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DIRECTNESS AND LITERALNESS OF SPEECH
ACTS IN
THE IMITATION GAME
MOVIE
BY:
I DEWA AYU SATRIA DEWI
1201305094
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF ARTS
UDAYANA UNIVERSITY
This paper is submitted as partial fulfillment To obtain the S1 degree
At English Department, Faculty of Arts Udayana University
Approved by the Examination Board Of English Department
Faculty of Arts, Udayana University
Denpasar, 21 April 2016
Chairperson, Secretary,
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Almighty God for the great blessing that leads on the completion of this study entitled “Directness and Literalness of Speech Acts in The Imitation GameMovie”
I realised that this study could not be completed without great helps and encouragements from many sides. In this occasion, I would like to ecpress my appreciations to:
1. Prof. Dr. Ni Luh Sutjiati Beratha, M.A. as the Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Udayana University.
2. I Gusti Ngurah Parthama, S.S., M.Hum. as the Head of English Department Regular Program, Faculty of Arts, Udayana University.
3. Prof. Dr. I Nengah Sudipa, M.A. and Putu Weddha Savitri, S.S., M.Hum., as my first and second supervisor respectively, for their time, patience and valuable guidance so that this study could be completed.
4. All the lecturers of the English Department Regular Program, Faculty of Arts, Udayana University, who have been teaching and educating me during my academic years.
5. All of the administrative staffs at the English Regular Program, Faculty of Arts, Udayana University, who have helped and gave information during my academic years.
6. My beloved parents, I Dewa Putu Suteja and Nyoman Sayang, who have consistently support me for my studies both morally and financially, cheer me up and give useful advice when I was feeling down.
7. My dearest brother, I Dewa Gede Satria Bayuning who always cheers me up during the completion of this study.
8. All of my dearest friends: Sasing ’12 especially D Class, who have given me unforgettable precious moments during my study in this department; Putri, Gopa, Manik, Indry, Novita, Rezy for always supporting each other during the completion of this study; Vaundra, Erwita and Teguh Setiawan for the endless patience in giving me information about administrative things; Cipta, Tu Diyan, Putri and Rika who have taught me the precious meaning of friendship; KKN Sakti – Nusa Penida team; Mencoba Bahagia Family; The last but not least, I would like to extending thank to Ida Bagus Diptha Nugraha, who always supported me morally to complete my study.
Denpasar, April 2016
I Dewa Ayu Satria Dewi
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ABSTRACT
This study entitled “Directness and Literalness of Speech Acts in The Imitation Game Movie”, focused on the indirect non-literal type of speech acts. The aims of this study are to identify the expressions of directness and literalness - speech acts found in the movie The Imitation Game particularly Indirect and Non-literal types and describe their functions.
The data was taken from the utterances in the movie entitled The Imitation Game. The technique of collecting data used was note-taking. There are three theories used in supporting this study. Theory of Speech Acts proposed by Parker was used to analyse the indirect and non-literal type of speech act. Furthermore, theory of Illocutionary Verbs by Leech was used to elucidate the function of speech act and The Ethnography of Communication theory by Hymes to analyse the context of situation.
Regarding to the results of the analysis, there were nine data of indirect non-literal type found in The Imitation Game movie. The forms of the data were declarative, interrogative and imperative. Dealing with the context of situation, the speaker mostly tends to speak using indirect non-literal type since it is more polite.
The indirect non-literal type of speech acts are identified, the function of the utterances shows a variation. In accordance to the five functions proposed by Leech (1983), not all of those functions were found in the movie of The Imitation Game. The meanings of indirect non-literal speech acts found were assertive and directive. Assertive was used to assert and affirm something meanwhile directive was used to do something respectively. The meaning and functions of those speech acts could be found from the insertion of the illocutionary verbs. As the result of the insertion, the function of speech acts found were assertive and directive.
Keywords: Speech Act Theory, The Imitation Game, indirect non-literal
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDMENTS ii
ABSTRACT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF FIGURE vii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background ... 1
1.2 Research Problems ... 3
1.3 Aims of Study ... 4
1.4 Scope of Discussion ... 4
1.5 Research Method ... 5
1.5.1 Data Source ... 5
1.5.2 Method and Technique of Collecting Data ... 6
1.5.3 Method and Technique of Analysing Data ... 6
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURES, CONCEPTS AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 8
2.1 Review of Literature ... 8
2.2 Concepts ... 14
2.2.1 Speech Acts ... 14
2.2.2 Directness and Literalness ... 16
2.2.3 Movie ... 17
2.3 Theoretical Framework ... 18
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2.3.2 Illocutionary Verbs by Leech (1983) ... 22
2.3.3 The Ethnography of Communication by Hymes (1974) ... 24
CHAPTER III DIRECTNESS AND LITERALNESS OF SPEECH ACTS IN THE IMITATION GAME MOVIE 27 3.1 You’re serious, aren’t you? ... 28
3.2 I believe you’ve just set a record for the shortest job interview in British military history ... 34
3.3 Have a pleasant trip back to Cambridge, Professor ... 40
3.4 It’s beautiful. ... 46
3.5 Could you have made a bit more noise, Alan? Not sure you woke up my landlady. ... 51
3.6 Shall we leave the children alone with their new toy? ... 56
3.7 What makes you think I couldn’t have solved the puzzle myself? ... 62
3.8 Lovely, isn’t he? ... 69
3.9 Your funding is up, and our patience has expired ... 75
CHAPTER IV CONCLUSION 81
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LIST OF FIGURE
3.1 Commander Denniston’s expression when asked Alan Turing ... 28
3.2 Commander Denniston’s expression during the job interview ... 34
3.3 Commander Denniston’s expression while opening the door... 40
3.4 The complicated settings of enigma machine ... 46
3.5 Joan Clarke’s expression in saying the utterance to Alan Turing ... 51
3.6 Stewart Menzies’s expression in saying the utterance to Alan Turing ... 56
3.7 Joan Clarke’s expression ... 62
3.8 Hugh Alexander and Jack Good are talking about Alan Turing ... 69
3.9 Commander Denniston’s expression when about to fire Alan Turing... 75
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Language is a means of communication, enabling people to have more
interaction with by saying utterances and using gestures. In communication,
people convey their ideas, feelings, or thoughts through clear statements to make
others understand. Communication is successful when the message conveyed by
the speaker can be understood by the hearer.(Austin, 1962: 25)
On one side, some peopledo not use clear statements to convey the message.
What is stated is different from what is meant.It is the utterance that the speaker
says to hearer in the context. This utterance has a certain or convention force;
performing act in saying something. In addition, what the speaker intends to
perform is known as illocutionary force and sometimes it seems to be complicated
because it is something different from what the speaker says orally and it relies on
the context of situation.
Furthermore, the meaning delivered by the speakers can be seen in their
speech acts. Since speakers communicate with others, they produce speech acts.
According to Yule (1996: 47), a speech act is an action performed through
utterances. By using the utterances during the conversation, the speaker performs
speech act such as making statement, giving command, suggestion, asking
question, etc. In studying pragmatics, we concern on how to utter a speech so that
the listener can interpret the meaning that is conveyed by the speaker.
Parker (1986) reveals that speech acts is divided into directness and
literalness. Based on directness, speech act can be divided into direct speech act
and indirect speech act. An utterance is considered to be direct if the syntactic
form of an utterance corresponds to its meaning and function. However, if the
syntactic form of the utterance does not correspond to its meaning and function,
the utterance is considered to be indirect. For instance: Can you open the
window?which is in the form of interrogative; however, it is used to perform
directive function.
However, based on literal dimension, speech acts can be divided into literal
speech act and non-literal speech act.In one situation, one can say That is nice as a
response of What do you think about my gown? However, in another situation, we
can also use the same utterance to rotor to different thing. For example: a mother
who finds out her son watches an adult movie can say That is nice too; however, we cannot decide whether That is nice she uttered in the latter case has the same
meaning as in former case. By this expression, she could mean the reverse
utterance, which is That is not nice.
Furthermore, more language variation can be found in real life since people
can obey or violate the language rules. They even can make a decision when they
have to perform their intention directly, indirectly, literally, non-literally, direct
literally, direct non-literally, indirect literally or indirect non-literally.
According to Leech (1983), there are five types of illocutionary acts, i.e.
directives, commisives, expressive,assertive and rogatives. For example, a speaker
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This is the example of directives illocutionary acts. It has the implicit meaning of
requesting or asking people to do something. Since this phenomenon is often
found in our daily life, it is interesting to analyse the types of speech acts related
to direct and literal dimensions and their functions in this study.
As mentioned above, language variation occurs frequently in the real life
and the depiction of real life can be found, for instance, in a movie. Generally,
movie represents the story via dialogue which contains utterances. In addition, the
utterances take place accompanied by context.
The Imitation Game movie is chosen as the object of the research becauseit
is a movie based on true story in the form of biography. The conversation of the
characters represents our daily conversation and reflects the perception of the
society at that time. The conversation also contains thetypes of speech acts related
to direct and literal dimensions. It is interesting to analyse the conversation that
contains indirect non-literal type of speech acts,their forces and functions in the
movie The Imitation Game.
1.2 Research Problems
Based on linguistic and speech acts references, arise two problems to be
discussed as follows:
1. What expressions of directness and literalness - speech actsparticularly
Indirect and Non-literal types are found in the movie The Imitation
Game?
2. What functionsof directness and literalnessspeech actsare found in the
1.3 Aims of Study
The two objectives of the study are: (1) general objectives, and (2) specific
objectives.
1.3.1 General Objectives
Generally the objective of the study is to develop the research in
pragmatics study, especially in speech acts.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
Specifically the aims of the study are as follows:
1. To identifythe expressions of directness and literalness - speech
actsparticularly Indirect and Non-literal types found in the movie The Imitation
Game.
2. To analyse the functions of speech acts found in the movie The Imitation
Game.
1.4 Scope of Discussion
Scope of discussion can be defined as the limitation of the problem to be
analysed. It is required to make the discussion focus on the problems. Since there
are many problems that can arise regarding to speech acts, the discussion of this
study is limited as follows:
1. The expressions of directness and literalness - speech acts used in the
utterances ofThe Imitation Gamemovieparticularly Indirect and Non-literal
types.
2. The functions of directness and literalness - speech actsexpressionsfound in the
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1.5 Research Method
There are three points to be discussed regardingto research method. They
are data source, method and technique of collecting data, and method and
technique of analysing data.
1.5.1 Data Source
The data of this study was taken from the dialogues of the movie entitled
The Imitation Game. The Imitation Game is a historical movie, with a screenplay
written by Graham Moore based on the biography Alan Turing: the Enigma by
Andrew Hodges. It is previously adapted as the stage play and BBC drama
Breaking the Code. The Imitation Game was directed by Morten Tyldum and
starred Benedict Cumberbatch as real life British cryptanalyst Alan Turing, who
in the film is hired to decrypt German intelligence codes for the British
government during World War II. This movie was released on August 29th, 2014
at the 41st Telluride Film Festival and on November 28th, 2014 in the United
States.
The Imitation Gamemovie was chosen as the data source since it is amovie
based on true storyin the form of biography. The conversation of the characters
represents our daily conversation and reflects the perception of the society at that
time since it is based on real life of Alan Turing. In addition, the utterances used
by the characters in the movie contain the types of speech acts related to
directness and literalness dimensions. Furthermore, the previous studies about
directness and literalness-speech acts done do not analyse about the context of
situation. Meanwhile, in this present study, the analysis is described briefly with
1. 5.2 Method and Technique of Collecting Data
This study bases on library research and documentation method. The method
and technique of collecting datawas done in three steps. Firstly, the movie
wasintensively watched from the beginning until the end. Furthermore, the
technique was note-taking. While watching the movie, the utterances considered
to be appropriate were noted down as data. In this step, the scene in which the
data occurred was captured by using print screen technique. This was in order to
show the situationvisually through the picture. Finally the selecteddata is
transferred into computer to make the process of analyzing data much more easily.
1. 5.3 Method and Techniques of Analyzing Data
A descriptive qualitative method was used to analyse the directness and
literalness - speech acts andits functions used in the movie The Imitation Game.
First, the collected data was selected to a certain number required for the type of
data presentation. Second, the selected data wasclassified into its forms
(declarative, interrogative or imperative) and its meaning (literal and non-literal).
The Types of Speech Acts theory by Parker (1986) was used to analyze the
directness and literalness types of speech acts. Based on direct dimension, the
selected data was classified into direct and indirect. Meanwhile, based on literal
dimension, the selected data was classified into literal and non-literal. Having the
indirect and non-literal data were identified, furthermore the function of the data
found could be described. In this case, the function was analysed using The
Illocutionary Verbs by Leech (1983). In order to strengthen the analysis whether
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theory by Hymes (1974) was used to analyse the context of situation. According
to Hymes (1974), the context of situation can describethe setting, participants involved, goal, act of sequence, intonation, instrumentality, norms and
genre.Having the selected data were described and verified, furthermore the
2.1 Review of Literature
In relation to this study, some previous studies are reviewed. These studies particularly concern with the topic of speech acts. However, each of them shows its own specification. They still contribute to this study in terms of the theory and data to be used.
Dewi (2011), in her undergraduate thesis entitled Indirect IIlocutions in
Blaccker‟s Novel “Ms. Wiz Loves Dracula”focused on the expressions and
intended meaning of indirect illocutions. The data used was obtained from novel in the form of library research. In this previousstudy, theory of indirect illocutions by Searle (1969) and theory of context of situation by Halliday (1964) were applied. She found some indirect illocutions in the form of declarative, interrogative and imperative. She also showed that context determined the language used by the participant in a particular situation. Besides, she noted that indirect illocution utterances, which are spoken by characters in the novel, are used to avoid rudeness.
The difference between this present study and the previous study is in the data source. The previous study used a novel which is in the form of text, while the data in this study wasobtained from the movie. Even though novel is also a good choice in analysing speech acts, it sometimes cannot manifest the context clearly. The imagination formed by the readers can be wrongly interpreted and different from being intended to deliver by the writer. Meanwhile, in a movie,
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more detail information can be caught, such as gesture, intonation, mimic, the situation of the surroundings, etc.
In addition, Andari (2011), in her thesis Speech Act in the Movie “Green
Hornet”, analysed speech acts components. Her study was library research. Her
data source was movie entitled Green Hornet. There were two theories used in her study. They were theory of speech act proposed by Austin (1962) and the ethnography of communication that was proposed by Hymes (1972). She discovered that the components of speech acts were closely related. Each of them cannot stand alone since when the speaker performed locutionary acts, there would be illocutionary acts intended by the speaker. In turn, when the hearer achieved what was intended by the speaker, it was said that the hearer got an effect of the utterance.
indirect literal. This study focused deeply on analyzing indirect and non-literal speech acts and the context of situation as well.
Next, undergraduate thesis entitled Direct or Indirect Speech Acts in Advertisements at Bali Advertiserwritten by Widiastuti (2011) concerned with the analysis of the way of expressing speech acts, the function of speech acts and the meaning of speech acts. Her data was obtained from some slogans of advertisement at Bali Advertiser. She found that most advertisements used direct speech act. Most of them were in imperative sentence and used as command/request. It is because normally advertisement is used to persuade the reader to buy the product in that advertisement.
This present study uses movie as data source which provide more opportunity to find other kinds of speech acts in relation to directness and literalness dimension. It is because movie consists of several scenes. In one scene, it can be found some utterances, which are different from those in another scene. Therefore, different utterances with different form and meaning are more likely to be found as compared to relatively limited text in advertisement.
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followed by 11 expressive and commissives, but rarely with directives, confirming that away messages tend to reflect both informational and entertainment goals.
The theory used during the analysis is the theory of speech acts proposed by Searle. This study used a sample population consisting of 49 undergraduate students who were recruited in Spring 2004 from a communication class at a large northeastern university in the United States. The sample consisted of 29 females (59.1%) and 20 males (40.9%), who ranged in age from 18 to 22 years old. Students in the study were given course credit for their participation. Five participants did not produce any away messages; thus the final sample size was reduced to 44 participants.
This previous study is worthwhile to be read because the research is the analysis of the speech acts in the field of communication technology. It could bring us knowledge about the theory of speech acts that could be used in analyzing the data that is related to the field of communication technology. The research also shows that not all of the types of speech acts that are proposed by Searle appeared in the communication. Just few of them appeared during the analysis such as assertives, directives and commissives.
of situation. It shows how the speaker and the hearer use the indirect and non-literal speech acts in their face to face conversation in The Imitation Gamemovie. It wasanalysed by the context of situation theory by Hymes (1974).
One of the international journals that had been reviewed is the article written by Broad (1988),entitled They Finally Got the Joke! A Speech-Act Approach to Helping Students Respond Appropriately to Foreign Language Texts.
This journal describes the use of speech acts to enhance the students‟ understanding of the foreign language through the application of speech acts approach. This written convinces us that the problems encountered in the class such as the linguistics variation in the foreign language make the student lack of understanding about the language itself.
The theory of “Implicatures” that is proposed by H. P. Grice help the
researcher in finding the result of the research. This theory offers a way to get the intention of the reader‟s response as encoded in the text. Grice‟s theory, along with other developments in the theory of perlocutions, makes predictions about how readers are supposed to respond to something in the text, whether or not they do respond that way.
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hardest features for students to appreciate. Here, too, though, a simple introduction to elements of speech-act theory can be useful.
This journal also gives the reader a way to make the students interesting to read a book in the foreign language. For the example In Lazarillo de Tormes, the sixteenth-century originator of the picaresque genre, examples of language play abound. The following instance is taken from the episode of the squire where Lázaro is trying to save his master from starvation by helping him overcome his pride. The squire has agreed to try some of the pig‟s knuckle and is clearly enjoyed it.
The conclusion of this written was the enhancement of enjoyment and appreciation is probably the most important contribution speech-act theory has to make in the teaching of literature to undergraduate foreign language students. If students can be taught to recognize that there is more to the texts they are asked to read than a simple story line, their involvement with the process becomes much more complete and much less an exercise in frustration and a matter of trying to figure out “what the teacher wants me to see.” In the end speech-act theory can
enable them to read any text more intelligently and to think critically about what they are doing.
itself but also could be implemented in the field that could bring advantages for the user.
This present study focused on the application of speech acts theory in identifying the expressions of indirect and non-literalspeech acts type, their functions used by the characters in true story The Imitation Game movie. Meanwhile, the journal above gives us the explanation about the application of the speech actstheory in improving student‟s language understanding.
2.2 Concepts
In this study, some concepts required to be given explanation in order toacquire clear comprehension. Those concepts encompass concept of speech act,concept of directness and literalness and concept of movie.
2.2.1 Speech Acts
Language serves many important roles in our life. Language enables the speaker to communicate whatever in their mind, from the simple case to the complex one, by providing adequate resources. In other words, with language, people are provided by expression to communicate meaning.
Not only serves as means of communication, language also can help people to do something. When a person makes an utterance, sometimes it is not only about saying something but do something with that utterance.
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Austin (1962), in his book How to Do Thing with Words, denoted that speech act is used by the people to accomplish certain kinds of acts. It is distinctive from physical acts or mental acts. Speech acts include asking, promising, threatening, ordering and so on.
According to Searle (1969: 21), speech act is the basic minimal unit of linguistic communication. And the unit of linguistic communication is not the symbol, word or sentence but rather the production or issuance of symbol, word or sentence in the performance of speech acts. This production or issuance of a sentence taken under certain condition is then called speech acts. Speech act is the basic unit of communication, taken together, with the principle of impressibility, suggest that there are a series of analytic connection between the notion of speech acts, what the speaker means, what the sentence uttered means, what the speaker intends, what the hearer understands, what the rules governing the linguistic element.
Levinson (1983:243) manifest that all utterances not only serve to express propositions, but also perform actions and of the many ways in which one could say that in uttering some linguistic expression a speaker was doing something, there is one privileged level of action that can be called the illocutionary act - or, more simply, the speech act. Furthermore, Parker (1986:14) viewed speech act as every utterance of speech constitutes some sort of act.
utterance that one produces is not merely an utterance. It serves particular function and contains the intents of the speaker and can give effect on the hearer/addressee.
All definitions above correspond to this study, however for the subsequent discussion; the definition proposed by Parker is used as the standard since this study focuses on the direct and literal dimension proposed by Parker.
2.2.2 Directness and Literalness
Directness is a dimension related to the correspondence of the syntactic form of the utterance to its meaning as well as function. If the syntactic form of an utterance corresponds to its meaning and function, it is considered to be direct. However, if the syntactic form of the utterance does not correspond to its meaning and function, the utterance is considered to be indirect. For instance: “Can you
stop talking?”which is in the form of interrogative; however, it is used to perform directive function.
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about murder is not appropriate for a seven year old kid. However, she can respond by saying “Good”. Her utterance does not fit with the fact that she does
not agree with the program that her son is watching. Therefore, it is considered to be non-literal.
2.2.3 Movie
According to Oxford Dictionary, movie is a series of moving pictures recorded with sound that tells a story, shown at the cinema/movie theatre (Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary eight editions, 20l0:967). Currently people not
only watch movie at the cinema, but also at home. They normally use electronic devices, such as: television or computer to help them watching it
A movie consists of a series of fragment which tells about a story (history, fiction, biography, etc). It can also serves as the documentation since it usually records what happens in the past. Furthermore, movie can be said as the visualization of idea about experiences, which is supported by either visual or audio effect.
The movie can be classified into several types or genre. These are action, adventure, animation, biography, comedy, crime, documentary, drama, etc. The types can interact and create a movie having more than one genre. For example, a movie could be a romance and a horror movie at the same time. The type assigned to a movie is based on the content within the film.
is used to produce meaning. Generally, the characters in the movie have some interactions and during that interaction, they communicate and use language as their means of communication.
In accordance to the movie The Imitation Game, it can be classified as a historical movie, with a screenplay written by Graham Moore based on the biography Alan Turing: the Enigma by Andrew Hodges. It is previously adapted as the stage play and BBC drama Breaking the Code. The Imitation Game was directed by Morten Tyldum and starred Benedict Cumberbatch as real life British cryptanalyst Alan Turing, who in the film is hired to decrypt German intelligence codes for the British government during World War II.
2.3Theoretical Framework
There are three sorts of theories used in the analysis. The first is theory of speech actstypes by Parker. It is used for identifying the expressions of indirect and non-literal speech acts found in The Imitation Games movie. The other theories applied in this study aretheory of illocutionary verbs proposed by Leech to elucidate the illocutionary function of a speech act and the ethnography of communication theory proposed by Hymes to analyse the context of situation.
2.3.1 Types of Speech Acts by Parker (1986)
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into literal speech act and non-literal speech act. The explanations of those categories are as follows.
2.3.1.1 Direct Speech Act
The utterance of direct speech act has syntactic form that reflects the direct illocutionary act. In other words, an utterance is said to contain direct speech act if there is a correspondence between the form and the function of the utterance. For example: Don„t disturb me! The form of this utterance is imperative. It is a command and therefore is used to get someone to do something. As the form of the utterance, in this case imperative, corresponds to its meaning and function, it is considered to be direct speech act.
Leech (1983) proposes a parameter for determining whether speech acts is considered to be direct or indirect.
Directness Parameter
Syntactic Declarative Interrogative Imperative
Semantic Proposition Question Command
Pragmatic Asserting Asking Directing the
something something addressee‟s to
do something
2.3.1.2 Indirect Speech Act
interrogative acts as question and is used for asking. However instead of asking and eliciting information from the hearer, the speaker of this utterance tends to get the hearer to do something; that is open the window. Meanwhile, to get someone to do something is the function performed by imperative. Therefore, the utterance
“Can you open the window?” is classified as indirect speech acts since it does not
have direct relation between its form and meaning as well as function. 2.3.1.3 Literal Speech Act
Parker (1986:19) stated that another phenomenon that theory of language use has to account for is the fact that speakers sometimes mean what they say literally and sometimes not. Literal speech act refers to the act of making utterance that means as what we say. For example: when one eats eight jelly donuts and then announce I feel just awful, he means exactly like what he says. Therefore, it is considered to represent literal speech act.
2.3.1.4 Non-literal speech act
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Based on the interaction between the direct and literal dimensions, there are four different types of speech acts as follows.
Directness
Literalness
Direct Indirect
Literal Literal Direct Literal Indirect
Non-literal Non-literal Direct Non-literal Indirect
a. Literal Direct Speech act
Literal direct speech act is an act of producing utterance that is said directly and corresponds to the meaning. For example: a father is in the room with his daughter. He feels hot since it is a very sunny day. Furthermore he says, “Turn on the fan!” to his daughter. His utterance is literal since he means as he says; that
is to turn the fan on. It is direct since it is in the form of imperative and its meaning is a command and is used for getting someone to do something, in this case to turn on the fan.
b. Non-literal Direct Speech act
Non-literal direct speech act deals with a direct illocutionary act but the meaning was inexactly with the fact/ situation (Parker, 1986: 20). For example: in an art class, a teacher looks at one of his student‟s drawing. He knows that it is a bad drawing. However, instead of saying „bad‟, he says “That‟s a very beautiful
drawing”. His utterance does not represent what he actually means; therefore, it is
c. Literal Indirect Speech act
This kind of speech act has correspondence between the meaning and the fact however it is expressed indirectly. For example: a father asks his son to move the old chair in the living room to the storeroom. His son says „yes‟. However,
thirty minutes later, he finds out that the chair is still in the living room. Furthermore he says to his son “The chair is still there”. It is literal since it is appropriate with the fact. It is indirect since the utterance is declarative in form; however its meaning is directive and is used to get someone to do something. d. Non-literal Indirect Speech act
In this act, the meaning of the utterance is not related to what is said and it is expressed indirectly. For example: when a teacher comes to his class, he sees that the class is very dirty. He says to all of his students “This class is wonderful”.
It has different meaning from what is said by the speaker. The expression “wonderful” is inappropriate with the real condition of the class. Although the
form of this utterance is declarative, the intended meaning of saying this is not to state something. Instead it is used to get the students clean the classroom.
2.3.2 Illocutionary Verbs by Leech (1983)
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2.3.2.1 Assertive
Assertive illocutionary act is generally defined as speech acts that commit a speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition. Verbs indicating this type of illocutionary act normally occur in construction S VERB (....) that X. S is the subject while X refers to the proposition. Some verbs used in this category include affirm, allege, assert, forecast, predict, announce, insist etc. Speech acts commit a speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition.
2.3.2.2 Directives
Directives refer to speech acts that are to cause the hearer to take a particular action. The illocutionary verbs included in this category are ask, beg, bid, command, demand, request, recommend.
2.3.2.3 Commissives
Commissives refer to speech acts that commit a speaker to some future action. Its general construction is S VERB that X. Like directives, that-clause occurs here is non-indicative and “to Y” is infinitive construction. Such verbs as offer, promise, swear, volunteer,vow are included in this category.
2.3.2.4 Expressives
2.3.2.5 Rogative
Rogative refers to speech act that is used in question. Such verbs as ask, inquire, query and question are included in this category.
2.3.3 The Ethnography of Communication by Hymes (1974)
The thirdtheory used in this study is the Ethnography of Communication theory by Hymes. It is used to describe the context of situation in order to analyse the types and function of the data. In order to facilitate the application of his representation, Hymes constructed S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G, under which he grouped the sixteen components within eight divisions:
2.3.3.1 Setting and Scene
Setting refers to the time and place, i.e. the concrete physical circumstances under which the speech act takes place. Scene includes characters such as range of formality and scene of play and seriousness. Within a particular setting, participants are free to change scene the level of formality.
2.3.3.2 Participants
The participants are speaker and the hearer. These are about who produces utterances and who receives them. It can also be said as sender-receiver, or addresser-addressee. Inaddition, element of participants also includes the relationship and social dimension (solidarity or social distance and social status or power) among them.
2.3.3.3 Ends
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accomplish in speech acts. This includes goals, purposes, and outcomes of the speech acts.
2.3.3.4 Act Sequence
Acts sequence is about the content and actual form of what is said. That is the precise words used, how they are used and the relationship of what is said to the actual topic at the moment in which the conversation takes place. This aspect can give description of what the speaker means by his utterance.
2.3.3.5 Key
Key refers to the ways of used by the participants of the exchange in performing speech acts. Keys include the tone and the manner in using the language; whether it is light-hearted, serious, mocking, sarcastic, pompous, etc. The key of speech act can also be marked non-verbally by certain kinds of behavior, gesture, posture, or even department.
2.3.3.6 Instrumentalities
This element refers to the means of communication used in performing the speech act. It includes the channel employed during the speech act and the forms of speech language, dialect, etc. the channels of speech acts can be differentiated between verbal and non-verbal.
2.3.3.7 Norms
2.3.3.8 Genre
