AN ANALYSIS ON SYNONYMOUS VERBS AND A STUDY ON THE STUDENTS’ MASTERY OF SYNONYMOUS VERBS
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Laurensia Andina Atika Wardani Student Number: 031214046
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
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AN ANALYSIS ON SYNONYMOUS VERBS AND A STUDY ON THE STUDENTS’ MASTERY OF SYNONYMOUS VERBS
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Laurensia Andina Atika Wardani Student Number: 031214046
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and above all, my greatest gratefulness is worth giving to my only Lord, Jesus Christ, to whom I go whenever I feel burdened and frustrated. I hardly imagine having accomplished my thesis without His blessings. His never ending blessings accompanied me in the thesis accomplishment.
I owe much to Yohana Veniranda, S.Pd., M.Hum., my sponsor, for giving me constant guidance, suggestions, profound feedback, attention and motivation during the process of thesis accomplishment. I thank her for giving the biggest contribution to my thesis through her comments, corrections, and suggestions. I also would like to thank her for giving me permission to conduct the survey in her class.
My sincere gratitude goes to Christina Kristiyani, S.Pd, M.Pd. for her willingness to give suggestions and valuable feedback on my thesis. I am also deeply indebted to Dr. F. X. Mukarto, M.S. for his willingness to spare his valuable time to give me guidance, helpful suggestions and comments as the improvement on my thesis. I would like to address my deep gratitude to Drs. J. B. Gunawan, M.A., for the permission to conduct the survey in his class. My deepest gratefulness goes to all PBI lecturers, who have guided me to be a mature person. I owe a debt of gratitude to all of my participants for spending time to give me precious data. My appreciation also goes to Mbak Dani, Mbak Tari, and all of the librarians for their assistance during my study.
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C. Tristavania D. for their unconditional love, care, support, trust, understanding, stories, encouragement, and never ending prayers for me. I am so grateful to have those Super persons in my incredible life who always lift and cheer me up whenever I fall. I would like to express thanks to my dearest grand ma, aunties, uncles, and cousins for their support and prayers, especially: Suster Antonina, Bulek Wiwik, Bulek Datik, Om Subur, Aldo, Grace, Gilang, Anin, and Sindu.
My deepest gratitude goes to my best grace, J. B. Satrio Nugroho, for his care, love, patience, understanding, unwavering support, and willingness to help me passing through hard times in completing my thesis. I thank him for always giving me faith “no star is out of reach”.
I would like to offer my greatest thankfulness to my friends of PBI’03, especially: C’ Popz galz (Dita, Patzi, Mak Mier, Dame, Neti, Proti, Paul, Be, Bagong, Punto, Suki), Ozzi ‘Mak Oz’, Pak Febri, Ratri, Gaby, Ardi, Iyas, Lukas, Yusta, Layung, Yesi ‘Kabul’, Monci, Hepi, Retha ‘Mba Ndut’, Wiwid, Fendi, Ajeng, Melani, Tony, Timur, Vivi, Yuan, Arum, Tyas ‘Najongki’, Lintang, and Pakde Andri, for friendship, sharing moments and laughs, discussion, and support we ever had during my study. My sincere appreciation also goes to the following persons: Mas Rendy’02 for lending me journals and books, Dewi’04, for giving valuable suggestion on my thesis, and my ‘STECE’ friends, especially Anggi ‘Mba Cum’, Ucee, Tesa for their support and motivation. Lastly, I thank persons whose names cannot be mention one by one, who help me in completing my thesis. God bless them all.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL PAGES ... ii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... iv
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... v
DEDICATION PAGE ... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix
LIST OF TABLES ... xii
LIST OF FIGURES ... xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xv
ABSTRACT ... xvi
ABSTRAK ... xviii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Research Background ... 1
B. Problem Formulations ... 3
C. Problem Limitation ... 4
D. Research Objectives ... 5
E. Research Benefits ... 5
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CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical description ... 9
1. The Nature of Word ... 9
2. Overview of Meaning ... 11
3. Overview of Synonym ... 14
a. Definition... 14
b. Types of Synonym ... 15
c. Classification of Synonymous Words ... 17
d. A Study on the Definition of Synonymous Verbs ... 19
4. Componential Analysis ... 48
a. Meaning and Feature ... 49
b. The Function of Features ... 49
c. The Way to Identify Semantic Features ... 51
5. The Mastery of a Language... 52
a. Definition... 53
b. Criteria of Mastery ... 53
B. Theoretical Framework ... 54
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Method ... 56
B. Research Participants... 57
C. Research Instrument ... 58
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a. Validity ... 60
b. Reliability ... 63
D. Data Gathering Technique ... 65
E. Data Analysis Technique ... 66
F. Research Procedure ... 71
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION A. Data Presentation ... 73
The Presentation of Students’ Achievement ... 73
B. Discussion ... 74
1. Componential Analysis of Twelve Pairs of Synonymous Verbs ... 74
2. The Students’ Mastery of Synonymous Verbs... 85
3. The Profile of the Students’ Mastery of Synonymous Verbs 89 CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions ... 105
B. Suggestions ... 107
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2. 1. The Thematic Roles of Verb ……….….… 51
Table 2. 2. The Semantic Features of Word Meaning to Carry ...………... 52
Table 3. 1. The Content of the Test ………... 61
Table 3. 2. The Distribution of Item in the Test...………. 62
Table 3. 3. Best’s Reliability Classification ……….… 65
Table 3. 4. The Raw Scores and Their Meanings ...………... 67
Table 3. 5. The Sample of Raw Data Tabulation ………... 68
Table 3.6. The Classification of Average Value and Criteria… ... ……. 70
Table 4. 1. The Students’ Achievement in the Test...……… 73
Table 4. 2. The Semantic Features forming to kill and toassassinate ……….. 75
Table 4. 3. The Semantic Features forming to try and toattempt ……….. 76
Table 4. 4. The Semantic Features forming to choose and toselect ………….. 77
Table 4. 5. The Semantic Features forming to invent and todiscover ………... 78
Table 4. 6. The Semantic Features forming to defend and toprotect ………… 79
Table 4. 7. The Semantic Features forming to employ and touse ………. 80
Table 4. 8. The Semantic Features forming to receive and toaccept ………… 80
Table 4. 9. The Semantic Features forming to hear and tolisten ……….. 81
Table 4. 10. The Semantic Features forming to look and tosee ……… 82
Table 4. 11. The Semantic Features forming to permit and toallow ………….. 83
Table 4. 12. The Semantic Features forming to prevent and tohinder ……….. 84
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Table 4. 14. The Descriptive Statistics of the Study...……… 86 Table 4. 15. The Students’ Scores in Relation to Academic Regulation ……… 88 Table 4. 16. The Students’ Scores in Relation to the Category and
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LIST OF FIGURES
xv
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix A: Surat Permohonan Ijin Penelitian………...…………... 114
Appendix B: The Modified Version of FTRM (Test)………... 115
Appendix C: The Acceptable Responses………... 120
Appendix D: The Sample of the Student’s Sheets……….……... 121
Appendix E:The Students’ Test Scores………131
Appendix F:Reliability of the Test……….. 134
xvi ABSTRACT
Wardani, Laurensia Andina Atika. 2008. An Analysis on Synonymous Verbs and a Study on the Students’ Mastery of Synonymous Verbs. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Sanata Dharma University.
The current study investigated the mastery of synonymous verbs among the sixth semester students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. There were three research questions: (1) What are similar and distinctive semantic features contained in each pair of the synonymous verbs? (2) How much have the sixth semester students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University mastered the synonymous verbs? (3) What is the profile of the sixth semester students’ mastery of synonymous verbs?
To answer those research questions, the writer applied survey method and dictionary study. Since it was not feasible to study the entire population, therefore, sample of 47 students were taken to represent all of the sixth semester students of the English Language Education Study Program. The modified version of Forward Translation Recognition Matrix (FTRM) designed by Mukarto (2005) was used as the instrument to obtain the data.
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xviii ABSTRAK
Wardani, Laurensia Andina Atika. 2008. An Analysis on Synonymous Verbs and a Study on the Students’ Mastery of Synonymous Verbs. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Studi ini mengkaji penguasaan kata kerja bersinonim oleh mahasiswa semester enam Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma. Terdapat tiga permasalahan dalam penelitian ini, (1) Apa sajakah similar features dan distinctive feature di dalam setiap pasang kata kerja bersinonim? (2) Sejauh mana mahasiswa semester enam Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma menguasai kata kerja bersinonim? (3) Bagaimana gambaran kemampuan mahasiswa semester enam dalam menguasai kata kerja bersinonim?
Untuk menjawab ketiga permasalahan tersebut, penulis menggunakan metode survei dan dictionary study. Karena tidak memungkinkan untuk mengkaji seluruh populasi, maka diambilah 47 mahasiswa sebagai sampel yang mewakili keseluruhan mahasiswa semester enam Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris. Penulis menggunakan modifikasi Forward Translation Recognition Matrix (FTRM) yang dirancang oleh Mukarto (2005) sebagai alat untuk mengumpulkan data.
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the researcher intends to construct the main rationale for conducting the research. The researcher elaborates six major underlying issues, namely background of study, problem formulation, problem limitation, objective of the study, benefits of the study, and definition of terms.
A. Research Background
Words are vital to communication. It is indisputable that most human language is largely a matter of words. Quoting Stubbs (1986: 99), Singleton (1999: 8) affirms that ‘when people think of a language, they think almost invariably of words’. Therefore, words play an indispensable function in human language, of which the role is as “the building blocks that are strung together according to the rules of sentence structure” (Carter, 2000: 7) in order to convey meaningful messages.
contexts. Accordingly, the improper choice of synonymous words in both oral and written may create a sense of disorientation to the message receiver, i.e. reader or hearer.
The term ‘synonym’ is often confusing for foreign language learners. The EFL learners sometimes wrongly conclude that the synonymous verbs are interchangeable in all contexts; a misconception that commonly results in the production of erroneous sentences. For instance, in case of the following Indonesian example, Siapa yang membunuh presiden itu?, it is common that the EFL learners translate the sentence into “Who killed the president?” instead of “Who assassinated the president?” The inaccurate production may indicate that “the learners are only familiar with general meanings, but lack knowledge of these words in depth” (Read, 2000: 90).
especially synonymous verbs, in anticipation of anxious and critical students who wish to know more than what is given and ask for details of this specific topic.
Considering that synonymous verbs are indispensable and should be mastered by the students of the English Education Study Program, therefore, through research, it is crucial to measure their ability of using the synonymous verbs. The research results can show whether the students have the capability to use the synonymous verbs or not. The research was conducted to the sixth semester students, with the consideration that they have learnt and internalized sufficient English vocabulary, particularly synonymous verbs, since they have taken Vocabulary I-II, Structure I-V, Reading I-II, Speaking I-V, Interpreting, and Translation I-II. This study enables the writer to see how much the sixth students of the English Language Education Study Program, as future teachers, have mastered this specific topic.
B. Problem Formulation
The problems of the investigation, the study on the mastery of synonymous verbs among the sixth semester students of English Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University, are operationally formulated as follows. 1. What are similar and distinctive semantic features contained in each pair of
the synonymous verbs?
3. What is the profile of the sixth semester students’ mastery of synonymous verbs?
C. Problem Limitation
The discussion of the research is limited to synonymous verb. Verbs are chosen since they play a central role in sentences. They are relational in nature since they relate the arguments (Kempson, 1989: 89). In addition, Mukarto (2005: 159) affirms that verbs have the potential to cause more problems to L2 learners than either nouns which serve more or less as labels and adjectives. The pairs of synonymous verbs selected as the test materials are taken from Graham’s word list (1916) and the writer selected the pair of verbs based on four categories, namely the head of generic and specific, the head of passive and active, the head of intensity, the head of positive and negative. Three pairs of verbs per category are taken as the representative.
in each pair of the synonymous verbs, some dictionaries are used in this study. The definitions of the twelve pairs of synonymous verbs taken from several dictionaries are used to analyze the similarities as well as the differences of each pair of synonymous verbs.
D. Research Objectives
This study has several objectives to achieve. The objectives are as follows. 1. To find out whether there are the similar and the distinctive semantic features
contained in each pair of the synonymous verbs.
2. To measure the mastery of the synonymous verbs of the sixth semester of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. 3. To present the profile of the students’ mastery of synonymous verbs.
E. Research Benefits
this study could be employed as one of the references for the next study intending to explore the synonymous verbs more or any researches conducted in the field of vocabulary teaching and learning. Third, the findings could be used as a tool to evaluate the instructional processes and practice in the department particularly in the field of vocabulary teaching and learning and in making necessary adjustment for improvement.
F. Definition of Terms
In order to avoid confusion and misconception in perceiving and understanding some important terms in this study, some significant terms related to this study would be defined as follows.
1. A study
2. Mastery
Hagboldt (1935: 2) argues that we have a mastery of a language when “our comprehension by ear is spontaneous; our reading is effortless and fluent, our use of words, idioms, and sentences in speech and in writing is habitual and skillful”. Collins Cobuild (1995: 1024) states that if you show mastery of particular skill or language, you show you have learnt or understood it completely and have no difficulty using it. To sum up, in mastering a language, one should learn all the elements of language and is able to apply the knowledge both in speaking and writing. In this study, ‘mastery’ refers to the understanding and ability to use the synonymous verbs correctly and appropriately in the sentences.
3. Synonymous Verbs
Verb is a word or group of words that describes an action, experience, or state (Longman, 2004: 1833). Radford (1999: 147) remarks that verb typically refers to activity and it plays a central role in meaning and structure of sentences (Fromkin, 2003: 191). In addition, Fromkin (2003: 191) contends that the verb determines the number of objects and limits the semantic properties of both its subject and its object.
Contemporary English (1978: 1127) defines synonymous as having the same or nearly the same meaning with another word in the same language.
This study employs the term ‘synonymous verbs’ referring to the verbs that are more or less similar, but not identical in meaning. Those synonymous verbs, basically, have the certain similar semantic features and the distinctive semantic features which differentiate one verb from another. Since the distinctive semantic features exist between two synonymous verbs, both verbs cannot be substituted in all contexts.
4. The Sixth Semester Students
9 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter reviews all theories proposed by some experts relating to the research. There are two major parts in this chapter namely theoretical description and theoretical framework. The first part is theoretical description that elaborates some important notions related to the research. The second part is theoretical framework that summarizes all relevant theories which helps the researcher solve the research problem.
A.Theoretical Description
There are five main theories to be elaborated in the study, namely the nature of word, overview of meaning, overview of synonym, componential analysis, and mastery of a language. These theories serve as the bases for the discussion and design the instrument.
1. The Nature of Word
theoretical terms for various applied purpose” (Read, 2000: 17), but some clear distinctions as the basic points to define words exist. The first, words can be thought of in terms of types or tokens. This distinction refers to the counting of words in text. Tokens defined as “actual occurrences of any times” (Singleton, 1999: 10). The number of tokens is the same as the total number of word forms, which means that “individual words occurring more than once in the text are counted each time they are used” (Read, 2000: 18). On the other hand, types mean “the items with different identities” (Singleton, 1999: 10). The number of types is the total number of the different word forms, so that a word which is repeated many times is counted only once (Read, 2000: 18). For instance, the phrase Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow will be thought of as containing five words (tomorrow, and, tomorrow, and, tomorrow) if we view words as tokens or two words if we view words as types. Likewise, the phrase going, going, gone will be considered to comprise three words (going, going, gone) on a count of tokens but only two words (going, gone) on a count of types. On the other hand, with regard to the usage of word, the last phrase would be judged to contain just one word, the verb go, represented by two of its various forms (going, gone) (Singleton, 1999: 10).
have little if any meaning in isolation and serve more to provide links within sentences, modify the meaning of content words and so on (Read, 2000:18).
2. Overview of Meaning
There are two broad types of meaning, namely different meanings of single terms and related meanings of different terms. Different meanings of single terms refer to “an only word may contain quite different senses or meanings” (Nida, 1975: 11). Meanwhile, related meanings of different terms refer to “different words that may have very closely related meanings” (Nida, 1975: 15).
a. Different meanings of single terms
b. Related meanings of different terms
While the same word may have quite different meanings, different words may have very closely related meanings. Nida (1975: 15) mentions four principle ways in which the meanings of different semantic units may be related to one another, namely inclusion, overlapping, complementation, and contiguity.
1) Inclusion
In inclusion, the meaning of one word is included within the meaning of another word. For instance, the meaning of poodle is included in the meaning of dog, and the meaning of dog included in the meaning of animal (Nida, 1975: 15). With regard to the relationship of specific and general lexical items (Carter, 1998: 21), here, poodle is the hyponym or subordinate of dog, and dog, as the more general term than poodle, well known as the hypernym or the superordinate of poodle. Meanwhile, dog is the hyponym of animal, and animal is the superordinate or the hypernym of dog.
2) Overlapping
another in at least certain contexts without significant changes in the conceptual content of an utterance” (Nida, 1975: 16).
3) Complementation
In complementation, Nida (1975:17) affirms that the meanings which are complementary to each other involve a number of shared features of meaning, but show certain marked contrasts, and often opposite meanings. Nida (1975:17-18) mentions three types of complementation. They are:
(1) Opposites or often spoken as polar contrasts since they involve distinct antithesis of qualities (e.g. good/bad), quantities (e.g. much/little), states (e.g. dead/alive), time (e.g. now/then), space (e.g. here/there), and movement (e.g. go/come)
(2) Reversives of event ( e.g. tie/untie, alienate/reconcile) (3) Conversives (e.g. buy/sell, lend/borrow)
4) Contiguity
the supporting surface involve clearly definable contrast. Therefore, each meaning is distinctly set off from other related meanings by at least one important feature. The relation of contiguity does not apply to the words walk, run, hop, skip, and crawl, but only to the meanings of those words which are related, in the sense that they share certain features, and hence constitute a single semantic domain.
3. Overview of Synonym
As discussed in section 2, it is noted that words have sense relations. Regarding the aim of the study is to find out the students’ mastery on synonymous verbs, therefore, it is worthwhile to discuss synonym further.
a. Definition of Synonym
In learning vocabulary it is often found that there are two or more words that can be similar in meaning. Terms whose meanings overlap are generally called synonyms (Nida, 1975: 98). Palmer (1991: 88) asserts that synonymy is used to mean sameness of meaning. The definition of synonymy is similar with the definition proposed by Hurford (1996: 102) that synonymy is the relationship between two words or more that have same sense.
1) Synonymous Verb
expression with the same meaning. To be specific, Nida (1975) asserts that synonymous verb is a verb or expression which has essentially the same diagnostic components as another and which can be substituted (Nida, 1975: 233) in at least certain context, but rarely in all contexts (Nida, 1975: 98).
Radford (1999: 147) affirms that verbs typically refer to activities (e.g. steal, snore, applaud, and collide). Verb plays a central role in the meaning and structure of sentences. They are relational in nature since they relate the arguments (Kempson, 1989: 89), determine the number of objects, and limit the semantic properties of both its subject and its objects (Fromkin and Rodman, 2003: 191). For example, find requires an animate subject and selects a direct object, whereas put selects for both a direct object and a prepositional object that has a locative meaning. In this respect, the improper choice of verbs in both oral and written may create a sense of disorientation to the message receiver, i.e. reader or hearer. Mukarto (2005: 159) contends that verbs have the potential to cause more problems to L2 learners than either nouns which serve more or less as labels and adjectives.
b. Types of Synonyms
more) expressions are absolutely synonymous if, and only if, they fulfill the following conditions:
(i) all their meanings are identical; (ii) they are synonymous in all contexts;
(iii) they are semantically equivalent (it means that their meaning or meanings are identical) on all dimensions of meaning, descriptive and non-descriptive. For example, Standard dictionaries of English treat the adjectives ‘big’ and ‘large’ as polysemous. In one of their meanings, exemplified by:
(1) ‘They live in a big/large house’ (Lyons, 1995: 61).
The two words above would generally be regarded as synonymous. Both words, ‘big’ and ‘large’, can be presupposed as absolute synonymy if they fulfill those three conditions of absolute synonymy. Considering the following example: (2) ‘I will tell my big sister’ (Lyons, 1995: 61).
To determine whether both words,’ big’ and ‘large’, are absolutely synonymous, the word ‘big’ in sentence (2) should be substituted by the word ‘large’.
(3) ‘I will tell my large sister’ (Lyons, 1995: 62).
c. Graham’s Classification of Synonymous Words
Graham (1916: 13) classified a very large class of synonymous words under the heads of ‘Generic and Specific’, ‘Active and Passive’, ‘Intensity’, and ‘Positive and Negative’. Those pairs of words are near-synonymy since the distinction in each pair of synonymous words exists. The explanations of those four classifications are as follows.
1) Generic and Specific
of doing, then, it is labelled the ‘specific’. Both words fall under the ‘order’ verb (Graham, 1916: 14).
2) Active and Passive
Graham (1916: 120) affirms that the synonyms under this division are distinguished from each other by the active and passive qualities which they contain. The terms ‘active’ and ‘passive’ employed here are not taken from grammatical sense. Graham (1916: 120) asserts that many words represent an active or a passive quality. Therefore, a word that expresses a passive or recipient state may thus often be distinguished from one containing the same idea in an active state. The two nouns ability and capacity will come under this head of differences. Both words contain the idea of power. Capacity expresses a power of receiving knowledge and has a recipient or passive meaning, whereas Ability expresses a power of applying knowledge and consequently has an active signification (Graham, 1916: 121).
3) Intensity
4) Positive and Negative
A fourth class of differences may be formed under the head of positive and negative. Graham (1916: 280) asserts that many words represent a positive or a negative quality. Thus, the word containing a positive quality may often be distinguished from one expressing a negative quality. As an example: the two nouns fault and defect. A fault is something positively wrong; a defect is something negatively wrong (1916: 17).
d. A Study on the Definition of Synonymous Verbs
Twelve pairs of synonymous verbs are selected in this study. Three pairs of synonymous verbs are selected to represent the four Graham’s classifications. The set of the synonymous verb pairs are kill-assassinate, try-attempt, choose-select, invent-discover, defend-protect, employ-use, receive-accept, hear-listen, look-see, permit-allow, prevent-hinder, and neglect-disregard. The following are the definition of the twelve pairs of synonymous verbs.
1) Kill – Assassinate (Generic – Specific)
the examples taken from Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary (2000) and Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2001).
(1) Cancer kills thousands of people every year (Hornby, 2000: 708). (2) Three people were killed in the crash(Hornby, 2000: 708). (3) He tried to kill himself with sleeping pills(Hornby, 2000: 708). (4) I bought a spray to kill the weeds(Hornby, 2000: 708).
(5) More than 1,000 people have been killed by the armed forces (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 852).
(6) He had attempted to kill himself on several occasions (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 852).
(7) Cattle should be killed cleanly and humanely(Collins Cobuild, 2001: 852). (8) The earthquake killed 62 people(Collins Cobuild, 2001: 852).
Activator (1994), and Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2001).
(9) The prime minister was assassinated by extremists (Hornby, 2000: 60). (10) A plot to assassinate the president (Hornby, 2000: 60).
(11) President Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth (Language Activator, 1994: 724).
(12) The police have uncovered a plot to assassinate several important politicians when the conference opens (Language Activator, 1994: 724). (13) J.F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas in 1963 (Language Activator,
1994: 886).
(14) Would the USA be radically different today if Kennedy had not been assassinated (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 81)?
(15) The plot to assassinate Martin Luther King had started long before he was actually killed (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 81).
2) Try – Attempt (Generic – Specific)
Hornby (2000: 1394) asserts that the definition of to try is to make an attempt or effort to do or get something. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2004: 1782) defines that to try is to attempt to do or get something. (16) I don’t know if I can come but I’ll try (Hornby, 2000: 1394).
(17) What are you trying to do (Hornby, 2000: 1394)? (18) I tried hard not to laugh (Hornby, 2000: 1394).
(19) Let’s have a rest and then we’ll try again (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1782).
(20) He tried to control his voice (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1782).
Longman Language Activator (1994: 1454) provides a definition of to attempt that to attempt is to try to do something that is difficult, dangerous, or has never been done before. The definition of to attempt is similar with the definition proposed by Hornby (2000: 66) that to attempt is to make an effort or to try to do, especially something difficult. Collins Cobuild (2001: 87) defines if you attempt to do something, especially something difficult, you try to do it. Below are the examples.
(21) Any prisoner who attempts to escape will be shot (Longman Language Activator, 1994: 1454).
(22) They are attempting to become the first to climb Everest without oxygen tanks (Longman Language Activator, 1994: 1454).
(25) The only time that we attempted to do something like that was in the city of Philadelphia (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 87).
3) Choose – Select (Generic – Specific)
Graham (1916: 75) affirms that to choose contains the ‘generic’ meaning. To choose indicates an act of will (Graham, 1916: 75). Hornby (2000: 206) asserts that to choose is to decide which thing or person you want out of the ones that are available. Longman Language Activator (1994: 211) defines to choose as to decide which one you want. According to Collins Cobuild (2001: 256), the definition of to choose is if you choose someone or something from several people or things that are available, you decide which person or thing you want to have. The following are the examples.
(26) She had to choose between giving up her job or hiring a nanny (Hornby, 2000: 206).
(27) He chose banking as a career (Hornby, 2000: 206).
(28) She chose that house because she liked the garden (Longman Language Activator, 1994: 211).
(29) The workers could choose whether to be paid by cheque or in cash (Longman Language Activator, 1994: 211).
(30) There are several patchwork cushions to choose from (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 256)
and choice. Hornby (2000: 1158) contends that to select is to choose somebody or something, usually carefully, from a group of people or things. Collins Cobuild (2001: 1403) defines if you select something; you choose it from a number of things of the same kind. To select is to choose something by carefully thinking about which is the best, most suitable, etc (Longman Language Activator, 1994: 211). The following are the examples.
(31) He hasn’t been selected for the team (Hornby, 2000: 1158).
(32) She was selected as the parliamentary candidate for Bath (Hornby, 2000: 1158).
(33) Farmers select only the healthiest animals for breeding (Longman Language Activator, 1994: 211).
(34) It is crucial that parents select the right school for any child with learning difficulties (Longman Language Activator, 1994: 211).
(35) He had hopes of being selected for the national team (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1487).
4) Invent – Discover (Active – Passive)
definition of the two synonymous verbs, it is worthwhile to consult some monolingual dictionaries.
To invent is if you invent something such as a machine or process, you are the first person to think of it or make it (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 825). Hornby (2000: 684) asserts that to invent is to produce or design something that has not existed before. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2004: 856) defines that to invent is to make, design, or think of a new type of thing. To concise the explanations above, to invent, in other words, is to invent something new (Longman Language Activator, 1994: 699). Below are the examples.
(36) He invented the first electric clock (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 825). (37) Who invented the steam-engine (Hornby, 2000: 684)?
(38) Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876 (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 856).
(39) Braille, a system of writing for blind people, was invented in the nineteenth century (Longman Language Activator, 1994: 699).
To discover contains several definitions. The first definition of to discover is to be the first person to become aware that a particular place or thing exists (Hornby, 2000: 358). Collins Cobuild (2001: 434) states that when someone discovers a new place, substance, scientific technique, they are the first person to find it or become aware of it. For example,
(40) Cook is credited with discovering Hawaii (Hornby, 2000: 358).
(43) In the 19th century, gold was discovered in California (Collins Cobuild, 1995: 469).
The second definition of to discover is to find somebody or something that was hidden or that you did not expect to find (Hornby, 2000: 358). Collins Cobuild (2001: 434) defines if someone or something is discovered means that someone finds them, either by accident or because they have been looking for them. Below are the examples.
(44) We discovered this beach while we were sailing around the island (Hornby, 2000: 358).
(45) She was discovered dead at her home in Leeds (Hornby, 2000: 358).
(46) A few days later his badly beaten body was discovered on a roadside outside the city (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 434).
The third definition of to discover is to find out about something; to find information about something (Hornby, 2000: 358). Collins Cobuild (2001: 434) states that if you discover something that you did not know about before, you become aware of it or learn of it. For example:
(47) It was shocked to discover (that) he couldn’t read (Hornby, 2000: 358). (48) I’ve just discovered hang-gliding (Hornby, 2000: 358)!
(49) She discovered that they’d escaped (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 434). (50) I discovered I was pregnant (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 434).
actor, musician, or other performer who is not well-known is discovered, someone recognizes that they have talent and helps them in their career. For example: (51) The Beatles was discovered in the early 1960’s (Collins Cobuild, 2001:
434).
(52) The singer was discovered while still at school (Hornby, 2000: 358).
5) Defend – Protect (Active – Passive)
Graham (1916: 156) asserts that to defend is an active action and to protect is considered as a passive action. Furthermore, Graham (1916: 156) affirms that to defend is to ward off, whereas to protect is to cover over. We defend those who are attacked; we protect those who are liable to be attacked (Graham, 1916: 156). To gain an obvious definition of the two synonymous verbs, it is worthwhile to consult some monolingual dictionaries.
To defend contains several meanings. The first definition of to defend is to protect somebody or something from attack (Hornby, 2000: 329). Collins Cobuild (2001: 396) states that if you defend someone or something, you take action in order to protect them. Longman Language Activator (1994: 317) defines to defend as to take action in order to prevent a person, place or country from being attacked. The following are the examples.
(53) All our officers are trained to defend themselves against knife attacks (Hornby, 2000: 329).
(55) At school he always defended his little brother (Longman Language Activator, 1994: 317).
The second definition of to defend is to use arguments to protect something or someone from criticism, or to prove that something is right (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 411). Hornby defines that to defend is to say or write something in support of somebody or something that has been criticized (2000: 329). Collins Cobuild (2001: 396) states that if you defend someone or something when they have been criticized, you argue in support of them. The following are the examples.
(56) Politicians are skilled at defending themselves against their critics (Hornby, 2000: 329).
(57) Police chiefs strongly defended police conduct against a wave of criticism (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 396).
(58) Students should be ready to explain and defend their views (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 411).
The third definition of to defend is to protect your own team’s end of the field in a game such as football, in order to prevent your opponents from getting points (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 411).
(59) Bournemouth defended well throughout the game (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 411).
(60) She will be defending her title at next month’s championships (Hornby, 2000: 329).
(61) The world heavyweight champion was defending his title (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 411).
(62) Torrence expects to defend her title successfully in the next Olympics (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 396).
The fifth definition of to defend is to act as a lawyer for somebody who has been charged with a crime (Hornby, 2000: 329).
(63) He has employed one of the UK’s top lawyers to defend him (Hornby, 2000: 329).
(64) He had top lawyers to defend him (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 411).
To protect has several meanings. The first definition of to protect is to keep someone or something safe from harm, damage, or illness (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1317). Hornby (2000: 1018) asserts that to protect is to make sure that somebody or something is not harmed, injured, damaged, etc. Collins Cobuild (2001: 1232) states that to protect someone or something means to prevent them from being harmed or damaged. For examples: (65) Troops have been sent to protect aid workers against attack (Hornby, 2000:
1018).
(67) The hard shell of a nut protects the seed inside it (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 1978: 883).
(68) The cover protects the machine from dust (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1317).
The second definition of to protect is to provide somebody or something with insurance against fire, injury, damage, etc (Hornby, 2000: 1019). Collins Cobuild (2001: 1232) states that if an insurance policy protects you against an event such as death, injury, fire, or theft; the insurance company will give you or your family money if that event happens. The following are the examples.
(69) Many policies do not protect you against personal injury (Hornby, 2000: 1019).
(70) Many manufacturers have policies to protect themselves against blackmailers (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1232).
6) Employ – Use (Active – Passive)
Graham (1916: 158) contends that to employ is an active action since what is employed is made to act, while to use is a passive action since what is used is acted upon. Graham (1916: 158) defines that to use is to obtain enjoyment or service from it, whereas to employ is to turn that service into a particular purpose. To gain a clearer definition of the two synonymous verbs, it is worthwhile to consult some monolingual dictionaries.
company employs you, they pay you to work for them (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 502). Concisely, to employ is to pay someone to work for you (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 512). Below are the examples.
(71) How many people does the company employ (Hornby, 2000: 410)?
(72) For the past three years he has been employed as a firefighter (Hornby, 2000: 410).
(73) The company employs 18 staff (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 502).
(74) More than 3,000 local workers are employed in the tourism industry (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 502).
(75) The factory employs over 2000 people (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 512).
(76) Kelly is employed as a mechanic (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 512).
The second definition of to employ is (formal) to use something such as a skill, method for a particular purpose (Hornby, 2000: 410). Consequently, if you employ certain methods, materials, or expressions, you use them (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 502) in order to achieve something (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 512). The following are the examples.
(77) He criticized the repressive methods employed by the country’s government (Hornby, 2000: 410).
(79) The report examines teaching methods employed in the classroom (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 512).
The third definition of to employ is (usually passive) to spend your time doing a particular thing (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 512). Collins Cobuild (2001: 502) states that if your time is employed in doing something, you are using the time you have to do that thing. Below are the examples.
(80) Her days are employed in gardening and voluntary work (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 512)
(81) Your time could be usefully employed in attending to professional matters (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 502).
To use contains several definitions. The first definition of to use is to do something with a machine, a method, an object, etc. for particular purposes (Hornby, 2000: 1432). Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2004: 1823) states that if you use a particular tool, method, service, ability, etc., you do something with that tool, by means of that method etc., for a particular purpose. Below are the examples.
(82) Can I use your phone (Hornby, 2000: 1432)?
(83) Have you ever used this software before (Hornby, 2000: 1432)?
(84) I’ll show you which room you can use (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1823).
The second definition of to use is to take a particular amount of a liquid, substance, etc. in order to achieve or make something (Hornby, 2000: 1432). Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2004: 1823) states that to use is to take an amount of something from a supply of food, gas, money, etc. In addition, Collins Cobuild (2001: 1728) states that if you use a supply of something, you finish it so that none of it is left. Below are the examples.
(86) This type of heater uses a lot of electricity (Hornby, 2000: 1432). (87) I hope you haven’t used all the milk (Hornby, 2000: 1432).
(88) We use about £40 worth of electricity a month (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1823).
(89) Standard washing machines use about 40 gallons of water (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1823).
(90) You used all the ice cubes and didn’t put the ice trays back (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1728).
The third definition of to use is to make someone do something for you in order to get something you want (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1823). Hornby (2000: 1432) defines the third definition of to use that is to be kind, friendly, etc to somebody with the intention of getting an advantage for yourself from them. Collins Cobuild (2001: 1728) argues that if you say that someone uses people, you disapprove of them because they make others do things for them in order to benefit or gain some advantage from it, and not because they care about the other people. For example:
(92) Can’t you see that Howard is just using you (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1823)?
(93) Be careful she’s not just using you (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1728).
(94) Why do I have the feeling I’m being used again (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1728)?
The fourth definition is to take illegal drugs (Hornby, 2000: 1432). Therefore, if someone uses drugs, they take drugs regularly, especially illegal ones (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1728). The following are the examples.
(95) Most of inmates have used drugs at some point in their lives (Hornby, 2000: 1432).
(96) He denied he had used drugs (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1728).
(97) You’ll find that most people that don’t use heroine don’t like people that do (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1728).
The fifth definition of to use is to take advantage of a situation (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1823). For example:
(98) She used her position as manager to get jobs for her friends (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1823).
Collins Cobuild (2001: 1728) defines the sixth definition of to use that you can say that someone uses the toilet or bathroom as a polite way of saying that they go to the toilet. The examples are as follows.
(99) Wash your hands after using the toilet (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1728).
The seventh definition of to use is to say or write a particular word or phrase (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1823). Thus, if you use a particular word or expression, you say or write it, because it has the meaning that you want to express (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1728). For example:
(101) We use the word ‘hardware’ to describe the actual machine (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1823).
(102) The judge liked using the word ‘wicked’ of people he had sent to jail (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1728).
The eighth definition of to use is if you use a particular name, you call yourself by that name, especially when it is not the name that you usually call yourself (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1728). The following are the examples.
(103) Now I use a false name if I’m meeting people for the first time (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1728).
(104) I didn’t want to use my married name because we’ve split (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1728).
7) Receive – Accept (Intensity)
we receive news when it reaches us, whereas we accept a present which is offered us, and we accept an invitation to dine with a friend, etc (Graham, 1916: 246).
To receive has several meanings. The first definition of to receive is to get or accept something that is sent or given to you (Hornby, 2000: 1058). Collins Cobuild (2001: 1283) state that when you receive something, you get it after someone gives it to you or sends it to you. The following are the examples.
(105) All the children will receive a small gift (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1369).
(106) I received your letter of November 7 (Collin Cobuild, 2001: 1283).
(107) He received an award for bravery from the police service (Hornby, 2000: 1058).
(108) They will receive their awards at a ceremony in Stockholm (Collin Cobuild, 2001: 1283).
The second definition of to receive is to experience or to be given a particular type of treatment or an injury (Hornby, 2000: 1058). Below are the examples.
(109) We received a warm welcome from our host (Hornby, 2000: 1058).
(110) He received more of the blame than anyone when the plan failed to work (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1283).
(111) She was suffering from whiplash injuries received in a car crash (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1283).
particular way, you mean that people react to it in that way (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1283). The examples are as follows.
(112) The play was well received by the critics (Hornby, 2000: 1058). (113) The statistics were received with concern (Hornby, 2000: 1058).
(114) The proposals have been well received by many deputies (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1283).
The fourth definition of to receive is to welcome or entertain a guest, especially formally (Hornby, 2000: 1058). For example:
(115) He was received as an honoured guest at the White House (Hornby, 2000: 1058).
(116) The following evening the duchess was again receiving guests (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1283).
The fifth definition of to receive is to officially recognize and accept somebody as a member of the group (Hornby, 2000: 1058). The example is below.
(117) Three young people were received into the Church at Easter (Hornby, 2000: 1058).
The sixth definition of to receive is to change broadcast signals into sounds or pictures on television, radio, etc (Hornby, 2000: 1059). Collin Cobuild (2001: 1283) defines that when a radio or a television receives signal that is being transmitted, it picks them up and converts them into sound or picture.
The seventh definition of to receive is to buy or to accept goods that you know have been stolen (Hornby, 2000: 1059).
(119) He went to prison for receiving stolen scrap iron (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1283).
To accept contains several definitions. Hornby (2000: 6) defines that to accept is to take willingly something that is offered, to say ‘yes’ to an offer, invitation, etc. There are some examples below:
(120) He asked me to marry him and I accepted (Hornby, 2000: 6). (121) Please accept our sincere apologies (Hornby, 2000: 6).
(122) It was pouring with rain so I accepted his offer of lift (Hornby, 2000: 6). The second definition of to accept is to receive something as suitable or good enough (Hornby, 2000: 6). The examples are as follows.
(123) My article has been accepted for publication (Hornby, 2000: 6). (124) This machine only accepts coins (Hornby, 2000: 6).
The third definition of to accept is to agree to or approve of something (Hornby, 2000: 6). Below are the examples.
(125) They accepted the court’s decision (Hornby, 2000: 6). (126) He accepted all the changes we proposed (Hornby, 2000: 6).
The fourth definition of to accept is to admit that you are responsible or to blame for something (Hornby, 2000: 6). The following are the examples.
The fifth definition of to accept is to believe that is true (Hornby, 2000: 6). For example:
(129) I don’t accept his version of events (Hornby, 2000: 6).
(130) It is generally accepted that people are motivated by success (Hornby, 2000: 6).
The sixth definition of to accept is to continue in a difficult situation without complaining, because you realize that you cannot change it (Hornby, 2000: 6). The examples are as follows.
(131) You just have to accept the fact that we’re never going to be rich (Hornby, 2000: 6).
(132) They accept the risks as part of the job (Hornby, 2000: 6).
The seventh definition of to accept is to make somebody feel welcome and part of a group (Hornby, 2000: 7). For example:
(133) It may take years to be completely accepted by the local community (Hornby, 2000: 7).
(134) He never really accepted her as his own child (Hornby, 2000: 7).
The eight definition of to accept is to allow somebody to join an organization, attend an institution, use a service (Hornby, 2000: 7). Below are the examples. (135) The college he applied to has accepted him (Hornby, 2000: 7).
8) Hear – Listen (Intensity)
Graham (1916: 240) affirms that to hear and to listen are synonyms of degree. Moreover, Graham (1916: 240) asserts that we hear involuntarily, we listen with intention. Therefore, those who have sound ears cannot help hearing. Graham (1916: 240) argues that listening is an intensive degree of hearing since we may hear persons talking without listening to what they say, but if you listen to a conversation, you may hear many improving remarks.
To hear contains some definitions. The first definition of to hear is to be aware of sounds with your ears (Hornby, 2000: 600). Collins Cobuild (2001: 724) defines that when you hear a sound, you become aware of it through your ears. The following are the examples.
(137) I can’t hear very well (Hornby, 2000: 600).
(138) She heard footsteps behind her (Hornby, 2000: 600). (139) He could hear a dog barking (Hornby, 2000: 600).
(140) The trumpet can be heard all over their house (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 724). Hornby (2000: 600) asserts that the second definition of to hear is to listen or pay attention to somebody or something. Below are the examples.
(141) Did you hear that play on the radio last night (Hornby, 2000: 600)? (142) We’d better hear what they have to say (Hornby, 2000: 600).
(143) You can hear commentary on the match in about half an hour’s time (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 724).
(144) Haven’t you heard? She resigned (Hornby, 2000: 600). (145) I was sorry to hear about your accident (Hornby, 2000: 600).
The fourth definition of to hear is to listen and judge a case in a court of law (Hornby, 2000: 600). For example:
(146) Today the jury began to hear the evidence (Hornby, 2000: 600).
To listen is to pay attention to somebody or something that you can hear (Hornby, 2000: 750). Below are the examples.
(147) I listened carefully to her story (Hornby, 2000: 750).
(148) I’m fond of listening to classical music (Hornby, 2000: 750).
(149) The whole class was listening attentively (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 943).
(150) Please listen carefully for the telephone while I’m upstairs (Hornby, 1974: 495).
The second definition of to listen is to take notice of what somebody says to you so that you follow their advice or believe them (Hornby, 2000: 750). The following are the examples.
(151) None of this would have happened if you’d listened to me (Hornby, 2000: 750).
(152) Why won’t you listen to the reason (Hornby, 2000: 750).
The third definition of to listen is it is used to tell somebody to take notice of what you are going to say (Hornby, 2000: 750). For example:
9) See – Look (Intensity)
Graham (1916: 251) asserts that to see is the simple act of using the organ of sight, whereas to look is to direct that organ to some particular object. Furthermore, Graham (1916: 251) argues that those who have their eyes open cannot help seeing, but to look implies an act of the will. Accordingly, to make the distinction of those verbs clear, Graham (1916: 252) provides an example as follows. If you look at the sun, you may see the spot on its surface (Graham, 1916: 252).
To see is to have or use the power of sight (Hornby, 2000: 1156). Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2004: 1483) defines to see as to be able to use your eyes to look at things and know what they are. The examples are as follows.
(154) From the tower, you see for miles (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1483).
(155) His eyes are so bad that he can’t see to read anymore (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1483).
(156) You can’t see colours at night (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1400).
(157) As he neared the farm, he saw that a police car was parked outside it (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1400).
The second definition of to see is if you see someone, you visit them or meet them (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1400).
(159) Mick wants to see you in his office right away (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1400).
If you see an entertainment such as a play, film, concert, or sports game, you watch it (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1400).
(160) He had been to see a semifinal of the FA Cup (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1400).
Hornby (2000: 759) defines to look as to turn your eyes in a particular direction. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2004: 955) defines to look as to turn your eyes towards something, so that you can see it. The following are the examples.
(161) If you look carefully you can just see our house from here (Hornby, 2000: 759).
(162) She looked at me and smiled (Hornby, 2000: 759).
(163) If you look carefully you can see that the painting represents a human figure (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 955).
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2004: 955) defines the second definition of to look as to try to find somebody or something. The examples are as follows.
(164) I looked everywhere but Jimmy was no where to be found (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 955).
(165) Could you help me look for my contact lens (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 955)?
10) Permit – Allow (Positive – Negative)
Graham (1916: 331) contends that to permit implies the granting of a request (formal), whereas to allow implies not to forbid. Therefore, to permit suggests a positive meaning, while to allow suggests a negative meaning. Furthermore, Graham (1916: 332) argues that we are permitted to do what we obtain leave to do, whereas, we are allowed to do what one does not interfere with us for doing. To obtain an obvious definition of the two synonymous verbs, it is worthwhile to consult some monolingual dictionaries.
To permit is (formal) to allow somebody to do something or to allow something to happen (Hornby, 2000: 941). Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2004: 1222) defines to permit as (formal) to allow something to happen, especially by an official decision, rule, or law. Random House Webster’s College Dictionary (2001: 36) argues that to permit implies a more positive or willing consent, it is often used of a formal authorization. The following are the examples. (167) Radios are not permitted in the library (Hornby, 2000: 941).
(168) Visitors are not permitted to take photographs (Hornby, 2000: 941).
(169) Smoking is only permitted in the public lounge (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1222).
(170) As a punishment, she was not permitted to attend any school activities (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1222).
The second definition of to permit is to make it possible for something to happen (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1222).
(172) The large windows permit a clear view of the lake (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1222).
(173) We hope to visit the cathedral, if time permits (Hornby, 2000: 941).
To allow is to let somebody or something do something, to let something happen or be done (Hornby, 2000: 941). Random House Webster’s College Dictionary (2001: 36) argues that to allow suggests passivity or even oversight, it points to the absence of an attempt or intention to hinder. Therefore, it implies a negative meaning. The following are the examples.
(174) His parents won’t allow him to stay out late (Hornby, 2000: 31). (175) He allowed his mind to wander (Hornby, 2000: 31).
(176) The baby-sitter allowed the children to run around the house (Random House Webster’s College Dictionary, 2001: 36).
The second definition of to allow is to make it possible for something to happen or for someone to do something especially something helpful or useful (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 38). The following are the examples. (177) Our new system will allow for more efficient use of resources (Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 38).
10) Prevent – Hinder (Positive – Negative)
Graham (1916: 333) affirms that to prevent implies a positive interruption, conversely, to hinder suggests a negative interruption. Furthermore, Graham (1916: 333) argues that one who is hindered does not wholly cease from action, but one who is prevented cannot advance a step. In order to obtain an obvious definition of both synonymous verbs, it is worthwhile to consult some monolingual dictionaries.
To prevent is to stop somebody from doing something, to stop something from happening (Hornby, 2000: 1001). Collins Cobuild (2001: 1214) defines that to prevent something means to ensure that it does not happen. In addition, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2004: 769) defines that to prevent means to make it impossible for someone to do something. The following are the examples.
(177) The rules are intended to prevent accidents (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004: 1296).
(178) These methods prevent pregnancy (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1214).
(179) Further treatment will prevent cancer from developing (Collins Cobuild, 2001: 1214).
(180) He is prevented by law from holding a license (Hornby, 2000: 1001).
