education is a high school that prepares its graduates to work in a specific field. In short, it appears that vocational education prepares their graduates directly for the working world.
Kumaat (2010) points out a perception spreading among the society that VHS is the “second class” compared to the senior high school (SHS). He continues
that it is because the government designs VHS for the graduates to be ready directly for the working world. The perception becomes so reasonable because the amount of parents who send their children to VHS came from the middle to low society, based on his observation in North Sulawesi. It is so logical then, and if their children cannot extent their education to colleges, their children have already had the ability to work or even be an entrepreneur. It is what happens, since individuals who go to SHS to be certain want to go to colleges.
This study focuses on studying the washback of National Examination preparations in that school.
B. Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework summarizes and synthesizes the relevant theories explained above. In this section, the researcher relates the study matter to the theories.
definition of washback. Then, the scope of washback illustrate the tremendous impact and power of testing on teaching and learning in school. It focuses mainly on the micro level of washback, but it also still opened with the macro level of washback. Meanwhile, the washback defined in this study will give picture of the focus of washback effect studied in this study. Cheng (2005) states that washback effect, whether it is negative or positive, is still debatable and needs to be studied further. Furthermore, negative and positive washback also provide notions on what situation it can be whether negative or positive. At last, the function of washback functions to find the meaning and the mechanism of how washback works in teaching and learning through the framework proposed by Hughes (as cited in Bailey, 1996), namely the Hughes’ trichotomy.
The second section of chapter consists of two interconnected parts, namely influences of high-stakes testing and measurement-driven instruction. It explores how and why washback can work to influence other components in educational system, trace the rationale the use of NE, and its powerful function to change teaching and learning.
30 CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the methodology used in this study. This chapter consists of six subchapters, namely research method, research setting, research participants, instrument and data gathering technique, data analysis technique, and research procedure.
A. Research Method
phenomenon occurs and how it can occur. Thus, the researcher used qualitative research in this study.
This study used case study as the method. Ary et al. (2010) state that a case study focuses on a single unit to produce a rich and holistic in-depth description. The “unit” mentioned before could be a group, an individual, a class, a site, a program, a policy, a process, a community, or an institution. The unit should be defined within a specific bounded system for its uniqueness or special characteristic. The unit focused on this study was the washback phenomenon of a religion-based VHS in the preparation for NE. The researcher considered case study can be the best method used to answer the research questions. Ary et al. (2010) point out that case study gives possibility of depth. It seeks to understand the holistic case in the environment. It was not limited only the present actions, but also possible to the past, emotions, thoughts, and environment. Thus, the holistic data would be optimally obtained through case study.
B. Research Setting
C. Research Participants
The researcher relied on focus groups to obtain the data. Ary, et al. (2010) state that focus groups rely on purposive sampling, just like most quantitative research did. They further explain that a purposive sampling strategy chooses the focus group’s participants according to the project’s goal.
Purposive sampling is very different from the random sampling that is so common in survey samples. Ary, et al. (2010) state that surveys aim to generelaize the larger populations by collecting numerically precise data, and it requires selecting a random sample to cover the entire range of the larger population. Meanwhile, the focus groups aim to gain insight and in-depth understanding by hearing from people, and it requires selecting a purposive sample to generate the most productive discussions in the focus groups.
The participants in this research consisted of three elements–student element, teacher element, and school element. Student element consisted of seven students that had been classified into three classifications–high, medium, and low. The classification was based on their academic capability. A twelfth grade teacher suggested the classification. The teacher acted as an advisor for the researcher in conducting the research. The teacher, later on, would be known as the advisor. Teacher element came from the English teacher who taught twelfth grade. School element was the vice principal from the curriculum subdivision.
1. First Student
maintain enjoyable interaction even though with new people. It was no doubt that she was the head of Scouts organization in her school. Based on the advisor, she was also one of the brightest students in her class.
The first student came from a middle to low family. In her family, she was the first children. She still had little brothers and sisters. Fact as the oldest child gave her more responsibility in her family. In the morning, she had to help her mother to take care of her little sisters and brothers while her mother was busy in her family small shop. After school, she had to rush home to help her mother to take care of her little sisters and brothers so that her mother could focus on working in the small shop. In the evening, she usually went to market to take some goods for sale. She did all her family duty without leaving her duty at school. It is included when she was in the NE preparation. She readjusted her schedule in order to catch up all the agenda. It appeared that her life was tough. Even though it was tiring for her, she said that she did not have reason to complain. Instead, it built her to be strong.
2. Second Student
The second student came the high classification. He belonged to the same class with the first student. Based on the advisor, he was also one of the brightest students in his class. He was a bit shy at the first impression. However, after talking some words, he was actually talkative and warm as well.
achievement to subsidize his educational fund. Hence, he worked hard in preparing NE to get flying score since he dreamed a scholarship to go to a university. Unfortunately, he did not get any scholarship at last and now he worked as waitress. 3. Third Student
The third student was from the medium classification. She was a little bit indifferent at the first impression. It also appeared in her answer that she only answered in one to two words. The researcher needed to stimulate her with more questions to get information from her. She belonged to the middle to low family. She said that she wanted to work after graduating from VHS.
4. Fourth Student
The fourth student came from the medium classification. She was a little bit shy and indifferent. However, after throwing some words, she was more talkative than the third student. She also belonged to the middle to low family. She dreamed to get a job after graduating.
5. Fifth Student
The fifth student belonged to the medium classification. She was talkative and a little bit boyish. Instead, it eased the researcher to interview her since she was so opened. Besides, she was also independent. She lived alone in Yogyakarta. After graduating from VHS, she dreamed to go to a university.
6. Sixth Student
side from her was that she often misunderstood with the question thrown. The researcher had to repeat the same question for sometimes to get her in line with the question.
7. Seventh Student
The last student belonged to the low classification. He did not dream to go to university since he know that he came from middle to low family. He wanted to work after graduating. Besides, he was actually an active student. He also joined Scouts organization in his school.
8. The English Teacher
She was the English teacher who taught twelfth grade. He also became an academic advisor for one of the majors in twelfth grade. Even though she was not a permanent teacher, she had experienced to prepare twelfth students four times. She was a talkative teacher and be able to blend with their student easily.
9. The Vice Principal
The researcher chose him as the representation of the school authority. As vice principal of curriculum subdivision, he knew exactly the strategic plan to face the NE. Besides, he also taught Math that is one of the NE subjects. The researcher hoped to obtain the information related to the policies taken by the school in response to the NE.
D. Instruments and Data Gathering Technique
The instruments used in this study were the researcher himself, observation, and interview. The researcher himself was going to conduct the research in this qualitative study. Ary, et al. (2010) state that human can be an instrument for a study. They further explain that human investigator is the primary instrument for gathering and analyzing data in qualitative studies. In addition, Lichtman (2013) states that researcher is the primary instrument since he or she who gathers and collect the data and information. Thus, the researcher himself would gather and analyze the data in this study.
The second instrument on the research was observation. Ary, et al. (2010, p.431) say “observation is a basis method for obtaining data in qualitative research and is more than just hanging out”. They further explained that observation used in
qualitative research is more global instead of systematic and structured observation. The observation aims to complete the description of behavior in specific setting. While conducting PPL in the school or later called as the field or research, the researcher could widely observe the behavior of school inhabitants in specific setting. He could even go to the classroom to observe what happened in classroom. Furthermore, the researcher could have direct communication to the school inhabitants to obtain some necessary detailed information.
and making meaning (Lichtman, 2013). In conducting the interview, the researcher was assisted with the interview protocol. However, the researcher preferred to conduct semi-structured interview to maintain flowing communication between the researcher and the interviewees. Meanwhile, the type of questions used in the interview were open-ended questions. Ary, et al. (2010) note that it is useful to reveal what is important to understand under the study. In gathering the interview data, the researcher was assisted by an audio recorder device. Ary, et al. (2010) say using audio recorder is one of the most effective ways to collect interview data.
E. Data Analysis Technique
In qualitative research, there are three data analysis techniques–organizing and familiarizing data, coding and reducing, and interpreting and representing (Ary,
The second stage was coding and reducing. Ary, et al. (2010) say that this stage is the core of qualitative research. He points out the coding aims to recognize the similarities and differences in the data by breaking apart and rearrange into categories. He continues to explain that “the common approach in coding is to read
and reread all the data and sort them by looking for units of meaning–words, phrases, sentences, subjects’ ways of thinking, behavior patterns, and events that
seem to appear regularly and that seem important” (p.483). Afterwards, the
researcher appeared to identify the categories and themes based on the questions in the research protocol. Then, the researcher put the data into the same coding. Ary
et al. (2010) note code can represent information that the researcher expect to find, and otherwise, the researcher can also reduce the unexpected one. The previous process took much time since the researcher recoded many times before coming up with the final coding. It is in line with Ary el al. (2010) who says that the first coding may be the tentative one. The coding is possibly to be changed, refined, or reconceptualized as the analysis process continues. The last step in this stage was that reviewing the coding to ensure whether they belong to the same coding. Thus, in the end of this stage, the researcher would have coded and identified information based on the specific categories and themes.
deductively after conducting inductive inquiry based on the result of coding. Interpretation is personal and proceeds without set of rules, but it is supported by data, so that it does not mean that it is just figment (Ary et al., 2010). Thus, the final product of the analyzed data later was in a form of deductive narrative.
F. Research Procedure
Ary, et al. (2010) suggested six steps to conduct qualitative research– specifying the phenomenon, selecting source of data, classifying the data, analyzing the data, drawing the conclusions, and reporting the result. In this study, the researcher studied about the washback phenomenon. The researcher wanted to find out what washback effect caused by NE preparation and the mechanism how it could occur. The washback effect from the NE could be either positive or negative. The second step was selecting the data source. The researcher decided to conduct the research in a religion-based private VHS in Yogyakarta. Besides, the researcher also cooperated with the inhabitants in the school as the participants. They were consist seven twelfth grade students, one English teacher, and one vice-principal from curriculum subdivision. Observation and interview is used as instrument to obtain the data.
NE, the teacher’s complaint about NE, the teacher’s perspective about their
students, the pressure for the school, the impacts of the NE regulation, the fraudulent mechanism done by the school, the teacher’s feelings, the teacher’s
attitudes, and the facts related to the graduates of the school. The data classification for the vice principal is the vice principal’s view, the school’s efforts to succeed their students in NE, the school’s view about the current NE regulation, the school’s
feelings, and the school’s attitudes. Those classifications were derived from the
interviews. Afterward, the researcher did coding to the identified data. Ary, et al.
(2010) states that coding develops concepts from the raw data. It is done by labelling the participants. The labeling or coding is as follows:
Table 3.1 The Coding
They further explain that labeling or coding aim to begin to recognize differences and similarities in the data. Besides, the coding also gives some insight into the importance of the data to understand the meaning of the data obtained.
The fifth step was drawing the conclusions. After analyzing the data, the researcher would conclude the findings. The conclusions answered the research problems in this study.
42 CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presents the answer of the research problems presented in Chapter I. Those include what the washback effect of National Examination preparations among twelfth grade of students of a religion-based private Vocational High School in Yogyakarta and how the washback occurs to the parties. To maintain the flow of discussion, this chapter is divided into four parts. Therefore, the flow is as follows: justification of epistemology, areas affected by washback, washback occurs to the parties, and how the washback occurred.
A. Justification of Epistemology
Merriam (2009) facilitates us to comprehend that there are four ideology streams used by the researchers nowadays. They are positivist or postpositivist, interpretivist or constructivist, critical, and postmodernism or poststructural. These ideologies later are known as epistemological perspectives. These ideologies facilitate the researcher to seek what valid knowledge is, how reality is comprehended (whether subjective or objective), and what research steps and data gathering technique to follow.
and reliable and valid research instruments to find the existing law. Thus, a positivist researcher’s agenda is to find such law. The instruments widely rely on
statistical method and quantitative steps.
Interpretive research, where most qualitative researches are often located, believes that reality is socially constructed (Merriam, 2009). An interpretivist is so context-bound, that there is no such objective reality. Interpretive research includes phenomenology, ethnomethodology, and ethnography. This research aims to an escalation of comprehension toward experiences from the subjects in the study. Afterward, an interpretivist makes a description or picture from the studied phenomenon.
Critical research goes beyond uncovering the interpretation of people’s
understandings of their world (Merriam, 2009, p. 9). This research aims to critique and challenge or transform and empower the object of study. It is the opposite of the interpretive stream.
Postmodernism stream is very contradictory with positivism. A postmodernist questions the validity of a claim instead of giving an objective fact value. Besides, this research is no longer hold rationality, scientific method, and certainties of the modern world. Thus, postmodern research is playful, creative, and highly experimental (Merriam, 2009).
B. Washback Occurs to the Parties
Although NE served only at one basic consideration to graduation, which was worth 40%, the parties (all that involved in NE: students, teachers, and the school) demonstrated some degree of anxieties. The government had divided the basis decision for NE graduation into two aspects, NE and school score. NE score was the score obtained from NE. Meanwhile, school score was the score obtained from school examination and the result accumulation score obtained from academic reports of the entire semesters. The NE score was worth 40% and school score was worth 60%. Then, the decision would be based on the final mark resulted from the calculation of those two aspects. The aim was clear that the government wanted to decrease the anxieties caused by the NE and promote better NE result. However, in fact, the anxieties were still found widely in situations created by NE. It was interesting then to examine what actually happened in NE practices.
