THE MASTERY OF COMPLEX SENTENCES OF THE STUDENTS OF RESEARCH PAPER WRITING
IN THE ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAMME
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Adaninggar Septi Subekti Student Number: 071214023
ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
2011
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THE MASTERY OF COMPLEX SENTENCES OF THE STUDENTS OF RESEARCH PAPER WRITING
IN THE ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAMME
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Adaninggar Septi Subekti Student Number: 071214023
ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
2011
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God sometimes does try to the uttermost those whom he wishes to bless.
M ohandas Gandhi
Victory belongs to the most persevering.
N apoleon Bonaparte
Satisfaction lies in the effort, not in the attainment, full effort is full
victory.
M ohandas Gandhi
Woman Dr. Jang-Deok: “ A s a maid for I mperial Officers, you must
learn to give up! ”
Jang-Geum Seo: “ I 'll tell you this: no-one can ever persuade me to give
up! I will never give up! ”
From The Jewel in The Palace a.k.a. Dae Jang-geum (2003)
I dedi cat ed t hi s t hesi s for :
My bel oved mot her , Fr an si sca Susan t i , whose abun dan t l ove wi l l al way s l i n ger
wher ever I go for my l i fel on g
My bel oved gr eat gr an dfat her , Pet r us Tj i pt ohar dj on o, who had gi ven me pl en t y of
l ove an d had t aught me t o be a con fi den t an d br ave ki d
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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama : Adaninggar Septi Subekti
Nomor Mahasiswa : 071214023
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
THE MASTERY OF COMPLEX SENTENCES OF THE STUDENTS
OF RESEARCH PAPER WRITING
IN THE ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAMME
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan
kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,
mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan
data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau
media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin kepada saya atau
memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai
penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya,
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal: 19 Juli 2011
Yang menyatakan
(Adaninggar Septi Subekti)
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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain
the work or parts of the works of other people, except those which were cited in
the quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, July 19th 2011 The writer
Adaninggar Septi Subekti
071214023
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ABSTRACT
Subekti, A. S. (2011). The Mastery of Complex Sentences of the Students of Research Paper Writing in the English Education Study Programme. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Programme, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Sanata Dharma University.
This study reported a research conducted to find out the mastery of complex sentences of students of Research Paper Writing in the English Education Study Programme of Sanata Dharma University. This study had two research objectives. First, it aimed to describe Research Paper Writing students’ mastery of complex sentences in writing their Mid Test 1 research reports. Second, it also tried to describe the possible problems the students faced in producing complex sentences. This study used document analysis as the main method of data collection. Interview for some selected participants was also conducted to triangulate the results as well as the interpretations obtained from the document analysis process. The participants of the research were students of Research Paper Writing class A in 2010-2011 academic year.
The study obtained some important findings. Regarding students’ mastery of complex sentences, some points could be noted. First, students’ mastery of complex sentences containing a noun clause was good. Second, their mastery of complex sentences containing an adjective clause was good also. Third, students’ mastery of complex sentences containing an adverb clause was good, too. Their mastery of complex sentence containing multiple clause structure, however, was surprisingly very low in spite of the fact that the students had obtained relatively good results on the three basic types of complex sentence mentioned earlier.
From the analysis of the ungrammatical complex sentences that the students wrote, the study obtained the following findings. Students’ most frequent problems in all types of complex sentence were inconsistency of tenses, dangling verbal, double finite verbs, subject verb agreement violation, and verb omission. Besides those problems, there were some other grammatical problems which were less frequent in occurrence. Those included incorrect or unnecessary use of subordinators, use of comma, incorrect verb formation, and subject omission. Furthermore, the study also obtained some additional findings. The first was that the students often made incorrect parallel structures, parallel clause, more specifically. Secondly, some sentences that students wrote could be considered totally ungrammatical due to their lack of clarity and various grammar violations. Based on the analysis, it was found that many of the ungrammatical sentences were those which were quite long with complicated structures, most of which contained incorrect multiple clause structure.
Keywords : mastery, complex sentences, noun clause, adjective clause, adverb clause, multiple clause structure
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ABSTRAK
Subekti, A. S. (2011). The Mastery of Complex Sentences of the Students of Research Paper Writing in the English Education Study Programme. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Kajian ini membahas tentang penguasaan mahasiswa Research Paper Writing
Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma atas kalimat majemuk bertingkat. Kajian ini memiliki dua tujuan, pertama untuk mendeskripsikan penguasaan mahasiswa tersebut atas kalimat majemuk bertingkat, dan kedua, untuk mendeskripsikan permasalahan yang dihadapi mahasiswa dalam menyusun kalimat majemuk bertingkat. Kajian ini menggunakan analisis dokumen sebagai sumber utama untuk memperoleh data. Meskipun demikian, wawancara untuk beberapa partisipan juga dilakukan sebagai trianggulasi data dan interpretasi yang didapatkan dari proses analisis dokumen. Mahasiswa Research Paper Writing
kelas A pada tahun akademik 2010-2011 menjadi partisipan kajian ini.
Kajian ini memperoleh beberapa hasil penting. Pertama adalah yang berkaitan dengan penguasaan atas kalimat majemuk bertingkat. Penguasaan kalimat yang mengandung satu klausa nomina cukup bagus, demikian pula penguasaan mereka pada kalimat yang mengandung klausa ajektif. Penguasaan mereka pada kalimat yang mengandung klausa keterangan juga menunjukkan hasil sama. Meskipun mereka telah mampu menyusun tiga tipe dasar kalimat majemuk bertingkat, secara mengejutkan, penguasaan mereka pada kalimat majemuk bertingkat yang mengandung struktur multi klausa sangat rendah.
Selanjutnya, dari analisis kalimat yang salah struktur, kajian ini menemukan beberapa hal penting. Pertama, bentuk kesalahan strukur yang paling sering terjadi meliputi inkonsistensi bentuk waktu, dangling verbal, kata kerja ganda, pelanggaran SV agreement, dan tidak adanya kata kerja. Selain itu, terdapat pula beberapa permasalahan lain yaitu penulisan konjungsi yang tidak diperlukan, tidak adanya koma, kesalahan penulisan kata kerja, dan tidak adanya subjek. Selain hal di atas, kajian ini juga menemukan beberapa fakta tambahan. Pertama, mahasiswa banyak melakukan kesalahan dalam penyusunan kalimat paralel, terutama dalam paralel antarklausa. Kedua, beberapa kalimat dapat dikatakan salah total secara struktur karena berbagai macam pelanggaran struktur yang membuat ide kalimat menjadi kurang jelas. Melalui analisis, didapatkan fakta bahwa banyak dari kalimat yang salah struktur merupakan kalimat yang cukup panjang dengan struktur yang kompleks. Banyak di antara kalimat yang salah tersebut mengandung struktur multi klausa yang kurang tepat.
Kata kunci : penguasaan, kalimat majemuk bertingkat, klausa nomina, klausa ajektif, klausa keterangan, dan struktur multi klausa
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Jesus Christ, my Lord. He is the one who performs series of miracles in my life, giving me
incredible strength and endurance to cope with the daily courses of life, including
this thesis.
I would also like to express my deep gratitude to my beloved major sponsor,
Caecilia Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd., for her great patience and precious support during the process of this thesis completion. Magically able to wake me up from
the comfort of not working on this thesis were her smiles – her insisting loving
smiles, more precisely.
I would also like to express my heartfelt thankfulness to Sr. Margaret O’ Donohue FCJ, for her extremely great patience in helping correct and proofread this thesis. Her tender smiles can always make me somehow a bit shy, strangely.
Throughout my lifetime will I remember her kindness and priceless help to me.
I would also give my sincere thanks to the RPW lecturer, Nugraha Krisdiyanta, S.Pd., M.Hum., who has given me permission to conduct research on his students’ reports. My thanks are also for all PBI lecturers and staff who have given me great experience during my study. My gratitude goes also to all students of Research Paper Writing class A whose reports became the objects of the study. Special thanks are for those becoming my interviewees, without
whom I could not finish this thesis.
The sincerest gratitude, then, is for my beloved father, Yustinus Suhadi, my love to whom just goes beyond words and language. I thank him for his prayers
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and incalculable support and advice for me throughout my life. Even though I
never talk much about this thesis to him, deep in my heart, he is one of the biggest
reasons of my being at this stage.
My thanks also go to my friends and relatives, memories with whom will
always remain all my life long. My sincere gratitude is for Kitin for her unbearably loving “torture” verbally, most often physically, and for her leading
role in leading many others to do so. My Bee English friends, Ocha, Cisca, Dini, Riris, Mbak Indah and Mas Deddy, make me really learn the taste of being “tortured” in very loving circumstances. To Mbak Erna and Christina Ayuningtyas who have diligently motivated me to finish this thesis as soon as possible, deep thanks are for them, too.
My thanks also go to Leonie, Aik and Keke for their willingness in giving me their RPW reports in spite of their being shy. The latter is the fellow whom I
often ask for suggestions.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my seniors, Maria Susana and
Krisnanto Mahardika, who were willing to share their knowledge and experience about the world of research when it was still blur in my mind at the
very first stage of this thesis writing process.
.:Adaninggar Septi Subekti:.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE... i
APPROVAL PAGES... ii
DEDICATION PAGE……….... iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY... vi
ABSTRACT... vii
ABSTRAK... viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS... xi
LIST OF TABLES AND FLOWCHART... xiv
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background………... 1
B. Problem Formulation... 3
C. Problem Limitation... 4
D. Research Objectives... 4
E. Research Benefits... 4
F. Definition of Terms... 5
CHAPTER II. LITERARY REVIEW A. Theoretical Description... 8
1. Types of Sentence... 8
2. Complex Sentences in Writing... 10
3. Finite and Non-finite Dependent Clause... 10
4. Subordinating Conjunctions... ... 11
5. Types of Dependent Clauses... 12
a. Noun Clauses... ... 13
b. Adjective Clauses…... 16
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c. Adverb Clauses…... 21
6. Multiple Clause Structure……….. 26
B. Theoretical Framework…... 27
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Methods... 29
B. Research Participants... 30
C. Research Instruments... 30
D. Data Gathering Technique... 37
E. Data Analysis Technique... 39
F. Research Procedure... 42
CHAPTER IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Students’ mastery on complex sentences... 47
1. Total number of sentences... 47
2. Classifications according to type... 49
3. Students’ mastery on complex sentence type one... 51
4. Students’ mastery on complex sentence type two... 53
5. Students’ mastery on complex sentence type three... 55
6. Students’ mastery on complex sentence type four... 57
B. Students’ problems in producing complex sentences... 61
1. Students’ most frequent problems in all types of complex sentences... 61
a. Inconsistency of tenses... 61
b. Dangling verbal... 62
c. Double finite verbs... 65
d. Subject Verb Agreement violation... 66
e. Verb omission………... 67
2. Students’ other problems... 69
a. Incorrect or unnecessary use of subordinators... 69
b. Use of comma ………... 70
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c. Incorrect verb formation ………... 71
d. Subject omissions ………... 72
3. Additional findings ……… 73
a. Incorrect parallel structures……… 74
b. Totally ungrammatical – confusing ideas ………. 75
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION A. Conclusion…... 79
B. Recommendation…... 81
REFERENCES... 85
APPENDICES... 87
APPENDIX 1 Introduction letter for the RPW lecturer... 88
APPENDIX 2 Ungrammatical Complex Sentences Type One... 90
APPENDIX 3 Ungrammatical Complex Sentences Type Two……….. 101
APPENDIX 4 Ungrammatical Complex Sentences Type Three ……… 111
APPENDIX 5 Ungrammatical Complex Sentences Type Four………... 120
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LIST OF TABLES AND FLOWCHART
Page
Table 2.1: Examples of Subordinating Conjunctions……… 12
Table 2.2: Noun clauses which begin with that……… 13
Table 2.3: Adjective clauses using who, which and that………... 17
Table 2.4: Adjective clauses using which and that……….. 18
Table 2.5: Adjective clauses using whose and of which……….. 19
Table 2.6: Adjective clauses using which………. ….. 20
Table 2.7: Adverb clauses indicating time relationships………... 21
Table 2.8: Adverb clauses indicating cause and effect relationships……… 23
Table 2.9: How finite adverb clauses can be changed into non-finite adverb clauses……….. 25
Table 3.1: The number of written simple, compound, and complex sentences 31 Table 3.2: The number of sentences in each type of complex sentence….. 31
Table 3.3: Sentences containing finite and non-finite noun clause…... 32
Table 3.4: Sentences containing finite and non-finite adjective clause….. 32
Table 3.5: Sentences containing finite and non-finite adverb clause….…. 33 Table 3.6: Sentences containing multiple clause structure……….… 33
Table 3.7: Summary of the overall numbers of grammaticality…………. 33
Table 3.8: Summary of students' grades……….. 34
Table 3.9: Ungrammatical complex sentences type one………... 35
Table 3.10: Ungrammatical complex sentences type two……… 35
Table 3.11: Ungrammatical complex sentences type three………. 35
Table 3.12: Ungrammatical complex sentences type four……….. 35
Flowchart 3.1: The rationale of the analysis……… 41
Table 4.1: The number of written simple, compound, and complex sentences 47 Table 4.2: The number of sentences in each type of complex sentence... 49
Table 4.3: Sentences containing finite and non-finite noun clause... 52
Table 4.4: Sentences containing finite and non-finite adjective clause... 53
Table 4.5: Sentences containing finite and non-finite adverb clause.……. 55
Table 4.6: Sentences containing multiple clause structure………. 57
Table 4.7: Summary of the overall numbers of grammaticality…………. 59
Table 4.8: Summary of students' grades………. 59
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This research investigates Research Paper Writing students’ mastery on
complex sentences. This chapter presents background of the study, problem
formulation, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and
definitions of terms.
A. Background
Learning a language is not easy. It includes learning its four basic skills,
namely listening, reading, speaking and writing, and three elements, namely
pronunciation, grammar/structure and vocabulary. All of them are to be learnt in
order to master the language.
Grammar, specifically, is one of the most important elements to learn in order
to be fluent in the four basic language skills mentioned previously. Emphasizing
the importance of grammar, Radford (1990:2) says that “a grammar of a particular
language will take the familiar form of a set of rules or principles which tells how
to speak and understand the language.” In other words, it is about principles
specifying how to form, pronounce, and interpret phrases and sentences.
It is also noted that written language and spoken language are usually
different. Basically, written language is usually longer than spoken language
(Perrin, 1965, Hyland, 2002, & Weigle, 2007). It is because writing, mostly,
conveys ideas in a more organized manner, needing longer utterances. Even,
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according to Hyland (2002) and Weigle (2007), writing is structurally complex.
Taking this statement into account and considering that complex arrangement of
ideas in writing is often inevitable, with writing’s long clauses and frequent use of
subordinators, the mastery of grammatical aspect is very essential in writing.
Unfortunately, based on the writer’s observation during being a student of the
English Education Study Programme of Sanata Dharma University for about three
years, from 2007 up to 2010, some students of the study programme still find
significant problems in implementing rules of English grammar they have
obtained in Structure classes in their writing. The writer’s result of observation is
that some students may be able to make grammatically correct sentences when
they are given grammar exercises to do. They, however, may not always be able
to implement such rules when they happen to write whatever comes to their mind
to write, without any exercise to do or any instructions to hook or stimulate, as
that in Writing classes. It implies that some students do make ungrammatical
sentences regardless of the fact that they have actually learnt the patterns they
need to write.
Among many grammatical aspects to analyse, complex sentences are chosen
based on consideration that someone is to have a relatively advanced level of
English grammar in order to be able to form a grammatical complex sentence. It is
due to the complexity of each sentence which may include a number of
grammatical rules at the same time. Having experienced all five Structure classes
offered in the English Education Study Programme of Sanata Dharma University,
then, the students aim to show an advanced level of mastery on complex
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sentences, whenever they produce them in their writing. Even though it is realized
that it is not a must to convey an idea through a complex sentence when one can
say the same thing through more than one sentence, yet, in writing, very often, a
writer is supposed to convey certain information directly in a sentence to enhance
coherence and to avoid repetitions (Bramer & Sedley, 1981).
This study, hence, is conducted in order to know how far they can implement
their knowledge on Structure through five Structure classes in their Writing
subject given right after they finish Structure V class, which is Research Paper
Writing. The study, more precisely, is expected to find out those students’ mastery
on complex sentences as shown in their Mid Test 1 research reports and describe
what can be the students’ problems in producing the sentences.
B. Problem Formulation
The study has two main problems related to the Research Paper Writing
students’ mastery of complex sentences. Those problems, then, can be formulated
as follows.
1. How is the students’ mastery of complex sentences as seen in their Mid Test
1 research reports?
2. What problems do the students face in producing complex sentences?
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C. Problem Limitation
The study focuses on complex sentences, containing noun clauses, adjective
clauses, and adverb clauses. These complex sentences also include those
containing more than one dependent clause, which can be either of the same type
of clause, or of different one. The study selects one Research Paper Writing class
of the 2010-2011 academic year of the English Education Study Programme of
Sanata Dharma University to be the object of the research.
D. Research Objectives
The objective of the study is to examine or investigate the mastery of
complex sentences of Research Paper Writing students of the English Education
Study Programme. By constructing this study, the writer intends to:
1. Describe Research Paper Writing students’ mastery of complex sentences in
writing their Mid Test 1 research reports
2. Describe the possible problems the students face in producing complex
sentences
E. Research Benefits
The findings of the study, hopefully, can be of assistance and contribution to:
1. Students
By learning from the analysis about parts of complex sentences in which
students most often make mistakes, students can learn how to produce complex
sentences better. In addition, ultimately, this study intends to encourage students
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to make optimal use of complex sentences in writing as far as the sentences
support the ideas they want to convey and those sentences can help improve the
coherence and to avoid repetitions in writing.
2. Teachers/Lecturers
This study will offer an improvement in teaching complex sentences. The
analysis of the difficult parts of complex sentences, besides giving benefits to
students, also gives benefits to teachers. Realizing this, teachers are to pay more
attention to the teaching of those difficult parts.
3. Other researchers
For other researchers, this study is aimed to become a starting point of better
research in the future by narrowing or broadening the topic with deliberate
improvement according to the future’s needs as well as contexts.
F. Definition of Terms
1. Mastery
Based on Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 7th Edition, mastery refers to “great knowledge about or understanding of a particular thing.” According to
Fries (1952:3), more specifically, a person has learnt a foreign language when he
has, thus, within limited vocabulary, mastered the sound system (that is when he
can understand the stream of speech and achieve an understandable production of
it) and has, secondly, made the structural devices (that is the basic arrangement of
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utterances) matters of automatic habit. Considering the focus of the study, which
is complex sentences, the writer pays attention to the second requirement of
mastery, which is, structural devices.
Furthermore, one is considered to have mastered these structural devices if he
or she:
a. knows the forms and the rules underlying it
b. know the meaning of those forms
c. know how to use construction correctly and appropriately
2. Complex Sentences
A sentence is said to be a complex sentence if it consists of one independent
clause and one or more dependent clause (Wishon & Burks, 1987, Dumais, 1988,
Azar, 1989, & Bram, 1995). They, furthermore, go on to state that independent
clause refers to a clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence for it has a
subject and a finite verb of a sentence. They also explain that unable to stand by
itself as a complete sentence, a dependent clause must be connected to an
independent clause. Connectors connecting the dependent clause to the
independent one are called subordinating conjunctions. Such words as who, which, how, because, as and since are some of them. As the dependent clauses of complex sentences, in this study, there are noun clauses, adjective clauses and
adverb clauses.
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3. Research Paper Writing
Research Paper Writing is a compulsory subject in the curriculum of the
English Education Study Programme of Sanata Dharma University. It is offered in
semester six. According to Panduan Akademik Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris
(2007), in this subject, students are expected to be able to conduct minor research
and write reports of the research. These reports will, obviously, be the object of
the analysis.
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CHAPTER II LITERARY REVIEW
This chapter presents the related literature as the theoretical bases on which
the study that has been presented in Chapter I is conducted. The literature review
consists of two parts, namely theoretical descriptions and theoretical framework.
The theoretical description contains the description of complex sentences on
which the study is based. Meanwhile, the theoretical framework contains the
summary of all major theories presented in theoretical description in relation to
the problems of this research.
A. Theoretical Description
The theoretical description consists of five parts. The first and the second part
deal with types of sentence and the importance of complex sentences in writing.
The third and the fourth part, furthermore, introduce finite and non-finite
dependent clause in complex sentences as well as subordinating conjunctions.
While the next part is the elaboration of types of dependent clause in details, the
last part will be the explanation of multiple clause structure.
1. Types of Sentence
There are four types of sentence, namely simple sentences, compound
sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences.
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Simple sentence consists of a subject and at least one finite verb (Wishon &
Burks, 1987; Bram, 1995; & Eastwood, 2002). In other words, a simple sentence
consists of one independent clause, which based on Bram (1995) is defined as
clause consisting of the main subject and verb of a sentence.
The second type is called compound sentence. It is a sentence that consists of
more than one independent clause (Bram, 1995), joined by coordinating
conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), semicolons, or a semicolon followed by a transition (Verde, 2008).
The third type of sentence, which becomes the focus of the study, is
complex sentence. A sentence is said to be a complex sentence if it consists of an
independent clause and one or more dependent clause (Curme, 1966; Azar, 1989;
& Bram, 1995). Azar (1989) explains that unable to stand by itself as a complete
sentence, a dependent clause must be connected to an independent clause. French
(1970), furthermore, says that a dependent clause elaborates the meaning of some
words in the independent clause. The dependent clauses are noun clauses,
adjective clauses and adverb clauses.
Finally, the fourth type of sentences is compound-complex sentences. This
type of sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses and at least one
dependent clause (Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics Workbook, 2000 & Verde,
2008). In other words, it has coordinating conjunctions connecting two or more
independent clauses, at least one of which should have a dependent clause within
(Verde, 2008).
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2. Complex Sentences in Writing
Vrooman (1967:105) states that in writing, “to write grammatically correct
sentences is not enough.” Since thinking is sorting out and giving order to ideas,
one must find the sentence structure that establishes the proper thought
relationship of ideas, he claims. Implicitly highlighting the significance of
complex sentence in writing, Vrooman (1967) and Ackley, Calabrese, Cavender,
Collins-Kimbell, Pohlman, & Purvis (1986) then, state that it is very important to
place the emphasized or prominent idea in the independent clause, and to arrange
the less important or deemphasized ideas in suitable subordinate constructions.
In line with what Vrooman (1967) explains, Bram (1995) says that one can
also show, among other things, contrast, preference, reason and consequence.
Therefore, “the flow of thoughts will run much more smoothly, compared with
series of ideas expressed in simple sentence” (Bram, 1995:40).
3. Finite and Non-finite Dependent Clause in Complex Sentence
Curme (1966:156) states that dependent clauses “are of different fullness of
form and are of different kinds.” He also says that every dependent clause usually
has a full form with a finite verb. Alongside the full form with a finite verb,
however, are often non-finite forms. He states that those non-finite forms are more
natural and common than the full form with the finite verb.
Radford (1990), furthermore, states that the distinction between finite and
non-finite clauses is partly on morphological criteria, the forms of verbs. In other
words, a clause is finite if it contains a finite verb, “showing tense distinction
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between ‘past’ and ‘present’, and being associated with a particular subject”
(Ackley, et al., 1986:74). Perrin (1965) and Radford (1990), then, say that a
clause is said to be non-finite, if it lacks a finite verb. Non-finite clauses “remain
invariable in form whatever the context and cannot carry finite Tense/Agreement
inflections such as present or past tense” (Perrin, 1965:9).
Taking those definitions into account, then, there are three types of
non-finite verb forms in English (Radford, 1990 and Eastwood, 2002):
a. Infinitive forms (infinitive particle)
It includes simply the base or stem of the verb with no added inflection.
Example: The man did not know where to find the ring.
b. Gerund forms
It includes the base plus the –ing suffix.
Example: Speaking in a language, people often insert some words from another language within sentences.
c. Participle forms(perfect/passive)
It includes the V3 or past participle used both in passive or perfect.
Example: This paper reports a research conducted to know the code switching habit of students of semester six.
4. Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordination, according to Quirk & Greenbaum (1985), holds between two
clauses in such a way that one is a constituent or part of the other. What is needed
to make subordination is subordinator, or completely called subordinating
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conjunction (Jackson, 1982; Farbman, 1985; & Azar, 1989). In line with Quirk &
Greenbaum (1985) statement, they state that a complete sentence loses its
independence and becomes ready for embedding simply by the addition of a
subordinating conjunction. In other words, subordinating conjunction introduces
imbedded sentence, stated previously as dependent clause.
The following are some examples of subordinating conjunctions, the more
detailed usage of which will be further explained later in this chapter.
Table 2.1: Examples of Subordinating Conjunctions
What Who After Because Even though
Whatever Whom Before Since Although
Whoever Whose When Now that Though
Whichever Which While/as As
Wherever That Until As/so long as
Why Inasmuch as
How So (that)
That In order that
5. Types of Dependent Clauses
Dependent clauses, according to Jackson (1982), Quirk & Greenbaum (1985)
and Dumais (1988), can be divided into three broad categories, namely noun
clause, adjective clause, and adverb clause.
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a. NOUN CLAUSES
1) Definition of noun clause
Noun clauses are dependent clauses replacing a noun or noun phrase
(Jackson, 1982; Farbman, 1985; Ackley, et al., 1986; Wishon & Burks, 1987;
Dumais, 1988; Azar, 1989 & Eastwood; 2002). The same as a noun, used as a
subject or an object, a noun clause is used as a subject or an object (Azar, 1989).
Therefore, basically, noun clause functions as a noun substitute in a sentence. As
noun clauses can be used in the same way in which a noun is used, Wishon &
Burks (1987) state that noun clauses occur anywhere in the sentence in which a
noun or a noun phrase can occur.
2) Some types of noun clauses
a) Noun clauses which begin with that (That clauses)
According to Jackson (1982), Azar (1989) and Eastwood (2002), a noun
clause can be introduced by that. The examples can be observed as follows.
Table 2.2: Noun clauses which begin with that
i. I think that he is a good actor. ii. I think he is a good actor.
iii. We know (that) the world is round
That marks the beginning of the clause.
It can also be omitted as in (ii).
iv. That she doesn’t understand spoken English is obvious.
v. It is obvious (that) she doesn’t
understand spoken English.
vi. That the world is round is the fact. vii. It is the fact that the world is round.
When that clause functions as the
subject of the sentence, as in (iv) and
(vi), the word that is not omitted. The word it can function as the subject and the noun clause is placed at the end
of the sentence as in (v) and (vii).
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Quirk & Greenbaum (1985) explain that the zero that clause is particularly common when the clause is brief and uncomplicated as in sentence (ii) in the table
above. The need for clarity, however, “discourages or even forbids the omission
of that in complex sentences” (Quirk & Greenbaum, 1985: 317). In other words, the use of that to introduce complicated dependent clause is necessary.
E.g.: We hoped, in a moment of optimism, that the Government would look favourably on our case.
b) Noun clauses which begin with question words (WH clauses)
Noun clause can be introduced by question words (Curme, 1966; Frank,
1972; Farbman, 1985; Swan, 1988; Azar, 1989; & Eastwood, 2002). As the
position of a noun clause may vary, the forms of subordinating conjunctions are
also various depending on the position in the clause introduced. Here are some of
the examples.
i. We know who wrote the letter. (Subject)
Who positions as the subject or the agent of the verb wrote. ii. We know what happened. (Subject)
iii. We know whom you saw. (Direct object)
Whomis the object or theme of the verb saw. In the sentence, who you saw
becomes the object of the verb know.Whom indicates human object. iv. We know what they needed. (Direct object)
What is the object or theme of the verb needed. What they needed
occupies object position of the verb know. What indicates non-human object.
v. We know whose work was best. (Determiner)
Whose functions as determiner, therefore, it must be followed by a noun phrase (work)
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vi. We know which way they went. (Determiner)
It can be seen that which is followed by a noun phrase (way). vii. We know what time it was. (Determiner)
Here, a noun phrase (time) follows the determiner (what)
Another example of WH clauses is Whether or If clause (Jackson, 1982; Quirk & Greenbaum, 1985; Azar, 1989; & Eastwood, 2002). They explain that
whether and if can introduce noun clauses. Observe the following sentences. i. I don’t know whether (or not) she will come. (correct)
ii. I don’t know if or not she will come. (Incorrect) iii. I don’t know if she will come. (Correct)
iv. I wonder whether she needs help. (Correct)
v. I wonder if she needs help. (Correct)
vi. Whether she comes (or not) is unimportant to me. (Correct)
vii.If she comes or notis unimportant to me. (Incorrect)
Based on Quirk & Greenbaum (1985), only whether can be followed by or not as seen in (i). That is why, sentence (ii) is incorrect. Quirk & Greenbaum (1985), then, say that if cannot introduce a subject clause. That is why, sentence (vii) is incorrect.
3) Changing a finite noun clause into a non-finite noun clause
Noun clauses introduced by question words, Quirk & Greenbaum (1985)
and Azar (1989) say, can be changed into non-finite by substituting the clause
following the question word with an infinitive. Each of the following pairs of
sentences has the same meaning. The meaning expressed by the infinitive is either
should or can/could.
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a) I don’t know what I should do. → I don’t know what to do.
b) Pam can’t decide whether she should go or stay home. → Pam can’t decide
whether to go or (to) stay home.
c) Please tell me how I can get to the bus station. → Please tell me how to get to the bus station.
d) Jim told us where we could find it.→ Jim told us where to find it.
It can be seen that typically, Subject + Modal Auxiliary + V1 (E.g.: I should do, she should go, I can get, we could find, etc) following the WH
conjunction is changed into to Infinitive forms (to do, to go, to get, to find, etc). This makes sentences non-finite for to infinitive form is not influenced by either
tense or by SV concord.
b. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
1) Definition of adjective clause
An adjective clause, or called a relative clause, Farbman (1985); Ackley, et
al. (1986); Wishon & Burks (1987); Dumais (1988); and Azar (1989) state, is a
dependent clause that modifies or tell more about a noun. It describes, identifies,
or gives further information about a noun (Jackson, 1982). It means that an
adjective clause is used as an adjective.
Adjective clauses are usually introduced by the relative pronoun (Ackley, et
al., 1986 & Wishon & Burks, 1987). These pronouns function in noun positions in
the clauses they introduce. The form of the relative pronoun is determined by two
factors (Jackson, 1982). The first is whether the head noun is personal or
non-personal. This, later on, will determine the choice between “who” and “which.”
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Secondly, he says, the form is influenced by the function of the relative pronoun
syntactically within the clause, as subject, object, genitive, or prepositional object.
This will be elaborated further in tables that follow in this chapter.
In writing, furthermore, adjective clauses play an important role to improve
coherence (Bramer & Sedley, 1981). It is because adjective clause can help avoid
repetitions by substituting a pronoun for a noun or noun phrase that has been
mentioned previously. Therefore, it can help make the ideas within a composition
flow smoother.
2) Some types of adjective clauses
a) Adjective clauses using who, which, that
The following table shows adjective clauses using who, which and that as subject pronouns (Wishon & Burks, 1987 & Azar, 1989).
Table 2.3: Adjective clauses using who, which and that
I thanked the woman. She helped me
↓
i. I thanked the woman who helped me. ii.I thanked the woman that helped me.
In (i): I thanked the woman = an
independent clause
who helped me = an adjective clause
The adjective clause modifies the
noun woman
In (i): who is the subject of the adjective
In (ii): that is the subject of the adjective
Both (i) and (ii) have the same
meaning
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The book is mine. It is on the table.
↓
iii. The book which is on the table is mine.
iv. The book that is on the table is mine
Who = used for people
Which = used for things, as seen in
(iii)
That = used for both people and
things, as seen in (ii) and (iv)
b) Adjective clauses using object pronouns: which and that
The following table shows adjective clauses using which and that as the object pronouns (Wishon & Burks, 1987 & Azar, 1989).
Table 2.4: Adjective clauses using which and that
The movie wasn’t very good.
We saw it last night.
↓
i. The movie which we saw last night wasn’t very good.
ii. The movie that we saw last night wasn’t very good.
iii. The movie θ we saw last night
wasn’t very good.
As seen in (iii), object pronoun is often
omitted from an adjective clause.
Which = used for things
That = used for both people and things
c) Adjective clauses using whose and of which
The following table shows adjective clauses using whose and of which to show possession (Wishon & Burks, 1987; & Azar, 1989). From the table that
follows, the difference usage between whose and of which can be highlighted.
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Table 2.5: Adjective clauses using whose and of which
I know the man.
His bicycle was stolen. ↓
i. I know the man whose bicycle was stolen.
Mr. Catt has a painting. Its value is inestimable.
↓
ii. Mr Catt has a painting whose value is inestimable.
We have an antique table. The top of it has jade inlay.
↓
iii. We have an antique table, the top of which has jade inlay.
iv. We have an antique table whose top
has jade inlay.
Whose is used to show possession. It carries the same meaning as other
possessive pronouns used as
adjectives: his, her, its, and their.
Whose is connected to a noun. Both are placed at the beginning of the
adjective clause. Whose cannot be omitted.
Whose can be used to modify “people” and “things”
Besides using “whose” to modify
“things”, English also includes a
noun + of which to show possession.
(iii) and (iv) have the same meaning.
But, as seen in (iii), a comma is
needed when a noun + of which is used.
d) Adjective clauses to modify a whole sentence: using which
Which positioned right after a comma following a complete statement is to modify the whole idea of that preceding statement (Azar, 1989 & Eastwood,
2002). The following table shows adjective clauses using which.
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Table 2.6: Adjective clauses using which
Tom was late. That surprised me. i. Tom was late, which surprised me.
The elevator is out of order. This is too bad.
ii. The elevator is out of order, which
is too bad.
The pronoun that and this can refer to the idea of a whole sentence which
comes before.
The use of which both in (i) and in (ii)
is the same, referring to the whole
preceding sentence.
3) Changing a finite adjective clause to a non-finite adjective clause
Bramer & Sedley (1981) say that one can achieve even more “tightening”
through a syntactic manoeuvre which permits to delete the relative pronoun and
certain other parts. This manoeuvre changes an adjective clause into a reduced
adjective clause, now called a phrase. According to Azar (1989), a clause, group
of related words containing a subject and a verb, is finite. Whereas, she claims
that a phrase, being a group of related words that does not contain a subject and a
verb, is non-finite.
There are two ways in which a finite adjective clause is changed to a
non-finite adjective clause, or adjective phrase.
a) The subject pronoun is omitted and the be form of the verb is omitted. CLAUSE : The manwho is talking to John is from Korea.
PHRASE : The man θ θ talking to John is from Korea.
b) If there is no be form of the verb in the adjective clause, it is sometimes possible to omit the subject pronoun and change the verb to its –ing form.
CLAUSE : Anyone who wants to come with us is welcome.
PHRASE : Anyone θ wanting to come with us is welcome.
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c. ADVERB CLAUSES
1) Definition of adverb clause
Frank (1972), Wishon & Burks (1987) and Dumais (1988) say that an
adverbial clause is a dependent clause used as an adverb. It, therefore, gives
circumstantial information about an action or event. It, basically, modifies or tells
more about a verb (Farbman, 1985; Quirk & Greenbaum, 1985; & Ackley, et al.,
1986), in the way that they explain where, when, how, why, to what extent and
under what condition an action occurs. As an adverb does not have a fixed
position, adverb clauses, consequently, do not occupy any fixed position.
2) Some types of adverb clause
a) Adverb clause to indicate time relationships
The first type of adverb clauses is the one indicating time relationship.
Therefore, these clauses tell more about when an action is done. The following is
table showing adverb clauses indicating time relationships (Wishon & Burks,
1987 & Azar, 1989).
Table 2.7: Adverb clauses indicating time relationships After
i. After she graduates, she will get a job.
ii. He worked as a lawyer after he finished his education.
As seen in (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), and
(vi), subordinating conjunction can
appear either at the beginning of the
sentence or after the independent
clause.
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Before
iii. I will leave before he comes.
iv. I (had) left before he came. As seen in (i), (v), and (vii), when the conjunction is at the beginning of the
sentence, a comma to precede the
independent clause is needed.
When
v. When I was in Chicago, I visited the museum.
vi. Abraham Lincoln maintained great
interest in legal studies when he was president.
While/as
vii.While I was walking down the street, I met an old friend.
viii.As I was walking home, I met an old friend.
While and as carry the meaning of “during the same time”
Until
ix. Lincoln maintained his interest in
law until he was assassinated.
Until means till that time and then no longer.
b) Adverb clause to indicate cause and effect relationships
Adverb clause can also show cause and effect relationship. It means that the
clauses tell more about why an action is done. Azar (1989) explains that because, since, now that, as, as long as/so long as, and inasmuch as are subordinating conjunctions showing cause and effect relationships.
The examples and the explanation on adverb clauses indicating cause and
effect relationship based on Wishon & Burks (1987) and Azar (1989) can be seen
in the following table.
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Table 2.8: Adverb clauses indicating cause and effect relationships
Because i. Because he was sleepy, he
went to bed.
ii. He went to bed because he was sleepy.
An adverb clause may
precede or follow the
independent clause.
Since iii. Since he is not interested in
classical music, he decided not
to go to the concert.
In (iii): since means because
Now that iv. Now that the semester is
finished, I am going to rest a
few days and then take a trip.
In (iv): now that means because now. Now that is used for present and
future situations.
As v. As she had nothing in
particular to do, she called up a friend and asked her if she
wanted to take in a movie.
In (v): as means because
As/so long as vi. As long as (So long as) you are not busy, could you help me with this work?
In (vi): as long as means because
Inasmuch as vii. Inasmuch as the tow
government leaders could not
reach an agreement, the
possibilities for peace are still
remote.
In (vii): Inasmuch as
means because. It is
usually found only in
formal writing and
speech.
So that/in
order that
viii. I will study the chapter so that
I can pass the exam.
ix. I read that chapter in order that I might be prepared to take the examination.
In (viii): if the verb of the
independent clause is in
present or future tense,
the dependent clause
refers to the future.
In (ix): If the verb of the
independent clause is in
the past, the dependent
clause contains would,
could, or might
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c) Adverb clause to indicate opposition
Adverbial clauses can indicate opposition. It means that the clauses carry
statement opposing the ultimate result. These clauses are often introduced by
although, though, and even though (Wishon & Burks, 1987 & Azar, 1989). Examples:
i. Although I had a slight handicap, I was an ambitious student.
Having a slight handicap, commonly, someone can lose his spirit. But, in the
sentence above, the independent clause (I was an ambitious student) shows an unexpected result.
ii. My grades were always excellent, even though I was often absent.
Usually, those who are often absent to class do not get so good a grade. Yet, in
the sentence above, the independent clause (My grades were always excellent) shows an unexpected result.
iii. My grades were always excellent, though I was often absent.
Although and even though are the formal forms. In less formal situation, those two conjunctions can be replaced with though.
3) Changing a finite adverb clause into a non-finite adverb clauses
Azar (1989) explains that the same with noun clauses and adjective clauses
that can be changed into their non-finite forms, adverb clauses can also be turned
into their non-finite forms. Regarding this, Wishon & Burks (1987) state that the
subject of both the independent and the dependent clause in the sentence to be
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changed into non-finite, must be the same. Their ideas can be summed up in the
following table.
Table 2.9: How finite adverb clauses can be changed into non-finite adverb clauses
a) While I was walking down the street, I met an old friend.
b) Walking down the street, I met an old friend.
As seen in (b), an –ing phrase at the beginning of a sentence can give the
meaning of “during the same time”
c) Because she neededmoney to buy a book, Sue cashed a check.
d) Needing some money to buy a book, Sue cashed a check.
As seen in (d), an –ing phrase at the beginning of a sentence can also give
the meaning of “because”
e) Because she was unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle.
f) Being unable to buy a car, she bought a bicycle.
g) Unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle.
A form of be in the adverb clause is often changed to being. Being can also be omitted as in (g).
h) Although I had a slight handicap, I was an ambitious student.
i) Although having a slight handicap,
I was an ambitious student.
As seen in (b), (d), (f), (g), and (i), the
subject of the non-finite clause is the
same as the subject of the
independent clause.
j) Although it was cold, I went swimming.
In (j): the finite clause in the sentence
cannot be made non-finite because the
subject of the adverb clause is
different from that of the independent
clause. Notice the underlined words.
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Wishon & Burks (1987) state that the general principle on how to change a
clause into a phrase is to avoid what is so-called dangling verbal. The verbals,
which are infinitives, gerunds, and participles, are often the source of confusing
expressions, especially when they are used at the beginning of the sentence.
Verbals are verb forms used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. As they retain their
nature as verb, they may show action and have objects. Action requires an agent –
someone or something to perform the act or to be responsible for it. When the
reference of the verbal to its agent is not entirely clear, the sentence is lack of
clarity.
The following are some examples of sentences containing dangling verbal
and each of the corrections.
a) Wrong : Having read Poe, the stories of O. Henry interested me.
Right : Having read Poe, I became interested in O. Henry’s stories.
b) Wrong : Reading them, one difference could be found.
Right : Reading them, I found one difference.
6. Multiple clause structure
The device of subordination, according to Quirk & Greenbaum (1985),
enables one to organize multiple clause structure. In this structure, each dependent
clause may itself be superordinate to one or more other clauses. As the
consequence, hierarchy of clauses, one within another can be built up, which
frequently results in sentences of great complexity.
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A simple example:
X- Y- Z- -Z -Y -X
(I think [ that you can do it {if you try} ] )
Here, the clause beginning at Z- is subordinate to the clause beginning at Y-,
which in turn is subordinate to the clause beginning at X-. Both Y and Z are
dependent clause, while X is the independent clause of the sentence above. And
the sentence fulfils the pattern of S-V-O-A, in whichI functions as S, think as V,
that you can do itas O, and if you try as A.
B. Theoretical Framework
As the framework, some points can be summed up. Sentences are divided
into four broad categories namely simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex. Complex sentences becoming the focus of this study are those having
one independent clause, and at least one dependent clause which can be in the
form of finite or non-finite noun clause, finite or non-finite adjective clause and
finite or non-finite adverb clause.
Complex sentences that will be analysed in this study, therefore, can be
noted as follows.
1. Complex sentences containing finite or non-finite noun clauses
2. Complex sentences containing finite or non-finite adjective clauses
3. Complex sentences containing finite or non-finite adverb clauses
4. Complex sentences containing multiple clause structure
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In relation to the problem of this study, Research Paper Writing students’
mastery of complex sentences will be analysed from their Mid Test 1 research
reports based on theories presented in the theoretical description. In case
ungrammaticality is found out, the ungrammaticality will be described so that
students’ lack in writing complex sentence will be eventually revealed. Doing so,
the writer will be able to give alternatives or possible solutions on how to improve
the students’ mastery on that traced area.
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CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
This chapter is about the methods of the study. It is also used to prove the
research through the methodology from which the research obtains its ultimate
interpretation according to the findings. This chapter consists of six parts. Those
are research methods, participants/respondents, research instruments, data
gathering technique, data analysis techniques, and research procedure.
A. Research Methods
The research was a document analysis. Document analysis “focuses on
analysing and interpreting recorded materials within its own context” (Ary &
Razavieh, 2002). This document analysis was conducted to obtain data on the
Research Paper Writing students’ mastery of complex sentences. This method was
chosen because it was authentic and natural in the way that Research Paper
Writing students were to write research reports for their Mid Test 1 as usual. This
made students really show their ability in writing as they usually did for their
curricular tests, and marks. Before conducting document analysis, the writer tried
to find as many relevant references as possible to obtain sufficient theories on
which the study would be grounded.
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B. Research Participants
The participants of the research were all 24 students of Research Paper
Writing of class A in the 2010-2011 academic year of the English Education
Study Programme of Sanata Dharma University.
C. Research Instruments
There were some instruments used in this document analysis. Those
instruments can be noted as follows.
1. The Research Paper Writing students’ Mid Test 1 research reports
The Research Paper Writing students’ Mid Test 1 research reports
became the major source of data. The reports were from the selected Research
Paper Writing class, which was class A. Through studying these documents,
the writer would be able to describe students’ mastery of complex sentences
as well as problems they faced in producing such sentences in their research
reports.
2. Tables of classification
There were some types of table used in analysing the students’ written
work.
The first table dealt with the total number of complex sentences each
student wrote. In more detail, the table was a table showing the number of
sentences students wrote according to sentence types, namely simple,
compound, complex, and compound complex. This table was made in order
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to know the number of written complex sentences that would be analysed
further. The table can be seen as follows.
Table 3.1: The number of written simple, compound, and complex sentences
No
Simple Compound Complex Comp-Complex Total Sentences Sentences Sentences Sentences
Sentences
Num % Num % Num % Num %
1
2
…
The second one, then, dealt with the number of students’ complex
sentences according to the type of the dependent clauses within. It was to
show the number of sentences containing noun clauses, named type one,
adjective clauses, named type two, and adverb clauses, named type three, and
sentences containing multiple clause structures, named type four. The table
can be seen as follows.
Table 3.2: The number of sentences in each type of complex sentence
No.
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4 Total of
a noun clause an adjective an adverb multiple
clause Complex
clause clause structure Sentences
Num % Num % Num % Num %
1
2
…
The third type of tables, furthermore, was to determine students’ mastery
of complex sentence. In these tables, then, there would be shown the number
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and the percentage of correct complex sentences type one, type two, type
three, and type four. From the percentage, then, each student’s mastery of
complex sentences could, ultimately, be described.
In this case, some criteria were given. If a student’s total grammatical
sentences were 80% or more, it can be said that his mastery of complex
sentences was “very good”. If they were lower than 80% but 70% at the least,
the mastery was regarded enough or “good”. Lower than “good”, grade “fair”
was given for those having 60% grammaticality at the least. When there was
less than 60% grammaticality, the mastery was considered insufficient or
“poor”. This consideration was made in accordance with the English
Education Study Programme’s common marking criteria, A, B, C, and D,
respectively.
The third tables, to obtain findings about students’ mastery, can be seen
in the following.
Table 3.3: Sentences containing finite and non-finite noun clause
Doc. Noun Correct Incorrect
Grade
No Clauses Number % Number %
1 2 …
Table 3.4: Sentences containing finite and non-finite adjective clause
Doc. Total of Correct Incorrect
Grade
No Adj.
Clause Number % Number %
1 2 …
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Table 3.5: Sentences containing finite and non-finite adverb clause
Doc. Total of Correct Incorrect
Grade
No Adverb
Clause Number % Number %
1 2 …
Table 3.6: Sentences containing multiple c