xiv ABSTRACT
Fitria Rahmawati. 2014. The Impact of Mobile Phone Video-Making Task on
Students’ Communicative Skill. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
Being urged by both the educational and technological changes, English teachers need to carefully utilize appropriate teaching media so that students‟ motivation and interest in learning English can be facilitated. The implementation of mobile phone video-making task (MPVMT), thus, becomes one alternative compared to the common oral classroom presentation. Therefore, this study attempted to seek the answers for the two research questions. The first is does the implementation of MPVMT improve students‟ communicative skill better than the oral classroom presentation technique? This was conducted to find out the difference of students‟ achievements between the experimental group and the control group after conducting the treatment. The other is what features contribute to the effectiveness of MPVMT?
In order to answer the research questions, this study employed both quantitative and qualitative research design. The experimental research was implemented to find out the communicative skill difference of the two groups after the treatments. Two variables of this study were the treatment (MPVMT) as the independent variable (X) and the students‟ communicative skill as the dependent variable (Y) presented by their performance. Moreover, close and open-ended questionnaire were used to answer the second question. The results of the questionnaire were then confirmed and strengthened by the interview to investigate students‟ opinion toward what features contributed to the effectiveness of MPVMT treatment. This study was conducted in a state vocational high school of arts and crafts in Yogyakarta, SMK 5 Yogyakarta, in the odd semester of academic year 2011/2012. The subject of this study was the second graders from
animation and DKV programs.
xv ABSTRAK
Fitria Rahmawati. 2014. The Impact of Mobile phone video-making task on
Students’ Communicative Skill. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
Terdorong oleh perubahan paradigma pendidikan dan perkembangan teknologi, guru bahasa Inggris perlu dengan sangat teliti memanfaatkan media pembelajaran yang sesuai, sehingga motivasi dan ketertarikan siswa dalam belajar bahasa Inggris dapat terfasilitasi. Oleh sebab itu, mobile phone video-making task (MPVMT) atau pembuatan video melalui perekam video telepon genggam, menjadi salah satu alternatif teknik pembelajaran. Sehingga, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menjawab dua permasalahan. Permasalahan pertama yakni, „Apakah penerapan MPVMT dapat lebih meningkatkan kemampuan berkomunikasi siswa dibandingkan dengan kegiatan presentasi kelas?‟ Hal ini dilaksanakan untuk mengetahui perbedaan prestasi siswa setelah pemberian tindakan. Pertanyaan penelitian kedua adalah „Unsur-unsur apa saja yang berkontribusi dalam keefektifitasan penerapan MPVMT?‟
Penelitian ini menggunakan metode pendekatan kuantitatif dan kualitatif untuk menjawab pertanyaan penelitian. Penelitian eksperimen dilaksanakan untuk mengetahui perbedaan kemampuan berkomunikasi siswa dari dua grup setelah pemberian tindakan. Terdapat dua faktor yang diteliti, yakni MPVMT sebagai faktor bebas (X) dan kemampuan berkomunikasi siswa sebagai faktor terikat (Y). Selain itu, kuesioner digunakan untuk menjawab pertanyaan penelitian kedua. Selanjutnya, interview dilaksanakan guna mengetahui pendapat siswa tentang fitur-fitur dalam MPVMT yang berkontribusi efektif dalam peningkatan kemampuan berkomunikasi siswa. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan di SMK seni dan kerajinan, SMK 5 Yogyakarta pada semester gasal tahun ajaran 2011/2012. Peserta penelitian ini adalah siswa kelas II dari jurusan Animasi dan Desain Komunikasi Visual.
THE IMPACT OF MOBILE PHONE VIDEO-MAKING TASK
ON STUDENTS' COMMUNICATIVE SKILL
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to ObtainMagister Humaniora(M.Hum) Degree
in English Language Studies
by
Fitria Rahmawati Student Number: 10 6332 025
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
ii A THESIS
THE IMPACT OF MOBILE PHONE VIDEO-MAKING TASK
ON STUDENTS' COMMUNICATIVE SKILL
by
Fitria Rahmawati Student Number: 10 6332 025
Approved by
Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A.
iii A THESIS
THE IMPACT OF MOBILE PHONE VIDEO-MAKING TASK
ON STUDENTS' COMMUNICATIVE SKILL
Presented by Fitria Rahmawati Student Number: 10 6332 025
Defended before the Thesis Committee and Declared acceptable.
THESIS COMMITTEE
Chairperson : F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D. ______________
Secretary : Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. ______________
Members : 1. Dr. J. Bismoko ______________
: 2. Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. ______________
Yogyakarta,
The Graduate Program Director Sanata Dharma University
iv
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else‟s ideas, phrases, or sentences without proper references.
Yogyakarta, March, 2014 The Writer,
v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama : Fitria Rahmawati NIM : 10 6332 025
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
THE IMPACT OF MOBILE PHONE VIDEO-MAKING TASK
ON STUDENTS' COMMUNICATIVE SKILL
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal : February 2014
Yang menyatakan,
vi
Menuntut ilmu adalah Ibadah
Belajar adalah Jihad
Mengajarkan ilmu adalah Amal
(Agus Priya Atmaka, 1985)
I dedicate this thesis to ALLAH SWT,
all teachers and academicians,
my beloved parents, husband, and sister,
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the name of Allah SWT, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful. Praise is for Him, The Cherisher and Sustainer of the world, and Muhammad, His final Prophet and Messenger.
The greatest gratitude goes to ALLAH SWT, who has given His Blessings and graces so that the writer can finish composing this thesis. The writer would like to give her ‘Very Big Thanks’, respect and appreciation to the following great people who have made this thesis possible:
1. Mas Danang Supriyanto, “We made it! Yeay! Thank you for your prayers, spirit, patience and love, Mas... You’ve been very supportive.”
2. Her Father, Drs. Agus Priya Atmaka, for having taught her to believe in the value of principles. “Thank you for being so care and wise, Bapak…”
3. Her Mother, Sri Supargianti, for having endured hardship to raise her. “Thank you for your prayers and spririt Mah!”
4. Her sister, Nur Purnama Ratri, S.E., for trusting her as someone whom she shares her problems with.“Adeeek, thank you for the SPSS tutorials!”
This Thesis is dedicated to you four!
5. Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A., as her thesis advisor who has guided her so
patiently. “Thank you for spending your valuable time to give me guidance, help, suggestions, and support, Pak Dwi. You really are the ‘Best of the Best’, Sir!”
6. Mr. F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D., as the Head of the Graduate Program in English
Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University. “Thank you for your prayers and support every time I ask for your signature, Sir.”
7. All the lecturers in The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University, Dr. J. Bismoko, Prof. Dr. Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo, Prof. Dr. C. Bakdi Sumanto, Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. for having imbued in her a thirst for knowledge.
viii
9. The principal of SMK N 5 Yogyakarta, Mr. Suyono, S.Pd. M.Eng., for letting her to conduct the research and gather the data at his institution.
10. The English teacher of SMK N 5 Yogyakarta, Ms. Dra. Arnita Budi Susanti, M.Hum, “Thank you for your permission, for your hospitality, for your help and for your kind assistance…”
11. The students of SMK N 5 Yogyakarta, DKV class and Animation class, grade XI, especially for Arifaza, Elina and Wanda, “You guys rock! Thanks for your help and cooperation, dear…”
12. The lovely 2010 ELS colleagues, especially class B Education community, for the moral and intellectual support.
13. To all the colleagues at Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta, especially PBI and PPB, for giving her chances to improve her practical teaching experiences and share knowledge. “I am so honored and blessed to be part of these institutions…”
14. To every person whose name has not been mentioned here. Thank you!
May ALLAH SWT blesses you all
Best Regards,
ix
G. Operational Definition Of Terms ... 14
CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW... 18
A. Theoretical Review ... 18
1. Language Learning ... 18
a. Competence and Performance ... 19
b. Language Input and Language Output ... 21
c. Interaction... 23
2. Communicative Skill ... 24
a. Concept of Communicative Skill ... 25
b. Communicative Language Teaching ... 29
1) Theory of CLT... 29
2) The need of CLT ... 31
3) Issues in CLT Principle and Practice ... 32
c. Task-based Instruction ... 34
1) Task-based Instruction in Practice... 34
2) The Benefit of Task-based Activity ... 38
3. Mobile Phone Technology ... 39
a. ICT in Language Learning and Teaching... 39
b. Mobile Phone in Language Learning and Teaching... 40
1) Useful Features of Mobile Phone ... 40
2) Characteristics of Mobile Phone ... 41
c. Integrating MPVMT in Language Learning... 43
x
5. Related Studies ... 48
B. Theoretical Framework ... 51
CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY... 56
A. Research Methodology ... 56
B. Research Design ... 58
C. Nature of Data ... 60
D. Research Setting and Participants ... 61
E. Data Collection Instruments ... 62
F. Data Collection Procedures ... 67
G. Operation ... 69
H. Data Analysis ... 70
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS... 76
A. Results ... 76
1. Quantitative Data Analysis... 76
a. Experimental Data Analysis ... 77
b. Requirement Analysis Test... 78
1) Test of Normal Distribution ... 78
2) Test of Homogeneity ... 80
c. Hypothesis Testing ... 81
d. Survey Data Analysis ... 85
2. Qualitative Data Analysis... 89
B. Discussion ... 95
1. Experimental Research Findings... 95
2. Survey Findings... 99
a. Goal and Objective ... 100
b. Input ... 104
c. Content ... 107
d. Roles of Teachers ... 109
e. Roles of Students ... 112
f. Setting... 115
g. Procedure ... 119
h. Activity ... 123
i. Output ... 127
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 136
A. Conclusion ... 136
B. Suggestions ... 139
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 141
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1. The Blueprint of Research Variables ... 15
Table 2.1. The Features of Mobile phone video-making task... 37
Table 3.1. Data Gathering Instruments of Students’ Communicative Skill Learning Achievement ... 63
Table 3.2. The Aspects of Communicative Skill Performance ... 63
Table 3.3. Communicative Performance Assesment Rubric ... 64
Table 3.4. The Aspects of Communicative Skill and Supporting Features in Mobile Phone Video-Making Task (MPVMT) ... 66
Table 3.5. Table Blueprint of Data Gathering of Questionnaire ... 68
Table 3.6. The Percentage Result of Questionnaire Statement (Blank) ... 72
Table 3.7. The Rules of Answer Weight Standard ... 73
Table 3.8. The Evaluation of Features in MPVMT ... 73
Table 3.9. The Interpretation Criteria of Range Score ... 74
Table 4.1. One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test ... 80
Table 4.2. Test of Homogeneity of Variances ... 81
Table 4.3. Group Statistics ... 82
Table 4.4. ANOVA ... 83
Table 4.5. Multiple Comparisons ... 84
Table 4.6. The Questionnaire Interpretation of Features in MPVMT ... 86
Table 4.7. The Examples of Translated Coding of Open Ended Questionnaire .... 89
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1. Components of Task (Adapted from Nunan, 2004) ... 36
Figure 2.2. Construct Mapping of Mobile phone video-making task ... 53
Figure 3.1. Research Design (Adapted from Creswell, 2003, p. 169) ... 59
xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1. The Letters of Permission ... 146
Appendix 2. The Syllabus ... 148
Appendix 3. The Lesson Plan ... 149
Appendix 4. The Working Procedures ... 151
Appendix 5. The Learning Materials ... 152
Appendix 6. The Questionnaire for the Data Gathering ... 158
Appendix 7. The Students’ Response ... 160
Appendix 8. The Guidelines for Interview ... 162
Appendix 9. The Sample’s Gain Score from Pre-test and Post-test ... 164
Appendix 10. The Results of Questionnaire ... 165
Appendix 11. The Questionnaire Interpretation of Features in MPVMT ... 167
Appendix 12. The Questionnaire Narrative ... 169
Appendix 13. The Translated Coding of Open-Ended Questionnaire ... 174
xiv
ABSTRACT
Fitria Rahmawati. 2014. The Impact of Mobile Phone Video-Making Task on Students’ Communicative Skill. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
Being urged by both the educational and technological changes, English teachers need to carefully utilize appropriate teaching media so that students’ motivation and interest in learning English can be facilitated. The implementation of mobile phone video-making task (MPVMT), thus, becomes one alternative compared to the common oral classroom presentation. Therefore, this study attempted to seek the answers for the two research questions. The first isdoes the implementation of MPVMT improve students’ communicative skill better than the oral classroom presentation technique? This was conducted to find out the difference of students’ achievements between the experimental group and the control group after conducting the treatment. The other iswhat features contribute to the effectiveness of MPVMT?
In order to answer the research questions, this study employed both quantitative and qualitative research design. The experimental research was implemented to find out the communicative skill difference of the two groups after the treatments. Two variables of this study were the treatment (MPVMT) as the independent variable (X) and the students’ communicative skill as the dependent variable (Y) presented by their performance. Moreover, close and open-ended questionnaire were used to answer the second question. The results of the questionnaire were then confirmed and strengthened by the interview to investigate students’ opinion toward what features contributed to the effectiveness of MPVMT treatment. This study was conducted in a state vocational high school of arts and crafts in Yogyakarta, SMK 5 Yogyakarta, in the odd semester of academic year 2011/2012. The subject of this study was the second graders from animationandDKVprograms.
xv
ABSTRAK
Fitria Rahmawati. 2014. The Impact of Mobile phone video-making task on Students’ Communicative Skill. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
Terdorong oleh perubahan paradigma pendidikan dan perkembangan teknologi, guru bahasa Inggris perlu dengan sangat teliti memanfaatkan media pembelajaran yang sesuai, sehingga motivasi dan ketertarikan siswa dalam belajar bahasa Inggris dapat terfasilitasi. Oleh sebab itu, mobile phone video-making task (MPVMT) atau pembuatan video melalui perekam video telepon genggam, menjadi salah satu alternatif teknik pembelajaran. Sehingga, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menjawab dua permasalahan. Permasalahan pertama yakni, ‘Apakah penerapan MPVMT dapat lebih meningkatkan kemampuan berkomunikasi siswa dibandingkan dengan kegiatan presentasi kelas?’ Hal ini dilaksanakan untuk mengetahui perbedaan prestasi siswa setelah pemberian tindakan. Pertanyaan penelitian kedua adalah ‘Unsur-unsur apa saja yang berkontribusi dalam keefektifitasan penerapan MPVMT?’
Penelitian ini menggunakan metode pendekatan kuantitatif dan kualitatif untuk menjawab pertanyaan penelitian. Penelitian eksperimen dilaksanakan untuk mengetahui perbedaan kemampuan berkomunikasi siswa dari dua grup setelah pemberian tindakan. Terdapat dua faktor yang diteliti, yakni MPVMT sebagai faktor bebas (X) dan kemampuan berkomunikasi siswa sebagai faktor terikat (Y). Selain itu, kuesioner digunakan untuk menjawab pertanyaan penelitian kedua. Selanjutnya, interview dilaksanakan guna mengetahui pendapat siswa tentang fitur-fitur dalam MPVMT yang berkontribusi efektif dalam peningkatan kemampuan berkomunikasi siswa. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan di SMK seni dan kerajinan, SMK 5 Yogyakarta pada semester gasal tahun ajaran 2011/2012. Peserta penelitian ini adalah siswa kelas II dari jurusan Animasi dan Desain Komunikasi Visual.
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the reasons why it is necessary to study the topic
and the advantages the study gives. It covers the discussion of background,
problem identification, problem limitation, problem formulation, research
objectives and research benefits.
A. Background
The globalization era has made its entry and together with it comes
free-trading requiring highly empowered and competitive Indonesian citizens who are
able to stand facing the ever changing challenges of the era. One of the ways to
prepare Indonesian citizens to be proactive in the challenging era is by improving
their English skills and technological literacy. English plays a prominent role in
the world, where most people use English as a means of communication.
Meanwhile technology acts as the primary tool since everything that can be
digitized, will be digitized.
The globalization era, moreover, has triggered some changes including the
changing of both educational and technological changes. There have been
significant changes in the ways that languages are taught. The focus of instruction
has been expanded from the teaching of grammatical structures to the
improvement of communicative skills. Besides, the teaching techniques have been
expanding. From the traditional teaching technique which is a teacher-centred
technique, a learner-centred instruction, focusing not on the accuracy but more on
the fluency (Brown, 2000; Richards & Rodgers, 2001; Richards & Renandya,
2002).
Furthermore, the technological changes have come into existence and can
be seen from the following situations. By the advance of technology, teaching
materials which can be digitized have started to be digitized, for example, books
become interactive CDs or e-books, letters become e-mails, lesson can not only be
carried out through face to face interaction but also via online website, tasks can
be submitted to a server in a digital format, and lab works can be presented in
video streaming over the internet. Students also get exposures to the internet
which enables them to connect and communicate with people around the world. In
other words, students are given chances to be exposed to a more interesting and
interacting learning instruction.
In Indonesia, English is considered as a foreign language (EFL). English
has been introduced in the primary to university level as a compulsory subject. In
accordance to the importance of English, the Indonesian government has
attempted to improve the system of education and human resources development
in realizing the objectives of national education. Some efforts are done by
improving the system of secondary educational levels, implementing the
Competency-Based Curriculum and encouraging students to continue their study
in Vocational High Schools orSekolah Menengah Kejuruan(SMK).
A vocational High School or SMK is considered as an appropriate choice
in preparing the Indonesian citizens to adapt with the demanding and competitive
teaching-learning activities. For English lesson, the curriculum of SMK is based
on notional (the specific or topic-related notions that the students will be able to
handle) and functional (the language functions that the students will fulfil)
syllabus. The instructional materials, then, are chosen from the language used in work setting such as describing process, telephoning, making and handling reservation, making report and handling complaint. This is in line with the general
objective of the teaching and learning English in SMK which is preparing the students to be ready to enter the job market (The National Education System Act, 2006:5). There is a requirement for SMK students to acquire communicative skill
in English. The students should be able to express meanings with the appropriate
form to communicate well for their job demands.
Therefore, the need to develop alternative methods of language teaching is
considered a high priority. Teachers need to figure out ways to make their
teaching performance effective and fit into their students’ characters in order to
empower students as active language users.
B. Problem Identification
Being urged by both the educational and technological changes, vocational
school English teachers need to carefully consider the following aspects of
classroom instruction. The first aspect is creating students’ friendly learning
environments which can minimize students’ anxiety to communicate in English
and which can stimulate students to actively participate in the classroom
discussion. The next aspect is providing a variety of practical English activities
significant to implement appropriate teaching media in terms of technology so that
students’ motivation and interest in learning English can be facilitated.
Referring to the main challenge faced by vocational school programs or
SMK which is to produce empowered and competent graduates, the goal of
language learning in SMK is then, to develop what Hymes (1971) in Savignon
(1997, p. 15) refers to as “communicative skill” which is the ability to use language for communication in a certain context, for this case, the context is job or work demand. Some educational experts have pointed out the importance of
adapting communicative skills in language learning for preparing students to be
able to communicate well in working fields. Richards (2006, p. 35) asserts that
communicative skill willenable students to use the language properly in a range of different purposes and functions. In the sense that it enables the students to vary the language based on the participants, settings and the degree of formality as
well. In addition, it is communicative skill addressed by Skehan (1998) which
plays an important role in enhancing one’s success in learning the language and
using the language to cope with the working demands.
Therefore, communicative principals in communicative language teaching
(CLT) should be adopted throughout the lesson based on the following
explanations. In contrast to the teaching of grammar and vocabulary drills,
communicative task lets students collaborate on tasks that demand authentic,
relevant, and real-life communicative interactions where students are allowed to
use their individual learning styles. Besides, the activities in CLT, which focus on
the students’ interests, allow students to creatively use their thought and actively
However, the principles of CLT are not always easy to put into practice.
The causes triggering to the failure of CLT implementation can be seen from
many factors. Firstly, the focus of the English instructions is mostly on the written
test. The activities, thus, were mostly discussing a number of test items being
tested in the national final examination orUjian Nasional(UN). Besides, students were rarely assigned to perform and communicate in English with other students
during the classroom activities. There was no special time allocated to evaluate
the students' spoken English. These situations likely lead to limited opportunities
to improve students’ English communicative skills appropriately and contextually.
In addition, the lack of exposure to communicative tasks, the limited classroom
hours, the limited activities, as well as the absence of opportunities to use English
outside the classrooms, also contribute to students’ insufficient comprehensible
inputs.
Furthermore, it becomes essential to understand how teachers can provide
teaching aids that fit students’ interests and characteristics. One of the ways is by
implementing technology which the students are mostly exposed to and interested
in. The implementation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is
believed to benefit the SMK students in some aspects. Firstly, the nature of ICT
provides an ideal framework for language teaching and learning, since its main
entity is information and its purpose is communication (Levy, 2010). Secondly,
technology provides the potential as mentioned by Ganderton (1999), to engage
native speakers at a distance, to utilize authentic materials and to enable students
to interact with rich, multi-dimensional learning environments. In other words,
English. Also, by the development of technology, it gives more chances for
creating authentic, relaxing and motivating learning interactions. Lastly,
technology reflects a non-traditional and less boring teaching. It reflects
student-centeredness which caters students’ interests and views in learning a language.
Unfortunately, the implementation of technology is not without obstacles.
The problem is not only on the absence of available resources and or facilities but
also on the absence of practical ideas to use those available resources. In other
words, the problem is on how the way the new technology is presented to the
students and the way this new technology can maximally facilitate their language
learning. Another disruptive problem is that most of the literature reviews on
technology place students in the consumer seat (Thornton & Houser, 2005; Levy
& Kennedy, 2005). The students are mostly considered as only the users of either
using the technology to learn or access course documents. These situations
become another challenge for teachers to create learning environments in which
students can participate actively improving their communicative skills and to
provide learning media which fit the students’ needs.
In addition to the educational and the technological changes, other
challenges faced by EFL teachers including Indonesia consist of the following.
The problems are related to large classroom sizes, insufficient instructional
materials and technological support. Furthermore, the anxious, uncooperative, and
unmotivated students who feel reluctant to participate in classroom activities are
also considered as problems. As Harmer argues (2007), uncooperative and
unmotivated students are a serious barrier and can easily disturb the instructional
C. Problem Limitation
In relation to the general objective of learning and teaching English in
SMK, the activities need to be focused on communicative skills rather than on
mere mastery of structures. Then, the approach which is considered appropriate to
the characteristics and conditions of the students of SMK 5 is the communicative approach, while the suitable methodology is the communicative language teaching (CLT) method. Moreover, the possible techniques that can be implemented are communicative task-based activities. The current research employed task-based activities, in the effort of improving students’ communicative skill. The communicative skill being focused in this study refers
to the ability in using English appropriately to understand a series of utterances, to use expressions, to convey information and to maintain the flow of communication in a certain context. Furthermore, from the variety of available educational-related technologies this research is limited to the use of video as teaching media and the implementation ofmobile phone video-making taskas the interactive learning activity.
Studies on the impact of videoin English language teaching have asserted significant benefits that video contributes to students’ communicative skills
(Fisher, 1996; Richards and Renandya, 2002). Fisher (1996) asserts that
audio-visual materials are able to promote perception, understanding, transfer of
training, reinforcement, or knowledge of results and retention. Furthermore,
Richards and Renandya (2002) state that by using audio-visual, the lack of
opportunity in foreign language settings to interact with native speakers can be
accents as well as voices. Inferred from that explanation, videos can be utilized to
train listening comprehension, to practice communicating using target language
and to show a real experience of native speaker communication by the assistance
of audio and visual facilities provided by video. Therefore, video breaks the
monotony of traditional class teaching and is enjoyable and stimulating.
The use of mobile phone in language learning context has started to be
researched. Some of the most discussed results are the m-learning (mobile learning) and MALL (mobile assisted language learning). Unfortunately, though there has been an increasing interest in the use of mobile phone into the language
learning, it is surprising that most of those researches position the students only as
the user of it. What disregards to be considered is how students can use the technology to further produce and share their own learning materials.
However, by video recorder feature installed in almost every recent mobile
phone, the above assumption about the students’ passive role toward technology
can be diminished. In order to create enjoyable environments, teacher can take
advantage of students’ interest in the latest mobile phone technology by designing
mobile phone video-making tasks. These tasks, the combinations of video, mobile
phone technology and CLT, influence students’ language acquisition because they
enjoy recording with their mobile phones, and when they do so in a group or in
pair in which interaction occurs, they can cooperate and support each other to use
English for communication (Harmer, 2001). Accordingly, such activity gives
potentials to change the students’ role from mere consumers to producers by the
environment is generated and the language acquisition can be facilitated, thus,
learners’ communicative skills can be promoted.
In consideration to the problems and the related theoretical perspectives,
the investigation over the implementation of interactive, enjoyable and stimulating
teaching techniques into language instruction, thus, becomes indispensable. This
research proposed a Mobile Phone Video-Making Task (MPVMT) as a technique to assist students in using English to communicate and perform optimally in their
future work field. Moreover, it is conducted to find out the impact of mobile
phone video-making task to students’ communicative skill revealed from their
communicative performance in the video.
An experimental research was conducted in one vocational school in the
Special Region of Yogyakarta, namely SMK 5 Yogyakarta. SMK 5 Yogyakarta, focusingartandcraftas the areas of expertise, is a state vocational school located at Kenari Street no. 71, Mujamuju, Umbulharjo, Yogyakarta. The samples of the
study were sixty (60) students from two different classes in the second (2nd) grade, as an experiment group and a control group. The research was done during
October to January of the academic year 2011/2012.
D. Problem Formulation
This research attempts to answer the following questions:
2. What features of mobile phone video-making task contribute to the improvement of students’ communicative skills?
E. Research Objectives
There are two objectives of conducting this study. Finding out the
difference of the students’ communicative skill achievements between the
experiment group and the control group after conducting the treatments becomes
this research’s primary objective. This is conducted to investigate whether or not
mobile phone video-making task as the proposed treatment has better effect on the
improvement of students’ communicative skill than that the common oral
classroom presentation technique? Therefore,quantitative approach serves as the strategy of inquiry firstly employed in the study with theexperimental researchas its methodology since it compares the students’ communicative skill learning
achievement between the experimental and the control group to see the difference
made by both groups.
The data required to answer this first research objective are the students’
communicative skill learning achievement in the form of scores. For the
experiment group, the scores are obtained from the students’ recorded
performance in the video. While for the control group, the scores are from the
students’ oral classroom presentation. Then, their performance is assessed by
utilizing a criterion-reference test ofCommunicative Performance, modified from Richards (2006) & Nunan (2004). Since the data are gathered from the pre-test
Statistics 17.0. Lastly, the critical value (P-value) for t test is used for the hypothesis testing.
The other objective of this research is operationalized in the second
research question, which is ‘What features of mobile phone video-making task
contribute to the improvement of students’ communicative skills?’ The features
being observed in this study are features dealing with the principal activities in the
communicative language teaching (CLT) and with the task’s components
developed from Nunan (2004) including the followings:goal and objective, input, content, role of teacher, role of students, setting, procedure, activity, and output.
In order to identify the features of mobile phone video-making task and to analyze
their impacts which contribute to the students’ communicative skill improvement,
the quantitative approach is adopted by conducting survey research.
The data needed in order to answer the second research objective are both
numerical and narrative data. The numerical data are gained through the five-point
Likert scale questionnaires, while the narrative data are gathered from the
open-ended questionnaire and the interview. The results from those two instruments are
used to support the findings in the quantitative study. Therefore, the second
objective of this research is to find out the students’ opinion toward the features
provided in mobile phone video-making task and their contributions on the
improvement of the students’ communicative skill.
F. Research Benefits
are some benefits of this study. These benefits confirm how the study accounts for
the development of English education, especially, the teaching and learning
English of vocational school (SMK) levels. The benefits of this study are as
follows:
1. Theoretical Benefits
From the theoretical benefits, this study enriches findings to the existing
researches concerning the possibilities of implementing technology in language
learning. Also, it provides significant generated theory for other researchers
interested to replicate the study. Specifically, it helps to reveal the underlying
justification of providing comprehensible input and communicative tasks in the
classroom instruction, leading to efficiency and productivity in terms of media
and materials to promote students’ communication skill.
The technique proposed in this study is mobile phone video-making task
which is the combination of video, mobile phone technology and task based
activity in communicative language teaching. When the students’ communicative
skill learning achievements increase after the treatment, it reveals that the mobile
phone video-making task is effective to be implemented in a speaking class since
its activities raise both students’ motivation and confidence to speak and practice
their communicative skill with their peers.
2. Practical Benefits
The research contributes to further insight on the importance of selecting
various communicative activities in order to create pleasant environment to
facilitate English learning. Besides, it suggests alternative options in terms of
relevant to SMK students’ characteristics which can be applied in the work fields,
later on. Furthermore, the implication of this study gives benefit for the following
parties, including the researcher, English teachers, students and Sanata Dharma
University.
Understanding the educational challenges in terms of technology and
educational paradigms, the researcher becomes aware of providing meaningful
and practical activities in her teaching practices. One of the ways is as suggested
in this study by using mobile phone video since students are exposed to this
technology. Then she can take advantages of such technology to help the students
in learning English and use it to communicate with others. Moreover, this study
broadens her knowledge on selecting and adopting teaching materials and media
which are suitable for the students’ characteristics.
For English teachers, this research offers alternative option in terms of
providing practical learning materials, tasks and media that can be applied into
their classroom instructions. Especially in vocational high school, the English
teachers can take advantages from the use of video and mobile phone technology
in assisting the students to be native-like users of English as required in the
curriculum. Moreover, the study explains some possible steps or stages in
acting-out the proposed technique which is the use of mobile phone video-making tasks
in the effort of improving students’ communicative skill.
Furthermore, this study gives significant benefits for vocational high
school students. They can take advantages from this study in terms of being
provided by the interactive and practical materials, tasks and media. Video is
include both audio and visual, in terms of sound, words, movement, body
language and real communication context. The use of mobile phone is based on
the belief that mobile phone creates pleasant learning environment as it is the
technology which the students are mostly exposed to and interested in. Thus, its
presence in language learning contributes in creating enjoyable learning
environment which can reduce students’ anxiety in learning English. Also, by the
implementation of task-based activities, students get the chance to use English for
communication in the interaction process with their peer or other group members.
The students make a short instructional video and a short conversational video
based on the given context using appropriate language expressions. By the video
making, the students become active users of both technology and the target
language.
Lastly, this research offers a basis of consideration for Sanata Dharma
University as a widely-acknowledged institution for its exceptional works in
English education to be a kind of video production house. Facilitating students from every level to be active users of English to communicate in real-life and
natural settings, Sanata Dharma can develop video projects to help the students to
be ready to enter a work field with English communicative skill. Furthermore, the
videos are used for the sake of presentation, seminars, training, and the like for
both students and teachers.
G. Operational Definition of Terms
In this study, there are some terminologies related to the theme of the
still necessary given the operational definition. This is done to facilitate the
perception and understanding of the terms used. The terms are related to the
research variables and the research treatments.
There were two variables in this study, the independent and dependent
variables, namely mobile phone video-making task and communicative skill. The
independent variable,mobile phone video-making task, is operationally defined as
a language learning instruction which involves students in comprehending, using, producing and interacting in the target language to complete a task using mobile phone video recorder. The intention of such activity is principally focused on meaning rather than form or fluency rather than accuracy. The outcome of the task
is a short tutorial video produced by students.
Meanwhile, the dependent variable, students’ communicative skill, refers to the students’ skill or ability in using English appropriately to understand a series of utterances, to use expressions, to convey information and to maintain the flow of communication in a certain context.The data of students’ communicative skills were revealed from their performance in the recorded video they made.
Table 1.1. The Blueprint of Research Variables
Other than the research variables, there are two treatments given in two
different classroom setting. The first treatment is done in the treatment group and
employs mobile phone video-making task to improve students’ communicative
skill. The other treatment is a common classroom setting which is done in the
control group and employs only oral group presentation as the main task.
The treatment given to the experiment group employs the use of
technology namely, mobile phone video-making task, in which the students produce two short videos as the final product of task completions. The videos
include a short tutorial video on describing processes and a short video on
telephoning. In the videos, the students act out a role-play based on the given
topics as if in the real-life contexts. They are free to choose the topics and the
settings. Before recording the video, the students perform the role play in front of
the classroom with their peer or group members. This step is called a rehearsal
activity in order to minimize mistakes in the process of recording. Next, the role
play is recorded by using their mobile phone video recorder device. The videos
are then played in the classroom in order to get comments or inputs from the other
students about their friend’s performance in the video. The comments are in terms
of delivery, pronunciation, content and vocabulary. The scores of students’
communicative skill are gained from their recorded performance in carrying out the role play shown in the video. The scoring system used in assessing their
performance is based on a criterion-reference test of Communicative Performance, modified from Richards (2006) & Nunan (2004).
Different from the experiment group, the treatment in the control group is
a common teaching technique which isoral classroom presentation. In the control group, the students are only assigned to act out a role play orally in front of the
classroom based on the given context. They do not record their performance and
do not produce any video. Therefore, the score of this group communicative skill
is obtained from their classroom performance of the role play presentation. In assessing the control group students’ performance, the scoring criterion used is the
18
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
There are mainly two variables in this research, namely mobile phone
video-making task and students’ communicative skill. This chapter is presented
with the aim at clarifying relevant concepts between those two variables and their
interrelationships to build research theoretical framework. A number of related
literatures and previous studies on similar topics are presented, reviewed and
combined to as the basis in conducting the study. At the last part of this chapter,
theoretical framework is constructed as the summary of all related theories and
findings in order to get conceptual and operational definition for each variable of
this study.
A. Theoretical Review
Five major discussions under the research variables are presented in the
theoretical review section. The discussions cover Language Learning,
Communicative Skill, Information and Communication Technology, Vocational
Education and Related Studies.
1. Language Learning
Every person has begun to realize the importance of learning a language
other than his first language. The main reason is because of by mastering some
languages, one is able to actualize himself through a higher level of
communication which will provide him a chance to improve his life quality. One
English. The ability to speak and write English properly allows people to advance
in the professional world. Moreover, being able to speak in English also widens
one’s horizon in communicating globally. Some issues in language learning
including competence and performance, language input and language output, and
interaction are discussed here.
a. Competence and Performance
In language learning context, basic distinction between competence and
performance has been significantly drawn by some language experts and
practitioners. Chomsky (1965) distinguished between competence and
performance by making a fundamental distinction between the speaker-hearer’s
knowledge of his language (competence) and the actual use of language in
concrete situation (performance). It is generally agreed that by the term
competence, Chomsky was referring exclusively to knowledge, not including the
notions of capacity or ability. Thus, competence refers to a ‘state’ or product
rather than to a process to the underlying knowledge of an idealized native
speaker of a language in the area of grammar. In the term of performance,
Chomsky referred to actual performance, and not the realization ability and
potential.
A few years later, an expansion of the competence or performance
distinction was made by Hymes (1972) who differentiated between linguistic and
communicative competence, and linguistic and communicative performance. This
difference refers to the relationship and interaction between grammatical and
ability, i.e. the ‘ability for use’ which is the individual’s underlying potential to
realize a possible, feasible and appropriate speech act, and not the actual
performance. Thus, the term performance, according to Hymes, refers to ‘actual
use and actual events’ and ‘ability for use’.
Referring to Hymes (1972) cited in Mitchell & Myles (2004), competence
is the abstract and hidden representation of language knowledge held inside one’s
mind. Performance, on the other hand, concerns with the process of applying the
underlying knowledge to the actual language use in a concrete situation. Besides,
Brown (2000) identifies competence as, “One’s underlying knowledge of a
system, event or fact”. It is the non-observableabilityto do something, to perform
something. Further, he describes performance as, “The overtly observable and
concrete manifestation or realization of competence. It is the actual doing of
something: walking, singing, dancing and speaking”.
From the above definitions, some inferences about the distinction between
competence and performance are drawn. Competence is the knowledge or usage
or skill of a language system which has potential that enables students to create
and understand original utterances in a given language. Differ from competence,
performance is the actual use of language, including production (speaking and
writing) and comprehension (listening and reading). That is to say, a student’s
competence can be seen from their performance. As what Ellis (2008) suggested,
competence is identified as a language user’s underlying knowledge of language,
which is drawn on in actual performance. Furthermore, the competence can be
measured and assessed by observing the elicited samples of performance called
b. Language Input and Language Output
In acquiring a second or foreign language, the role of input is undeniably
essential. There are some arguments that associate the needs of input in language
learning. One of the most well-known input theories is proposed by Krashen
(1985; 1990; 2003). Input refers to all the target language that the learner is
exposed to and that potentially provides the learner with knowledge about the
target language (Egbert & Hanson-Smith, 1999). Simply, input is defined as every
target language that the student is exposed to through senses. The Input
Hypothesis as proposed by Krashen (1985) involves students’ understanding of
what they hear and read or the input which goes into their minds through ears and
eyes. Based on the Krashen’s points of view, students need to receive a lot of
comprehensible input in the target language in order to assist them in
understanding it. In addition, that input should foster meaningful communicative
use of the language in appropriate contexts.
Krashen (1985) also asserts the affective filter hypothesis in which a low
anxiety instruction setting helps comprehensible input build students’ language
skill. The affective filter hypothesis is incorporated by Krashen as one of his five
input Hypotheses. Krashen argued that people acquire second languages only if
they obtain comprehensible input and if their affective filters are low enough to
allow the input ‘in’. In his theory, affect includes motivation, attitude, anxiety, and
self-confidence. People with high affective filter will lower their intake whereas
people with low affective filter allow more input into their language acquisition
Although there are some critiques of this input hypothesis, affective
factors are seen to play an important role in acquiring a L2. Comprehensible input
may not be utilized by L2 acquirers if there is a “mental block” that prevents them
from fully profiting from it. The affective filter acts as a barrier to acquisition. The
filter is up when the acquirer is unmotivated, lacking in confidence, or concerned
with failure. The filter is down when the acquirer is not anxious and is trying to
become a member of the group speaking.
However, the Krashen’s view about input hypothesis that becomes the
only matters in language acquisition did not receive many supports. Swain (2000)
identifies that much of the input the students get is comprehensible without any
need for analyzing the grammar fully. That is to say, when a student’s focus is to
understand the message instead of the grammar, then, why should be bothered by
the grammar. Other theorists believed to focus more on the practice function of
language production rather than merely on input, especially in fluency. This view
is based on the information-processing theory that views language competence
consists of both a knowledge component or knowing what and a skill component
or knowing how. Researchers in this point of view come to an agreement that
language use and language performance are equally important to develop skill
components in language learning.
Contrast to Krashen’s view is the so-called comprehensible output
hypothesis, asserted by Swain and colleagues (Swain, 1985; Swain and Lapkins,
1995). Outputis language produced by the student. The Output Hypothesis states
that to learn a language, in addition to comprehensible input, students also need to
can be comprehensible or incomprehensible to an interlocutor. Swain (1985) as
cited in Ellis (2008, p. 957) has proposed that, “When students have to make
efforts to ensure that their output is comprehensible, acquisition is fostered”.
Swain argued that, while input is necessary, it is not sufficient for language
acquisition. In addition to input, students need opportunities to produce the target
language. That is to say, both language input and language output impact a
student’s acquisition of the target language. Therefore, the researcher highlights
both the comprehensible input and output as factors being considered in designing
the research methodology.
c. Interaction
Related to the notion of input is that of output. Moreover, another
significant aspect that plays a role in language learning is interaction. Interaction
is considered essential since it is a means by which input and output, at the same
time, can be provided. Learners need practice in processing the input and
producing comprehensible output using all the language resources they have
already acquired. Thus, discussions of the concept and the roles of interaction in
language learning are presented as follows.
There are different ways of defining the term ‘interaction’ in language
learning. Referring to Longman dictionary of Contemporary English, the word
‘interaction’ is formed by the prefix inter, which implies togetherness or
reciprocity, and the noun action. Interaction, thus, is a mutual activity which
requires at least the involvement of two persons and which causes mutual effect.
person communicates with another”. He also says that “Interaction can occur
inside our minds, both when we engage in the kind of ‘private speech’ and when
different modules of the mind interact to construct an understanding of or a
response to some phenomenon”. Moreover, Hedge (2000) views interaction as an
integral and powerful aid that bridges students to communicate in the target
language. Inferred from those definitions, interaction is defined as both
interpersonal and intrapersonal activities in which students are required to produce
more accurate and appropriate language to communicate. By interaction, students
have a chance to receive and to use English as the media of communication as
occurred in the real-life context.
Interaction facilitates students’ language acquisition in terms of the
following. First, students are facilitated by interaction to get input in the form of
‘models’ (Ellis, 2008). The models can be in the forms of statements, questions
and instructions. Besides, students are assisted not only to get input but also to
produce ‘output’ and to also get feedback from their interlocutor. Therefore,
students can practice both receptive and productive skills at the same time.
Secondly, Egbert & Hanson-Smith (1999) argues that during interaction, students
have opportunities to check the comprehensibility of their own messages as well
as to request clarification, confirmation or reiteration of each other’s messages.
2. Communicative Skill
Some educational experts have pointed out the importance of adapting
communicate well in working fields. The arguments on the need of improving
communicative skill are elaborated in the following discussions.
a. Concept of Communicative Skill
The term communicative competence was first introduced by Hymes in
(1972) as a sociolinguistic concept in reaction to the concept of linguistic
competence which was proposed by Chomsky in 1965. Chomsky’s concept was
“concerned with the tacit knowledge of language structure” but “omits almost
everything of socio-cultural, significance” (Hymes, 1972, p. 270- 280). According
to Hymes (1972, p. 28),communicative competencerefers to the level of language
learning that enables language users to convey their messages to others and to
understand others’ messages within specific contexts. It also implies the language
learners’ ability to relate what is learnt in the classroom to the outside world.
From this perspective, Hymes (1972) described the competent language user as
the one who knows when, where and how to use language appropriately rather
than merely knowing how to produce accurate grammatical structures.
Hymes’ ideas about the communicative competence were later developed
by Canale and Swain in 1980 who introduced a theoretical model of
communicative competence. Their concept of communicative competence refers
to “the relationship and interaction between grammatical competence, or
knowledge of the rules of grammar, and sociolinguistic competence, or
knowledge of rules of language use” (Canale & Swain, 1980: 6).
Communicative skill covers the four different yet highly integrated
competences (Canale and Swain, 1980, as cited in Savignon, 1997). The
discourse competence and strategic competence. They define grammatical
competence as “Mastery of the linguistic code, ability to recognize the lexical,
morphological, syntactical and phonological features of a language and to
manipulate these features to form words and sentences” (p. 41). In this sense,
students with grammatical competence are able to demonstrate the grammatical
correctness of those language features.
The next comessocio-linguistic competence or cultural awarenessdealing
with the social rules of language use. It requires an understanding of the social
context in which language is used. Savignon (1997) points out that
socio-linguistic competence covers many aspects such as the roles of participants, the
information they share, and the functions of the interaction. Furthermore, it is also
related to the aspect of appropriateness of content as well as degree of formality.
The context of appropriateness involve knowing what to say in a situation and
how to say it, while degree of formality is evidenced by the ability to maintain a
formal or an informal register in some situations.
The third crucial element is discourse competence or known as textual
competence which refers to the ability to interpret a series of sentences or
utterances in order to form a meaningful whole or cohesive and to achieve
coherent that are relevant to a given context (Canale, 1983). It is to say that
discourse competence enables students to understand the organizational patterns
of discourse, such as recognizing the theme or topic of a paragraph, chapter or
book, getting the gist of a telephone conversation, poem, television, commercial,
the values, intentions, and purposes of the reader/hearer, as well as the writer or
speaker.
Lastly, when the three competencies have come into play, successful
students need to be equipped with the strategies to overcome communication
problems resulted from distractions or interference, namely,strategic competence.
Strategic competence helps interlocutors to cope with the flow of smooth and
successful communications. To name a few, strategic skills can be manifested
through one’s ability to use expressions, for instance, to restate or to ask for
clarification or repetition, paraphrase, circumlocution, guessing and even message
modification. This last skill is very beneficial for the non-native English users.
Referring to those four competencies, successful language learning can be
measured through student’s ability to integrate them within one’s performance
when he or she is involved in communicative activities.
In order to be able to communicate well, students need to possess
communicative skills. There are some possible definitions of communicative skill.
Communicative skill is the ability to use language and express information. It
refers to the repertoire of behaviors that serve to convey information for the
individual (Sato and Kleinsasser, 1999). Furthermore, Sullivan (2000) defines
communicative skills as the ability an individual displays in consistently
demonstrates the ability to effectively communicate with others. The
communicative skill is, then, set of skills through the use of either oral language
or written language that enable students to convey information so that it is
students either spoken or written to interact with other speakers and make
meaning.
There have been strong notions supporting communicative skills to
become the main goal of language learning outcomes. As Kasper (1997) points
out, models of communicative skill serve as goal specifications for second
language teaching and testing. It is to say that the objectives of language teaching
should be based on the improvement of communicative skill and on the ability of
students to use the target language for communication. Besides, Richards (2006)
suggests that a communicative approach underlying communicative skills as the
goal of language teaching. He asserts that communicative skill enables students to
use the language properly in a range of different purposes and functions. In the
sense that it enables the students to vary the language based on the participants,
settings and the degree of formality as well.
Besides, Richards (2006) also argues that a competent language speaker
demonstrates some characteristics. Two of the characteristics are first, competent
language speaker understands the ways to produce different language genres such
as narratives, reports, interviews, etc, and the other characteristic is a competent
language speaker should be able to manipulate communications despite his or her
limited language knowledge through his or her communication strategies. It is
also communicative skill which is addressed by Skehan (1998) which plays an
important role in enhancing one’s success in learning the language and using the
language to cope with the working demands. Thus, it is important for today’s
teachers to shift paradigm in changing the focus of instructions, from the teaching
b. Communicative Language Teaching
Communicative language teaching (CLT) is becoming more common in
second or foreign language learning. CLT has become a term for methods and
curricula that views communication in terms of social interaction. The use of
language for communication is embraced in both the goals and the processes of
teaching practice. With the importance of English in the world today to satisfy
various communicative needs, English teachers, especially EFL teachers, have felt
an urge to learn the newest and best methods of teaching. Below, some of the
relevant theories related to CLT are discussed, including the theory of CLT, the
need for CLT, also the issues in CLT principle and practice.
1) Theory of CLT
Some language learning and teaching practitioners have attempted to
define CLT. The followings are some theories emerging the CLT definition. CLT
is based on the work of sociolinguists, particularly that of Hymes (1972) in
Savignon (1997). Hymes proposes that knowing a language involves more than
knowing a set of grammatical, lexical, and phonological rules. In order to use the
language effectively, further, he suggests that students need to develop
communicative competence which is the ability to use the language they are
learning appropriately in a given social encounter. Hymes’ notion of
communicative competence was examined by a number of practice oriented
language educators. His notion was then redefined by Canale and Swain (1980)
who argue that communicative competence comprises not only grammatical but
