Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 ,1 [1997] 6 –1 3 © MCB Unive rsity Pre ss [ISSN 0951-354X]
Teachers as leaders – an exploratory framework
Frank Crowther
Asso c iate Pro fe sso r at the Sc ho o l Le ade rship Institute , Unive rsity o f So uthe rn Que e nsland, To o wo o mba, Australia
Peter Olsen
Le c ture r in Educ atio n at the Sc ho o l Le ade rship Institute , Unive rsity o f So uthe rn Que e nsland, To o wo o mba, Australia
Based on a study of the lead-ership approaches of highly successful teachers and paraprofessionals who work in socioeconomically disad-vantaged school communi-ties, presents a preliminary framework for teacher leader-ship, in which aspects of transformational and educa-tive approaches to leadership are evident with strategic approaches less so. Con-cludes that the work of highly successful teachers is not sufficiently recognized in the development of most theories of educational leadership. This may be particularly the case with theories that origi-nate in corporate and man-agerial systems, raising serious doubts about the potential of much existing theory to meet the needs of the education profession in emerging educational con-texts.
Introduction
E d u ca t ion a l lea d er sh ip is a fa s cin a t in g bu t slip p er y con ce p t . H u n d r ed s of d efi n it ion s h ave b een offer ed sin ce r es ea r ch in t o lea d er sh ip d evelop ed a s a ser iou s a ca d em ic u n d er -t a k in g in -t h e im m ed ia -t e p os -t -w a r p er iod . H ow ever, t wo p oin t s a r e gen er a lly a gr eed on . F ir s t , lea d er s h ip is a gr ou p fu n ct ion r eq u ir -in g h u m a n -in t er a ct ion . Secon d , lea d er sh ip in volves in t en t ion a l in fl u en ce on t h e b eh av -iou r of ot h er s.
Un t il ver y r ecen t ly, ed u ca t ion a l lea d er sh ip h a s t en d ed t o b e con st r u ed a s a s socia t ed w it h a s cr ib ed a u t h or it y a n d p osit ion – for exa m p le, s ch ool a d m in is t r a t ion or s y st em d ir ect or -sh ip. T h e id ea of ed u ca t ion a l lea d er -sh ip a s in volv in g p r a ct isin g t ea ch er s a n d p a r a p r ofes-sion a ls a s cen t r a l fi gu r es h a s b een a s er iou s ly u n d er d evelop ed t op ic, a lt h ou gh t er m s lik e su p er ior -s u b or d in a t e a n d lea d er -follow er, w h ich w er e on ce st a n d a r d u sa ge in ed u ca -t ion a l a d m in is -t r a -t ion -t ex-t s, a n d w h ich -t en d t o ca s t t ea ch er s in p os it ion s of r ela t ive d e p en d en cy a n d p ow er less n ess, a r e n ow less com -m on ly u s ed .
T h is a r t icle p r es en t s fi n d in gs fr om a st u dy [1] of 15 h igh ly effect ive t ea ch er s a n d p a r a p r ofes sion a ls – in d iv id u a ls a ccla im ed n ot on ly for t h eir p ed a gogica l excellen ce, bu t a lso for t h eir in fl u en ce in s t im u la t in g ch a n ge a n d cr ea t in g im p r ovem en t in t h e s ch ools a n d socioecon om ica lly d is a dva n t a ged com m u n i-t ies in w h ich i-t h ey wor k . Do i-t h e d ecis ion s a n d a ct ion s of p r a ct it ion er s s u ch a s t h ese im p ly p r oces s es a n d con ce p t s in ed u ca t ion a l lea d er -sh ip ? If s o, w h a t is t h e r eleva n ce t o t h eir wor k of lea d er sh ip t h eor ies t h a t a r e p r om in en t in ed u ca t ion a l m a n a gem en t ? It is t h es e q u es-t ion s es-t h a es-t gu id ed es-t h e s es-t u dy a n d es-t h a es-t p r ov id e t h e focu s of t h is a r t icle.
Research design and methodology
T h e s t u dy or igin a t ed t h r ou gh m eet in gs a n d in for m a l d is cu s sion s of ed u ca t ion a l a d m in is-t r a is-t or s w h o h a d b een r es p on s ible for m on i-t or in g gover n m en i-t -fu n d ed com p en s a i-t or y ed u ca t ion p r oject s t h a t w er e d esign ed t o a m elior a t e t h e effect s of s ocioecon om ic d isa d -va n t a ge. T h e a d m in is t r a t or s h a d ob s er ved
t h a t som e m em b er s of t h eir s t a ff h a d a ch ieved st r ik in g su cces ses in wor k in g t ow a r d s t h is en d . T h ey r ecogn ized t h a t fi n a n -cia l, t ech n ica l a n d h u m a n su p p or t ser v ices m a d e ava ila ble t h r ou gh t h e p r oject s h a d u n d ou b t ed ly b een a s ign ifi ca n t fa ct or in t h ese a ch ievem en t s. H ow ever, t h ey a ls o b elieved t h a t p r a ct it ion er s w h o a p p ea r ed t o t h em t o b e h igh ly s u ccess fu l exer t ed a n in fl u en ce t h a t t r a n scen d ed t h e r eq u ir em en t s of fu n d ed p r o-ject s.
In Se p t em b er 1995, r es ea r ch er s in t h e Sch ool Lea d er sh ip In st it u t e a t t h e Un iver sit y of Sou t h er n Qu een s la n d w er e con t r a ct ed t o exp lor e t h e follow in g r esea r ch p r oblem :
Wh a t ch a r a ct er is t ics d is t in gu is h t h e wor k of a sa m p le of ed u ca t or s w h o h ave a ch ieved su ccess in wor k in g in s ocioecon om ica lly d isa dva n t a ged s ch ools ? Wh a t for m s of ed u -ca t ion a l lea d er s h ip a r e in h er en t in t h es e ch a r a ct er is t ics ?
Cr it er ia t o fa cilit a t e t h e id en t ifi ca t ion of officia l p a r t icip a n t s in t h e r esea r ch w er e d evelop ed join t ly by t h e r esea r ch er s a n d r e p r esen t a t ives of t h e a d m in ist r a t or gr ou p. Fou r cr it er ia w er e en d or s ed a s in d ica t in g ev id en ce of su ccess in r esp on d in g t o socioeco-n om ic d isa dva socioeco-n t a ge:
1 con cr et e ev id en ce of a sign ifi ca n t con t r i-bu t ion t o a n a sp ect of s ocia l ju st ice in t h e sch ool or t h e s ch ool com m u n it y ;
2 h igh ly es t eem ed in t h e com m u n it y, p a r t icu la r ly a m on g s ocioecon om ica lly d isa dva n -t a ged in d iv id u a ls a n d gr ou p s;
3 r ecogn ized by collea gu es a s ver y in fl u en -t ia l in s ch ool d ecision -m a k in g p r ocesses; 4 a ccor d ed a h igh level of s ch ool-b a sed
r esp on sib ilit y by collea gu es a n d t h e sch ool a d m in ist r a t ion .
Frank Cro wthe r and Pe te r Olse n
Te ac he rs as le ade rs – an e xplo rato ry frame wo rk Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 1 [1 9 9 7 ] 6 –1 3
T h e cr it er ia a ls o a p p ea r ed t o b e sen s it ive t o t h e “fi ve fa ces of op p r es s ion ” fr a m ewor k d evelop ed by You n g[3]. You n g’s con t en t ion is t h a t ea ch “fa ce” – n a m ely m a r gin a liza t ion , p ow er les s n ess, exp loit a t ion , cu lt u r a l d om in a -t ion a n d v iolen ce – ca n exis -t in d e p en d en -t ly bu t t h a t m u lt ip le in t er a ct ion s a r e com m on . Som e s ch ools in t h e a r ea of t h e r es ea r ch h ave a m a jor it y of a b or igin a l s t u d en t s a n d ver y h igh levels of t r a n s ien ce, in a d d it ion t o p r ob -lem s a s s ocia t ed w it h s ever e u n em p loy m en t . You n g’s fr a m ewor k t h er efor e s eem ed t o p r o-v id e a h elp fu l t h eor et ica l b a ck gr ou n d for exp lor in g m ea n in gs a scr ib ed t o d is a dva n t a ge in s ch ools in t h e a r ea .
F ift een sch ool-b a s ed p r a ct it ion er s w er e id en t ifi ed by t h e a d m in ist r a t or s a s m eet in g t h e fou r cr it er ia . T h ir t een of t h e p r a ct it ion er s w er e t ea ch er s a n d t wo w er e p a r a p r ofes -sion a ls. Ten w er e fem a le a n d fi ve w er e m a le. N in e w er e em p loyed in p r im a r y s ch ools (yea r s on e t o seven ) a n d fi ve in s econ d a r y sch ools. All a gr eed t o p a r t icip a t e w it h t h e u n iver s it y r es ea r ch er s in a join t , s ix-w eek in q u ir y of t h eir wor k .
Da t a r eleva n t t o t h e r es ea r ch p r oblem w er e collect ed t h r ou gh a r a n ge of p r oced u r es. F ir s t , ext en s ive u s e w a s m a d e of a cr it ica l in cid en t st r a t e gy. E a ch of t h e 15 p a r t icip a n t s r ecor d ed w r it t en d escr ip t ion s of t h eir p er ce p -t ion s of, a n d ed u ca -t ion a l r es p on s es -t o, s p e-cifi c s it u a t ion s in volv in g s ocioecon om ic d is a dva n t a ge a s t h ese occu r r ed in t h eir wor k -p la ces a cr os s a fou r -w eek -p er iod (m id -Oct o-b er t o m id -N ovem o-b er 1995). In t ot a l, 43 in ci-d en t s w er e ci-d escr ib eci-d by t h e 15 p a r t icip a n t s a n d m a d e ava ila ble t o t h e r es ea r ch er s for st u dy a n d follow -u p in q u ir y.
Secon d , on -sit e in t er v iew s of a p p r oxim a t ely on e h ou r w er e h eld w it h ea ch of t h e 15 p a r t ic-ip a n t s. In t er v iew s w er e st r u ct u r ed t o fa cili-t a cili-t e u n d er s cili-t a n d in g of p a r cili-t icip a n cili-t s ’ d ecis ion s a n d a ct ion s in r es p on d in g t o d is a dva n t a ge, a n d t o exp lor e p r ocess es a ss ocia t ed w it h t h e h igh levels of in fl u en ce t h a t t h ey w er e p er -ceived t o h ave in t h eir sch ool com m u n it ies. In t er v iew s w er e a ls o con d u ct ed w it h t wo or m or e a d m in ist r a t or s a n d t ea ch er s a t ea ch s it e t o exp lor e collea gu es’ p er ce p t ion s of t h es e sa m e p r oces s es.
F in a lly, t wo t h r ee-h ou r focu s gr ou p s es sion s w er e h eld w it h t h e 15 p a r t icip a n t s, on e p r ior t o com m en cem en t of t h e sit e-b a s ed r ecor d in g of cr it ica l in cid en t s, a n d t h e ot h er a t t h e cu l-m in a t ion of sit e-b a s ed a ct iv it ies. T h ese ses-sion s en ga ged p a r t icip a n t s in r efl ect ion a b ou t t h eir wor k a n d in d ia logu e w it h ea ch ot h er r e ga r d in g t h e t y p es of lea d er sh ip t h a t a p p ea r m os t a ble t o s t im u la t e ed u ca t ion a l a ch ievem en t in socioecon om ica lly d is a dva n -t a ged sch ools a n d com m u n i-t ies.
A t h r ee-s t a ge a p p r oa ch w a s t a k en t o t h e d a t a a n a ly sis. F ir s t , a n h olist ic p r ofi le w a s p r e p a r ed for ea ch of t h e 15 p a r t icip a n t s. Sec-on d , d escr ip t ive d a t a w er e q u a n t ifi ed a n d ca t e gor ized t o gen er a t e con ce p t u a liza t ion s of d isa dva n t a ge, ed u ca t ion a l s t r a t e gies a n d lea d er sh ip. F in a lly, t en t a t ive r esea r ch fi n d -in gs w er e t est ed w it h p r oject p a r t icip a n t s t o a scer t a in levels of p er ceived cr ed ib ilit y. Ad ju s t m en t s w er e m a d e t o sever a l st a t em en t s of ou t com es follow in g t h ese con su lt a t ion s.
The conceptual framework
T h e p os sib ilit y t h a t lea d er sh ip m igh t b e a fu n ct ion of t h e wor k of t ea ch er s h a s on ly r ecen t ly b e gu n t o b e a ccor d ed ser iou s con sid -er a t ion . At t em p t s t o con ce p t u a lize t ea ch -er lea d er sh ip a p p ea r ed t o m a k e som e h ea dw ay in US ed u ca t ion r efor m s in t h e 1980s, m ost n ot a b ly a s a n ou t com e of r esea r ch in t o colle-gia l a p p r oa ch es t o sch ool im p r ovem en t . Ber r y a n d Gin sb er g[4] id en t ifi ed t h r ee com -p on en t s of t h e r ole of a n ew ca d r e of -p r ofes-sion a l ed u ca t or s, w h om t h ey ca lled “lea d t ea ch er s”:
1 m en t or in g a n d coa ch in g ot h er t ea ch er s; 2 p r ofes sion a l d evelop m en t a n d r ev iew of
s ch ool p r a ct ice; a n d
3 s ch ool-level d ecision m a k in g.
In a h elp fu l st u dy of su ccessfu l sch ool-b a sed t ea m s in w h ich p r in cip a ls p layed fa cilit a t ive, su p p or t ive r oles, Lieb er m a n et a l.[5] id en t i-fi ed 18 s k ills t h a t w er e m a n ifest ed by t ea ch er lea d er s. T h es e t h ey cla ssifi ed a s :
• bu ild in g t r u s t a n d r a p p or t ; • or ga n iza t ion a l d ia gn os is; • d ea lin g w it h t h e p r ocess; • u sin g r esou r ces ;
• m a n a gin g t h e wor k ;
Frank Cro wthe r and Pe te r Olse n
Te ac he rs as le ade rs – an e xplo rato ry frame wo rk Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 1 [1 9 9 7 ] 6 –1 3
In Au s t r a lia n ed u ca t ion , p er h a p s t h e fi r s t sign ifi ca n t r ecogn it ion of p r a ct is in g t ea ch er s’ p ot en t ia l lea d er sh ip ca p a b ilit ies occu r r ed in t h e la t e 1980s t h r ou gh t h e veh icle of p olicy, w it h t h e cr ea t ion in a ll s t a t es a n d t er r it or ies of Adva n ced Sk ills Tea ch er (AST) in d u s t r ia l aw a r d s. Resea r ch in t o t h e wor k p r a ct ices of ASTs h a s yet t o con fi r m , h ow ever, t h a t t h ey h ave eit h er t h e op p or t u n it ies or ca p a b ilit ies t o en ga ge in a u t h en t ic lea d er sh ip r oles. Wh et h er d ifficu lt ies a s socia t ed w it h t h e cla s-sifi ca t ion d er ive fr om t h e cu lt u r e of sch ools a n d t h e t ea ch in g p r ofes sion , or w h et h er t h ey d er ive fr om a bu s es of in d u st r ia l p r ocess es, h a s b een a t op ic of on goin g d eb a t e. Som e r esea r ch er s, in clu d in g Ch a d b ou r n e a n d In g-va r s on [8] a n d Cr ow t h er a n d Ga ffn ey [9], h ave su gges t ed t h a t t h e la t t er a lt er n a t ive is m or e p la u s ible t h a n t h e for m er. T h e p os s ib ilit y a lso exis t s, h ow ever, t h a t cr it er ia for lea d er -sh ip t h a t h ave b een em p loyed t o exa m in e t h e wor k of p r a ct it ion er s in ca s es s u ch a s t h ese a r e t h em s elves in a d eq u a t e or in a p p r op r ia t e.
Cer t a in ly, con s id er a t ion of t h e t op ic of t ea ch er lea d er s h ip a p p ea r s t o h ave focu sed m a in ly on t ea ch er s’ ca p a cit y t o a s s u m e h igh levels of r es p on sib ilit y in m a n a ger ia l a sp ect s of s ch ool or ga n iza t ion . How ever, it s h ou ld n ot b e t a k en for gr a n t ed t h a t t h is ca p a cit y n eces-s a r ily con eces-st it u t eeces-s “ed u ca t ion a l lea d er eces-sh ip ”. To illu m in a t e t h is ess en t ia l p oin t , t h r ee lea d -er sh ip a p p r oa ch es t h a t h ave a cq u ir ed cr ed i-b ilit y in con t em p or a r y ed u ca t ion a l m a n a ge-m en t t h eor y a n d p r a ct ice a r e d iscu ss ed b r iefl y. E a ch is u s ed su b s eq u en t ly a s a r efer -en ce p oin t in t h e a n a ly sis of r es ea r ch d a t a a n d d is cu s s ion of r es ea r ch fi n d in gs.
Strategic leadership
T h e v iew t h a t lea d er sh ip is p r im a r ily a fu n c-t ion of “s c-t r a c-t e gy ” is cer c-t a in ly n oc-t n ew. Ic-t r efl ect s t h e id eology of logica l em p ir icis m t h a t s h a p ed ed u ca t ion a l a d m in is t r a t ion a s a d is cip lin e u n t il t h e 1980s [10] a n d b ea r s con sid er a ble r es em bla n ce t o t h e t wod im en s ion -a l (i.e. t -a s k -r el-a t ion sh ip s ) con ce p t u -a liz-a t ion s of lea d er s h ip t h a t w er e d evelop ed in t h e 1950s a n d 1960s a n d t h a t h ave d om in a t ed lea d er sh ip r esea r ch u n t il t h e ver y r ecen t p a st . Wit h t h e em er gen ce over t h e p a st d eca d e of a w id e-sp r ea d v iew of t h e p r in cip a l or h ea d a s ch ief execu t ive a n d en t r e p r en eu r ia l m a r k et er in a selfm a n a gin g sch ool, t h is p a r t icu la r con ce p -t ion of lea d er sh ip m ay b e s a id -t o h ave ga in ed n ew m om en t u m a n d st a t u s.
As t h e t er m im p lies, s t r a t e gic lea d er s h ip em p h a s izes r a t ion a lit y in t h e lea d er ’s r ole. T h u s, H osm er, cit ed in Sh r iva s t ava a n d N a ch m a n [11], d efi n es it a s t h e cr ea t ion of a n over -a ll sen s e of p u r p ose -a n d d ir ect ion w h ich gu id e in t e gr a t ed st r a t e gy for m u la t ion a n d im p lem en t a t ion in or ga n iza t ion s.
H a m b r ick [12] s u ggest s t h a t it in volves a lign in g t h e or ga n iza t ion w it h a n t icip a t ed ext er -n a l for ces – t ech -n ologica l d evelop m e-n t s, m a r k et t r en d s, r e gu la t or y con st r a in t s, com -p et it or s ’ a ct ion s, a n d so on . In s im ila r vein t o H osm er a n d H a m b r ick , Ca ldw ell[13] a dvoca t es a lea d er sh ip fu n ct ion t h a t is d om in a n t -ly st r a t e gic a s t h e m ost a p p r op r ia t e a p p r oa ch for p r in cip a ls in s elf-m a n a gin g sch ools:
…t h e p r in cip a l m u s t b e a ble t o d evelop a n d im p lem en t a cyclica l p r oces s of goa l-s et t in g, n eed id en t ifi ca t ion , p r ior it y s et t in g, p olicy m a k in g, p la n n in g, bu d get in g, im p lem en t in g a n d eva lu a t in g in a m a n n er w h ich p r ov id es for t h e a p p r op r ia t e in volvem en t of st a ff a n d com m u n it y, in clu d in g p a r en t s a n d s t u d en t s a s r eleva n t (p. 160).
St r a t e gic p r ocesses s u ch a s t h ese m ay b e h igh ly r eleva n t in con ce p t u a lizin g t h e wor k of su ccessfu l sch ool m a n a ger s of t h e 1990s. Bu t w h a t m ea n in gs, if a n y, d o t h ey h ave in t h e wor k of h igh ly s u ccess fu l cla ss r oom p r a ct i-t ion er s a n d oi-t h er n on -m a n a ger s? T h is q u est ion r em a in s la r gely u n con sid er ed in ed u ca -t ion a l lea d er sh ip li-t er a -t u r e.
Transformational leadership
T r a n sfor m a t ion a l lea d er sh ip em p h a sizes t h e sign ifi ca n ce of “t h e p er son ”, a n d p er son a l t r a it s, in b r in gin g a b ou t socia l a n d cu lt u r a l ch a n ge.
To Avolio a n d Ba ss [14], w h os e p ion eer in g r esea r ch h a s b een in st r u m en t a l in d evelop in g t r a n sfor m a t ion a l a p p r oa ch es t o lea d er sh ip, lea d er s a r e in d iv id u a ls w h o “m ot iva t e follow -er s t o wor k for t r a n s cen d en t a l goa ls in st ea d of im m ed ia t e self-in t er es t a n d for a ch ieve-m en t a n d self-a ct u a liza t ion in s t ea d of sa fet y a n d s ecu r it y ”. Avolio a n d Ba ss fu r t h er a sser t t h a t t r a n s for m a t ion a l lea d er sh ip com p r ises t h r ee elem en t s:
1 Ch a r ism a . T h e lea d er in st ils p r id e, fa it h a n d r es p ect , h a s a gift for seein g w h a t is r ea lly im p or t a n t , a n d h a s a sen se of v ision w h ich is effect ively a r t icu la t ed .
2 In d iv id u a liz ed con sid era tion . T h e lea d er d ele ga t es p r oject s t o st im u la t e a n d cr ea t e lea r n in g exp er ien ce, p ay s a t t en t ion t o follow er s’ n eed s, esp ecia lly t h ose follow er s w h o s eem n e glect ed , a n d t r ea t s ea ch fol-low er w it h r esp ect a n d a s a n in d iv id u a l. 3 In tellectu a l stim u la tion . T h e lea d er p r
o-v id es id ea s t h a t r es u lt in a r et h in k in g of old w ay s, t h a t is, t h e lea d er en a bles follow -er s t o look a t p r oblem s fr om m a n y a n gles a n d t o r es olve p r oblem s t h a t w er e a t a st a n d st ill[14, p. 137].
Frank Cro wthe r and Pe te r Olse n
Te ac he rs as le ade rs – an e xplo rato ry frame wo rk Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 1 [1 9 9 7 ] 6 –1 3
ot h er r ea s on t h a n t h a t Bu r n s r e ga r d ed “lea d er sh ip a s ed u ca t ion ” a n d “ed u ca t ion a s lea d -er sh ip ”. T h e es sen ce of lea d -er sh ip, Bu r n s a s ser t ed , is on e of r ela t ion sh ip, or en ga ge-m en t , a n d of coge-m ge-m on eleva t ion of ge-m ot ives or va lu es. It ga in s s t r en gt h w h en p lu r a list ic q u a lit ies in h er en t in gr ou p s a n d com m u n i-t ies a r e r ecogn ized . Differ en ces b a s ed on gen d er, et h n icit y, r a ce a n d cu lt u r e a r e t h er e-for e im p or t a n t . Wit h r e ga r d t o gen d er, e-for exa m p le, Bu r n s [15] cla im ed t h a t :
T h e m a le b ia s is r efl ect ed in t h e fa ls e con -ce p t ion of lea d er s h ip a s m er e com m a n d or con t r ol. As lea d er s h ip com es p r op er ly t o b e s een a s a p r oces s of lea d er s en ga gin g a n d m ob ilizin g t h e h u m a n n eed s a n d a sp ir a t ion s of follow er s, wom en w ill b e m or e r ea d -ily r ecogn ized a s lea d er s a n d m en w ill ch a n ge t h eir ow n lea d er sh ip st y les (p. 50).
T r a n s for m a t ion a l con ce p t s lik e “em p ow er -m en t ”, “v is ion ” a n d “-m iss ion ” h ave b eco-m e a fea t u r e of t h e r h et or ic a s s ocia t ed w it h d evelop m en t a l p r ocess es a t d iffer en t levels in ed u -ca t ion sy st em s t h r ou gh ou t t h e wor ld . T h ey a r e t o b e fou n d , for exa m p le, in t h e s t r a t e gic p la n s of d e p a r t m en t s of ed u ca t ion , in t h e a n n u a l p la n s of r e gion a l a u t h or it ies a n d in sch ool-b a s ed d evelop m en t p la n s. Bu t is t h er e op p or t u n it y in m od er n , cor p or a t e ed u ca t ion sy s t em s for p r a ct it ion er s w it h d ee p p er s on a l con v ict ion s t o in s p ir e s ocia l ch a n ge a n d im p r ovem en t , in d iv id u a lly or colla b or a t ively. T h e im p lica t ion s of r ecen t d evelop m en t s in t r a n s for m a t ion a l lea d er sh ip for t h e sch ool a n d cla ss r oom levels of ed u ca t ion a r e t h u s ext r em ely com p lex.
Educative leadership
E d u ca t ive lea d er sh ip is oft en v iew ed a s lin k ed t o s ocia l r econ s t r u ct ion is t p h ilosop h y. For Ba t es [16], t h e es s en t ia l p oin t a b ou t lea d -er sh ip in ed u ca t ion is t h a t it “in volves t h e m a k in g a n d a r t icu la t in g of ch oices, t h e loca -t ion of on es elf w i-t h in -t h e cu l-t u r a l s -t r u ggles of t h e t im es a s m u ch in t h e cu lt u r a l b a t t les of t h e s ch ool a s in t h e w id er s ociet y ” (p. 19). For Fos t er [17], “lea d er sh ip is a t it s h ea r t a cr it ica l p r a ct ice”, in volv in g ed u ca t ion a l lea d er s in t h e n eces s a r y p r a ct ice of r efl ect ive a n d cr it ca l t h in k in g a b ou t t h e cu lt u r e of t h eir or ga n i-za t ion s (p. 52). Bot h Ba t es a n d Fos t er cou ld b e sa id t o em p h a size ed u ca t ive a p p r oa ch es t o lea d er sh ip.
Du ign a n a n d M a cp h er son [18] cit e w r it er s lik e Dea l a n d Ken n edy, P u r k ey a n d Sm it h , a n d St a r r a t t in cr ea t in g a d efi n it ion of ed u ca -t ive lea d er s h ip -t h a -t in volves con -t in u ou s cr t i-ca l d is cou r se a n d socia l a ct ion a s a m ea n s of a d d r es sin g socia l in ju st ice a n d d is a dva n t a ge in a n or ga n iza t ion :
E d u ca t ive lea d er s h ip a p p ea r s t o b e a d elib -er a t e a t t em p t a t cu lt u r a l ela b or a t ion ... It
follow s t h a t ed u ca t ive lea d er s h ip m u s t closely r es p on d t o t h e cu lt u r a l con t ext , b e cr it ica lly aw a r e of t h e lon g-t er m p r a ct ices of p a r t icip a n t s in ed u ca t ion a l p r oces s es, a n d w h en a ct ion is p r op os ed , ju s t ify en d s a n d p r ocesses u s in g a n ed u ca t ive p h ilos op h y... H en ce, ed u ca t ive lea d er s h ip im p lies a r esp on sible in volvem en t in t h e p olit ics of t h e or ga n iza t ion (p p. 3-4).
In sim ila r vein , Sm y t h [19] ch a llen ges p r a ct i-t ion er s i-t o “fr a m e p r oblem s, a n d i-t o d iscu ss a n d wor k in d iv id u a lly a n d collect ively t o u n d er st a n d a n d ch a n ge t h e sit u a t ion s t h a t ca u se t h ese p r oblem s”. As F r ied exp r essed it , em p ow er m en t a s u sed in t h is sen se m ea n s h elp in g p eop le t o t a k e ch a r ge of t h eir lives, p eop le w h o h ave b een r est r a in ed , by socia l or p olit ica l for ces, fr om a ss u m in g su ch con t r ol. Im p licit in Sm y t h ’s ch a llen ge is t h e v iew t h a t , if ed u ca t ion is t o cr ea t e em a n cip a t ion or lib er a t ion in t h e h u m a n con d it ion , it w ill b e u n lik ely t o d o so t h r ou gh t h e sole in fl u en ce of a d m in ist r a t or s. In d eed , Sm y t h con t en d s t h a t t h e n ot ion of ed u ca t ive lea d er sh ip is it self a m isn om er in t h a t lea d er s h ip a s t r a d it ion a lly d efi n ed im p lies h ier a r ch ica l d iv ision of p ow er a n d cor p or a t e d ir ect ion s et t in g, w h ile ed u ca t iven ess im p lies t h e op p osit e, n a m ely “a ssist in g p eop le t o u n d er st a n d t h em selves a n d t h eir wor ld ... t o over com e t h e op p r essive con d it ion s t h a t ch a r a ct er ize wor k p a t t er n s a n d s ocia l r ela t ion sh ip s” (p. 182).
T h e r eleva n ce of ed u ca t ive con ce p t s a n d p r ocesses t o t h e wor k of sch ool a d m in ist r a -t or s h a s b een r ecogn ized [20], bu -t -t h eir r ele-va n ce t o t h e wor k of t ea ch er s a n d ot h er p r a c-t ic-t ion er s r em a in s la r gely u n exp lor ed . T h e p r esen t st u dy r e p r esen t s a st e p in a d d r essin g t h is void .
Findings of the research
Conceptualizations of disadvantage
T h e exp lor a t ion of t ea ch er lea d er sh ip t h a t w a s t h e m a jor focu s of t h e r es ea r ch ca n n ot b e v iew ed in isola t ion fr om t h e m a jor con t ext u a l va r ia ble, socioecon om ic d is a dva n t a ge. T h u s, b efor e r esea r ch fi n d in gs r ela t in g t o t ea ch er lea d er sh ip a r e r ev iew ed , it is a p p r op r ia t e t o con sid er t h e m ea n in gs a scr ib ed by p a r t ici-p a n t s in t h e r esea r ch t o d isa dva n t a ge.
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Te ac he rs as le ade rs – an e xplo rato ry frame wo rk Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 1 [1 9 9 7 ] 6 –1 3
d es cr ip t ion s of d is a dva n t a ge t h a t w er e p r ov id ed by t h e r es ea r ch p a r t icip a n t s en com p a s sed t wo or m or e of t h e fou r con ce p t u a liza -t ion s. Als o of in -t er es -t is -t h a -t -t h er e is n o in d ica t ion in t h e d es cr ip t ion s t h a t a n y on e con -ce p t u a liza t ion is m or e s ign ifi ca n t in over a ll im p a ct t h a n t h e ot h er s.
Ba s ed on t h e t wo s ou r ces of d a t a t h a t w er e con s id er ed , s ocioecon om ic d is a dva n t a ge is r e ga r d ed by p r oject p a r t icip a n t s a s ch a r a ct er -ized by a n u m b er of com p lex fa ct or s t h a t wou ld a p p ea r t o m a k e it ver y d ifficu lt t o r ed r es s. F ir s t , d isa dva n t a ged st u d en t s a r e p er ceived a s con fr on t in g a r a n ge of b a r r ier s w h ich a r e b eyon d t h eir con t r ol. For exa m p le, som e p a r t icip a n t s ob s er ved t h a t d is a dva n -t a ged ch ild r en in -t h eir s ch ools a r e p a r -t of a “cu lt u r e of u n em p loy m en t ” t h a t sp a n s fou r gen er a t ion s a n d t h a t m a n ifest s in p r a ct ica lit ies lik e la ck of fu n d s lit o p a r lit icip a lit e in en r ich -m en t a ct iv it ies a n d a t t it u d es t h a t a r e s ocia lly u n a cce p t a ble.
Secon d , som e p a r t icip a n t s in d ica t ed t h a t in d iv id u a ls a ffect ed by va r iou s for m s of d is-a dvis-a n t is-a ge m is-ay b e s u b ject t o p r es s u r es t o a t t em p t t o ob scu r e, d en y or ch a n ge t h eir cir cu m s t a n ces in or d er t h a t in s t it u t ion s, in clu d in g s ch ools, m ay feel t h a t t h eir effor t s
in m eet in g s ociet a lly p r escr ib ed exp ect a t ion s h ave b een s u ccess fu l. Tea ch er s of d isa dva n -t a ged ch ild r en m ay -t h em selves b e gin -t o feel d isa dva n t a ged if t h ey a r e u n a ble t o m eet ext er n a lly -d efi n ed cr it er ia for su ccess.
T h u s, p a r t icip a n t s’ p er sp ect ives on socio-econ om ic d isa dva n t a ge r ela t ed closely t o t h eir ever yd ay exp er ien ces in d isa dva n t a ged sch ools. T h is p oin t is a n im p or t a n t con sid er a -t ion in in -t er p r e-t in g -t h e fr a m ewor k for t ea ch er lea d er s h ip t h a t em er ged fr om t h e r esea r ch .
Conceptualizations of leadership
At t h e en d -of-r esea r ch focu s ses sion , p a r t ici-p a n t s en ga ged in a ici-p r oces s of in d iv id u a l r efl ect ion , sm a ll gr ou p sh a r in g a n d t ot a l gr ou p d iscu ssion of t h e q u es t ion : Wh a t d o you r e ga r d a s t h e es sen t ia l ch a r a ct er ist ics of lea d er sh ip in a d d r essin g d isa dva n t a ge in sch ools? In p r e p a r in g for t h is a ct iv it y, p a r t ici-p a n t s h a d b een ici-p r ov id ed w it h d et a iled d es cr ip t ion s of t en t a t ive ou t com es of t h e r esea r ch , a s w ell a s d escr ip t ion s of t h eir ow n p r elim in a r y p r ofi les. A su m m a r y en t it led “E ssen t ia l ch a r a ct er ist ics of lea d er sh ip ” w a s t h en p r e p a r ed by t h e p a r t icip a n t s. Wit h Table I
Co nc e ptualizatio ns o f disadvantage
N (Critical incident
Conceptualizations Specific examples references)
Inappropriate social competences Reluctance to co-operate with authority
figures “ You c an’ t make me” 6
Very aggressive approach to social
intercourse Hostile, threatening language 4
Bullying of peers Gender-based harassment in play area 4
Total 1 4
Lack of material means
No support for school attendance or
participation “ No one c ares if I don’ t c ome to sc hool” 6
No resources to meet basic needs Unable to purc hase sc hool uniform 3
Total 9
At risk with the law
Demonstrated criminal background or
tendency Stealing, brandishing a weapon, drug abuse 4
Abuse of welfare system Illegal c laim of welfare benefits 3
Ambiguous legal status Vic tim in c ustody battle 2
Total 9
Alienated from schooling
History of personal failure “ I c an’ t do anything” 5
History of family failure at school Parents’ sc hool experienc es were assoc iated
with fear 3
Victim of poor teaching Negative influenc e of Teac her X 3
Total 1 1
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Te ac he rs as le ade rs – an e xplo rato ry frame wo rk Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 1 [1 9 9 7 ] 6 –1 3
m in or ed it or ia l m od ifi ca t ion s, t h is s u m m a r y is r e p r od u ced in Ta ble II.
T h u s, t h e fr a m ewor k for t ea ch er lea d er s h ip t h a t is p r op os ed is b a sed on d et a iled ext er n a l a n a ly ses of t ea ch er s’ wor k a s w ell a s
p r oces s es of in d iv id u a l a n d colle gia l s elfr efl ect ion . How eveelfr, t h e fi ve gen eelfr a lized ch a elfr -a ct er is t ics in t h e fr -a m ewor k sh ou ld n ot b e in t er p r et ed a s a n exp la n a t or y sy st em t h a t ca p t u r es t h e in d iv id u a l lea d er sh ip a p -p r oa ch es of -p a r t ici-p a n t s in t h e r es ea r ch . To t h e con t r a r y, in d iv id u a l p r ofi les r efl ect ed u n iq u en ess of p er son a lit y, b elief a n d con t ext a t lea s t a s m u ch a s t h ey d id t h e fi ve gen er a l-ized ch a r a ct er is t ics. On e p a r t icip a n t , for exa m p le, dw elt h eav ily on iss u es a s s ocia t ed w it h ch r on ic u n em p loy m en t in a r t icu la t in g a p er s on a l p h ilosop h y a n d in d escr ib in g h er r es p on s e in cr ea t in g a n d im p lem en t in g on go-in g wor k exp er ien ce p r oject s go-in con ju n ct ion w it h t h e loca l bu s in ess com m u n it y. A secon d p a r t icip a n t , a t t h e s a m e sch ool, focu sed on t h e p r oblem s of st u d en t s “a t r isk ” w it h t h e
law. H is wor k t ook h im , by in v it a t ion , in t o h om es, p olice st a t ion s a n d , on occa sion , ou t -of-con t r ol t een a ge p a r t ies on Sa t u r d ay n igh t s. A t h ir d p a r t icip a n t h a d d evelop ed a n d im p le-m en t ed a cr oss a p er iod of yea r s a n in it ia t ive t o en a ble yea r s even s t u d en t s in h is com m u n it y t o live for a w eek in a n a b or igin a l com -m u n it y in p r e p a r a t ion for cr oss-cu lt u r a l secon d a r y sch oolin g. Lon gst a n d in g d ist r u st a n d b it t er n ess b et w een t h e t wo com m u n it ies h a d n ot b een over com e by t h is a ct ion , bu t t h e in it ia t ive en joyed t h e su p p or t of b ot h com m u -n it ies a -n d a lso t h e st r o-n g e-n d or sem e-n t of st a ff a t b ot h sch ools. In ea ch of t h ese in -st a n ces, t h e s a lien t p oin t is t h e u n iq u e w ay th a t con viction , a ction a n d dia logu e led to n ew for m s of u n der sta n din g in th e com m u n ity.
Ca u t ion s r e ga r d in g t h e u se of Ta ble II n ot w it h st a n d in g, t h e wor k of ea ch of t h e 15 p a r t icip a n t s in t h e r es ea r ch illu st r a t ed ea ch of t h e fi ve ch a r a ct er ist ics. T h e r eleva n ce of ess en t ia l p r in cip les of con t em p or a r y lea d er -sh ip t h eor ies t o t h e wor k of t h e d es ign a t ed t ea ch er lea d er s is t h er efor e a ble t o b e con sid -er ed t h r ou gh r ef-er en ce t o t h e fr a m ewor k .
F ir st , Ta ble II r efl ect s con cr et e ev id en ce of t r a n sfor m a t ion a l, ed u ca t ive a n d st r a t e gic a p p r oa ch es t o lea d er sh ip. Most r ea d ily a p p a r -en t is t h e t r a n sfor m a t ion a l fr a m ewor k . Sch ool-b a sed ed u ca t or s w h o w er e id en t ifi ed a s h igh ly su ccessfu l in t h eir wor k in socioeco-n om ica lly d is a dva socioeco-n t a ged sch ools t esocioeco-n d ed t o b e m ot iva t ed by t r a n scen d en t a l goa ls t h a t d er ived fr om a d ee p con cer n for m a r gin a lized a n d p ow er les s gr ou p s a n d in d iv id u a ls. In m ost , if n ot a ll in st a n ces, p a r t icip a n t s
esp ou s ed a n u n com p r om isin g com m it m en t t o va lu es lik e fa ir go, cr osscu lt u r a l u n d er st a n d -in g, -in d iv id u a l r es p on sib ilit y a n d com m u n it y p r id e. Wh ile it m u s t b e sa id t h a t t h ese va lu es h a d som ew h a t d iffer en t m ea n in gs t o d iffer en t p a r t icip a n t s, a ll 15 h a d clea r v iew s a b ou t socia l issu es t h a t t h ey w er e ver y w illin g t o voice p u blicly. (T h u s, d is cu ss ion s a t focu s ses sion s w er e in som e in s t a n ces p a s sion a t e, a s in d iv id u a l con v ict ion s s u r fa ced a n d p osed ch a llen ges for ot h er s, in clu d in g t h e
r esea r ch er s.) Rela t ed ly, a ll w er e ch a r a ct er -ized by con t a giou s en t h u sia sm , a n a b ilit y t o in sp ir e ot h er s t o r a ise t h eir exp ect a t ion s, a n d a p er va sive sen se of op t im ism .
T r a n sfor m a t ion a l a sp ect s of lea d er sh ip t h a t w er e ev id en t in p a r t icip a n t s’ wor k d id , h ow ever, sh ow on e im p or t a n t va r ia t ion fr om gen er a l p r in cip les of t r a n sfor m a t ion a l t h eor y. T h a t is, t h e t ea ch er lea d er s w h o w er e st u d ied d id n ot v iew t h em s elves a s eit h er ch a r ism a t ic or a s exer cisin g u n d u e in fl u en ce. In p a r t icu la r, t h e lea d er follow er m in d set t h a t con t in -u es t o d om in a t e in t h e r h et or ic of m -u ch t r a n s-for m a t ion a l t h eor y w a s n ot a t a ll ev id en t in t h eir t h in k in g or t h eir a ct ion s, b a sed on t h e d escr ip t ion s of t h eir wor k t h a t w er e p r ov id ed .
Table II
Te ac he rs as le ade rs: a sugge ste d frame wo rk
Artic ulates c lear views of a better world
Can artic ulate “ what ought to be” on important soc ial issues
Values teac hing as an important profession in shaping meaning systems
Personal views about soc ial justic e are a sourc e of personal pride
Models trust and sinc erity Has the respec t of the c ommunity
Demonstrates toleranc e and reasonableness in diffic ult situations
Regarded by peers as totally trustworthy
Confronts struc tural barriers
Stands up for c hildren, espec ially marginalized or power-less groups
Engages c onfidently with authority figures Influenc es the development and implementation of soc ially just polic ies
Builds networks of support
Feels at ease with individuals and groups who assert c ultural, soc ial and other differenc es
Communic ates with authority and persuasion ac ross groups
Promotes c ollaboration in teac hing, planning, dec ision making
Organizes tasks with relative ease
Nurtures a c ulture of suc c ess
Creates opportunities for individual suc c ess and rec og-nition
Builds problem-solving skills
Adopts a “ no blame” attitude when things go wrong Searc hes c ontinuously for new ideas
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Als o p r es en t in t h e d a t a is a s t r on g ed u ca -t ive a sp ec-t . In d eed , in fl u en ce in sh a p in g -t h e cu lt u r e of sch ools a n d com m u n it ies a p p ea r s t o d e p en d on con sid er a b ly m or e t h a n t h e exis t en ce of t r a n s for m a t ion a l q u a lit ies lik e p er s on a l con v ict ion a n d s ocia l v ision . Resea r ch p a r t icip a n t s saw t h em s elves, a n d w er e s een by t h eir collea gu es a n d a d m in is t r a -t or s, a s en ga ged con -t in u ou s ly in p r a c-t ica l p r oblem s olv in g on t er m s, a n d in s u r r ou n d -in gs, d et er m -in ed by ot h er s. P os it ion a l a u t h or it y a n d r e gu la t ion t en d ed t o b e ca lled on on ly w h en q u es t ion s of sa fet y, h ea lt h or n a t u r a l ju s t ice a r os e. St a t ed a lit t le d iffer en t ly, t h e 15 p a r t icip a n t s t en d ed t o v iew t h em -selves a s colla b or a t or s in em a n cip a t or y a n d con s ciou s n es s-r a is in g a ct iv it ies, a n d q u it e fr eq u en t ly a s a dvoca t es for m a r gin a lized or p ow er les s in d iv id u a ls in ch a llen gin g a u t h or -it y s t r u ct u r es – bu t n ot a s a gen t s of ext er n a l a gen d a s for s ocia l ch a n ge.
T h e for m s of ed u ca t ive lea d er sh ip t h a t w er e ev id en t in t h e r es ea r ch d a t a d ev ia t e fr om t h e p r in cip les of m ost ed u ca t ive t h eor ies in on e im p or t a n t r es p ect . T h a t is, ed u ca t ive t h eor ies t en d t o v iew t h e cu lt u r a l con t ext of t ea ch er s’ wor k a s focu sin g on t h e s ch ool a s a n or ga n i-za t ion . In t h is sen se, t h ey wou ld s eem t o b e t oo r es t r ict ive t o exp la in sa t is fa ct or ily t h e com m u n it y w id e s p h er e of a ct ion a n d in fl u -en ce of t h os e ed u ca t or s w h o p a r t icip a t ed in t h e r es ea r ch .
Of les s d ir ect s ign ifi ca n ce, bu t im p or t a n t n ever t h eles s, is st r a t e gic lea d er s h ip. Wh ile m os t , p er h a p s a ll, of t h e 15 p a r t icip a n t s w er e r e ga r d ed a s s ou n d or ga n izer s, a d e p t a t t ea m bu ild in g a n d h igh ly in fl u en t ia l in sch ool d ecis ion m a k in g, t h ese ca p a b ilit ies t en d ed t o b e con s t r u ed by b ot h p a r t icip a n t s a n d t h eir p eer s a s m ea n s t o a n en d r a t h er t h a n a s im p or t a n t p r ocesses in t h eir ow n r igh t . Ta ble II in d ica t es t h a t t h e n ot ion of “s t r a t e gy ”, a s a r a t ion a l p r ocess of goa l s et t in g, n eed s id en t ifi -ca t ion a n d p olicy m a k in g d id n ot fi gu r e p r om in en t ly in t h e t h in k in g of r es ea r ch p a r -t icip a n -t s. N ever -t h eless, p a r -t icip a n -t s -t en d ed t o a ck n ow led ge t h e im p et u s p r ov id ed by sp ecia l p r oject fu n d in g. T h ey a ls o in s ist ed t h a t t h e a s s ist a n ce of sch ool a d m in is t r a t or s in es t a blis h in g s ocia lly -ju st or ga n iza t ion a l goa ls w a s v it a lly im p or t a n t t o t h em . Mos t a lso a gr eed t h a t De p a r t m en t of E d u ca t ion eq u it y p olicies w er e of h elp, a s s er t in g t h a t t h eir wor k wou ld r et a in it s focu s if s u ch p oli-cies d id n ot exist , bu t wou ld u n d ou b t ed ly b e m or e d ifficu lt t o ca r r y ou t .
A secon d im p lica t ion of t h e r es ea r ch is t h a t lea d er s h ip in t h e wor k of s u ccess fu l p r a ct i-t ion er s a p p ea r s i-t o in cor p or a i-t e a q u a lii-t y w h ich is n ot fou n d in lea d er s h ip t h eor ies t h a t h ave t h eir or igin s in bu s in ess m a n a gem en t or, for t h e m os t p a r t , in ed u ca t ion a l m a n a ge-m en t . T h a t is, p r ocess es of t ea ch in g,
con sciou sn ess r a is in g, com m u n it y bu ild in g a n d p er son a l lea r n in g w er e in se p a r a ble in d escr ip t ion s of t h eir wor k t h a t w er e offer ed by p a r t icip a n t s in t h e r esea r ch . Wh en h olist ic p r ofi les w er e a n a ly sed t o id en t ify gen er a l ch a r a ct er ist ics of lea d er s h ip, it p r oved t o b e ver y d ifficu lt t o d iffer en t ia t e t h e in st r u c-t ion a l r oles of p a r c-t icip a n c-t s fr om c-t h eir r oles a s in fl u en t ia l fi gu r es in t h eir sch ools a n d com -m u n it ies. An i-m p or t a n t ir on y is ev id en t h er e in t h a t t h e h ist or ica l fa ilu r e of ed u ca t ion a l t h eor ist s t o r ecogn ize lea d er sh ip d im en sion s in t ea ch er s’ wor k m ay b e p a r t ly a t t r ibu t a ble t o t h e in s ist en ce of h igh ly s u ccess fu l t ea ch -er s, su ch a s t h e p a r t icip a n t s in t h is r esea r ch , t h a t t h eir p r im a r y con cer n is “t o t ea ch ”.
Of p ossible im p or t a n ce, a lso, is t h a t t h e la n gu a ge of p a r t icip a n t s in t h e r esea r ch in clu d ed ver y few r efer en ces t o t h e t er m in ol-ogy t h a t is oft en a s socia t ed w it h lea d er sh ip, r a isin g fu r t h er d ou b t a s t o w h et h er t ea ch er lea d er s wor k in t h e sa m e p a r a d igm of lea d er sh ip t h a t h a s evolved ou t of t h e s t u dy of ed u -ca t ion a l m a n a gem en t . Ter m s s u ch a s “t r a n s-for m a t ion a l”, “t a sk -or ien t ed ”, “st r a t e gy for m u la t ion ”, “ch a r ism a t ic”, “b ia sfor -a ct ion ”, “t e-a m bu ild in g” -a n d “ch -a n ge -a gen t ”, w h ich fi gu r e p r om in en t ly in d escr ip t ion s of lea d er sh ip r oles of sch ool a d m in ist r a t or s, a r e con sp icu ou sly a b sen t fr om t h e d escr ip t ion s t h a t w er e p r ov id ed by r esea r ch p a r t icip a n t s or ot h er s w h o d escr ib ed t h eir wor k . Ra t h er, t er m s lik e “w ild ly en t h u sia st ic”, “lives a n d b r ea t h es wor t h y ca u ses”, “va lu es fr ien d s”, “a d m it s fa ilu r es” a n d “a lw ay s on t h e look ou t for n ew id ea s” t en d ed t o ch a r a ct er ize t h e d ia logu e.
F in a lly, it seem s p ossible on t h e b a sis of t h is r esea r ch t o p r op ose a d efi n it ion of t ea ch er lea d er sh ip. Tea ch er lea d er sh ip is essen t ia lly a n et h ica l st a n ce t h a t is b a sed on v iew s of b ot h a b et t er wor ld a n d t h e p ow er of t ea ch in g t o s h a p e m ea n in g sy st em s. It m a n ifest s in a ct ion s t h a t in volve t h e w id er com m u n it y a n d lea d s t o t h e cr ea t ion of n ew for m s of u n d er st a n d in g t h a t w ill en h a n ce t h e q u a lit y of life of t h e com m u n it y in t h e lon g t er m . It r ea ch es it s p ot en t ia l in con t ext s w h er e sy st em a n d sch ool s t r u ct u r es a r e fa cilit a t ive a n d a p p r ecia t ive.
Suggestions for further inquiry
T h u s, it seem s t h a t t h e wor k of s om e t ea ch er s r efl ect s clea r ev id en ce of b ot h a u t h or it a t ive lea d er sh ip t h eor ies a n d for m s of in fl u en ce t h a t a r e n ot en com p a s sed by t h eor ies t h a t or igin a t e in ed u ca t ion a l or cor p or a t e m a n -a gem en t .
Frank Cro wthe r and Pe te r Olse n
Te ac he rs as le ade rs – an e xplo rato ry frame wo rk Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 1 [1 9 9 7 ] 6 –1 3
wou ld h ave em er ged fr om s im ila r r es ea r ch in ot h er s ocia l, cu lt u r a l or ed u ca t ion a l set t in gs is d es er v in g of in ves t iga t ion . Secon d , t h er e a r e s u gges t ion s in t h is r es ea r ch t h a t som e a u t h or it a t ive lea d er sh ip a p p r oa ch es m ay b e a t lea s t a s r eleva n t t o t h e wor k of t ea ch er s a s t h ey a r e t o t h e wor k of s ch ool m a n a ger s. Ad m in is t r a t or s in t h e r es ea r ch t h em selves su ggest ed t h a t p olit ica l a n d m a n a ger ia l a s p ect s of t h eir wor k m ilit a t e s t r on gly a ga in s t t h eir b ein g a ble t o a ss u m e t r a n s for -m a t ion a l a n d ed u ca t ive lea d er sh ip fu n ct ion s t h a t s om e t ea ch er s in t h eir s ch ools w er e a ble t o r ea lize. Wit h t h e p r os p ect of in cr ea sin g m a n a ger ia lism a n d cor p or a t is m in sch ool a d m in is t r a t ion , t h e p ot en t ia l of t h ese t h eor et -ica l a p p r oa ch es in t h e wor k of m a n a ger s on t h e on e h a n d , a n d t ea ch er s on t h e ot h er, wou ld seem t o w a r r a n t on goin g t h ou gh t a n d in q u ir y. T h ir d , t h e s t r a t e gic/ t r a n s for m a t ion a l/ ed u ca t ive a p p r oa ch es t o lea d er s h ip t h a t p r o-v id ed t h e con ce p t u a l u m b r ella for t h is r esea r ch a r e p r es en t ed a s illu s t r a t ion s of con t em p or a r y t h eor y, r a t h er t h a n a s com p r e-h en s ive p r es cr ip t ion s. Ot e-h er lea d er s e-h ip a p p r oa ch es m igh t a lso b e r evea led in t ea ch -er s’ wor k if t h ey w -er e exp lor ed . Fou r t h , a s su m in g t h a t a n a u t h or it a t ive p a r a d igm of t ea ch er lea d er sh ip ca n in fa ct b e illu m in a t ed fu r t h er, t h e q u es t ion of h ow it m igh t b e n u r -t u r ed a n d r efi n ed in -t h e -t ea ch in g p r ofes sion wou ld s eem t o p ose a ch a llen ge of im m en s e im p or t a n ce. F in a lly, on e m u s t a sk Wh y ? T h a t is, w h y h a s lea d er sh ip t h eor y in ed u ca t ion p r es u m ed t h a t p osit ion a l a u t h or it y is s o cr it i-ca l? Wh a t effect s h a s t h is p r es u m p t ion h a d on t h e im a ge a n d cu lt u r e of t h e t ea ch in g p r ofes -sion ? An d h ow ca n w e b e gin t o m a k e a m en d s for t h e obv iou s lim it a t ion s of ou r ow n p a s t u n d er s t a n d in gs a s ed u ca t ion a l t h eor ist s, sch ola r s a n d p r a ct it ion er s ?
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