DESIGNING A SET OF ENGLISH CONVERSATION MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED LEARNERS OF CONVERSATION CLASS
ATQUICK CONCEPTENGLISH COURSE SOLO
A Thesis
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain theSarjana PendidikanDegree
in English Language Education
By
By
Amrita Saraswati Sasongko
Student Number: 021214055
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
DESIGNING A SET OF ENGLISH CONVERSATION MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED LEARNERS OF CONVERSATION CLASS
ATQUICK CONCEPTENGLISH COURSE SOLO
A Thesis
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain theSarjana PendidikanDegree
in English Language Education
By
By
Amrita Saraswati Sasongko
Student Number: 021214055
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA 2008
A Thesis on
DESIGNING A SET OF ENGLISH CONVERSATION MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED LEARNERS OF CONVERSATION CLASS
ATQUICK CONCEPTENGLISH COURSE SOLO
By
AMRITA SARASWATI SASONGKO
Student Number: 021214055
Approved by:
Major Sponsor
FX. Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd. 23 July 2008
Co-Sponsor
A Thesis on
DESIGNING A SET OF ENGLISH CONVERSATION MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED LEARNERS OF CONVERSATION CLASS
ATQUICK CONCEPTENGLISH COURSE SOLO
By
AMRITA SARASWATI SASONGKO
Student Number: 021214055
Defended before the Board of Examiners on 23 July 2008
and Declared Acceptable
Board of Examiners
Chair person : A. Hardi Prasetyo, S.Pd., M.A.
Secretary : Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd., M.Pd.
Member : FX. Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd.
Member : Henny Herawati, S.Pd., M.Hum.
Member : Caecilia Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd.
Yogyakarta, 23 July 2008
Faculty of Teachers Training and Education Sanata Dharma University
Dean,
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I wrote, does not contain the work or parts of
the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as a
scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, 23 July 2008 The Writer
Amrita Saraswati Sasongko
ABSTRACT
Sasongko, Amrita Saraswati. 2008. Designing a Set of English Conversation Materials for Advanced Learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
There are two reasons that underline the writing of this thesis. The first reason is the needs of the advanced learners of English Conversation Class atQuick Concept English Course Solo to improve their English skills, especially their speaking skills. The second reason is the needs of the teachers at Quick Concept
English Course Solo to have a set of materials as the guidance to conduct teaching/learning activities. Therefore this thesis is intended to design a set of English conversation materials to fulfill both the learners’ and the teachers’ needs.
This thesis attempted to answer two research questions. The research questions are (1) What are the steps of designing a set of English conversation materials for advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept
English Course Solo? (2) What does a set of English conversation materials for advanced learners of English Conversation Class atQuick Concept English Course Solo look like?
The writer used some literature review as the reference to design the materials. The literature review includes Instructional Design Model, Communicative Language Teaching, Teaching Speaking, and Materials Development.
In this study, the writer used Educational Research and Development (R&D) study as the methodology. She did not use all steps in R&D cycle because of efficiency. The steps used include identifying the product to be developed, reviewing the literature, planning the development program, developing the product, conducting a main field test, revising the product in keeping with the findings of the main field test, and making the final product.
To answer the first research question, the writer followed the eight steps in Kemp’s instructional design model. They are (1) Considering goals, topics, and general purposes, (2) Determining learner characteristics, (3) Specifying the learning objectives, (4) Listing the subject content, (5) Developing pre-assessments, (6) Selecting teaching/learning activities and resources, (7) Coordinating a support service, and (8) Evaluating students’ accomplishments. Since Kemp’s model is flexible, the writer could start the designing with any step that was considered ready to conduct first.
The writer started the designing process by conducting needs survey to gain the information of the students’ needs and wants. She used two instruments in this survey: questionnaire and interview. The survey included 12 advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo as the respondents. The results of the pre-design survey were used as the guidance to design the materials.
After the materials had been designed, the writer conducted post-design survey by distributing evaluation questionnaires and conducting interviews with the respondents. The respondents consisted of two English teachers at Quick Concept
English Course Solo, two representative learners, and an expert. The results of the post-design survey were used as the guidance to improve the materials.
The materials that have been improved become the final version of the designed materials. There are eight topics discussed in eight units. They include “The Most Impressive Experience”; “The Future”; “The Hottest News”; “The Unique Customs”; “Technology, Information, and Communication”; “The Social Issues; Interviews; and Problem Solving”.
In each unit there are four main parts. Part A, “Learn It”, includes reading and listening parts. This part is intended to give the learners experiences of the related topics. Part B, “Let’s Try”, is the main part of the whole units where the learners are to practice speaking. In this part there are some tasks that direct the learners to do speaking activities. Part C, “Feedback”, has two discussions: “Grammar Point” and “Words Bank”. In this part, there are some discussions of grammar and vocabulary that are discussed in the previous parts. Part D, “Homework”, gives instruction to the learners about what to do and prepare at home for the next meeting.
ABSTRAK
Sasongko, Amrita Saraswati. 2008. Designing a Set of English Conversation Materials for Advanced Learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English Course Solo. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Ada dua alasan yang mendasari penulisan skripsi ini. Alasan pertama adalah kebutuhan siswa-siswi tingkat Advanced di Kelas Percakapan Bahasa Inggris di
Quick Concept English Course Solo untuk mengembangkan kemampuan Bahasa
Inggris mereka, terutama kemampuan berbicara. Alasan yang kedua adalah kebutuhan para pengajar di Quick Concept English Course Solo untuk mempunyai satu set materi sebagai panduan untuk menyelenggarakan kegiatan belajar mengajar. Oleh karena itu, skripsi ini dimaksudkan untuk mendesain satu set materi percakapan untuk memenuhi baik kebutuhan siswa-siswi maupun kebutuhan para pengajar.
Skripsi ini mencoba menjawab dua pertanyaan. Pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut adalah (1) Apa langkah-langkah dalam mendesain satu set materi percakapan Bahasa Inggris untuk siswa-siswi tingkat Advanced di Kelas Percakapan Bahasa Inggris diQuick Concept English Course Solo? (2) Seperti apakah penyajian satu set materi percakapan Bahasa Inggris untuk siswa-siswi tingkat Advanced di Kelas Percakapan Bahasa Inggris diQuick ConceptEnglish Course Solo?
Penulis menggunakan beberapa kajian literatur sebagai referensi dalam mendesain materi. Kajian literatur tersebut mencakup Instructional Design Model, Communicative Language Teaching, Teaching Speaking, dan Materials Development.
Dalam studi ini, penulis menggunakan Educational Research and Development (R&D) study sebagai metodologinya. Penulis tidak menggunakan semua langkah dalam R&D untuk efisiensi. Langkah-langkah yang digunakan mencakup identivikasi produk untuk dikembangkan, meninjau literature, merencanakan program pengembangan, mengembangkan produk, mengadakan test di area utama, merevisi produk berdasarkan hasil test di area utama, dan membuat produk akhir.
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, penulis mengikuti delapan langkah dalam model desain Kemp. Langkah-langkahnya adalah (1) Menentukan sasaran, topik, dan tujuan umum, (2) Menentukan karakteristik siswa-siswi, (3) Mendiskripsikan tujuan pembelajaran, (4) Membuat isi pelajaran, (5) Melaksanakan pre-test, (6) Memilih aktivitas belajar mengajar dan sumber-sumbernya, (7) Mengkoordinasi fasilitas pendukung, (8) Melakukan penilaian atas pencapaian siswa-siswi. Karena model desain Kemp fleksibel, penulis dapat memulai mendesain dengan langkah apapun yang dinilai siap untuk dilakukan pertama kali.
Penulis memulai proses mendesain materi dengan mengadakan needs survey untuk memperoleh informasi tentang kebutuhan dan keinginan siswa-siswi. Penulis menggunakan dua instumen dalam survey ini: kuestioner dan wawancara. Survey ini melibatkan 12 siswa-siswi tingkat Advanced di Kelas Percakapan Bahasa
Inggris di Quick Concept English Course Solo. Hasil dari survey ini digunakan sebagai panduan untuk mendesain materi.
Setelah materi didesain, penulis mengadakan post-design survey dengan cara membagikan kuesioner dan melakukan wawancara dengan responden. Responden tersebut melingkupi dua pengajar bahasa Inggris di Quick Concept
English Course Solo, dua perwakilan siswa-siswi, dan seorang ahli. Hasil dari post-design survey ini digunakan sebagai panduan untuk merevisi materi.
Materi yang telah direvisi menjadi versi terakhir dari materi tersebut. Ada delapan topik yang dibahas dalam delapan unit. Topik-topik tersebut melingkupi “The Most Impressive Experience”; “The Future”; “The Hottest News”; “The Unique Customs”; “Technology, Information, and Communication”; “The Social Issues; Interviews; and Problem Solving”.
Dalam setiap unit ada empat bagian utama. Bagian A, “Learn It”, melingkupi kegiatan membaca dan mendengarkan. Bagian ini dimaksudkan untuk memberikan siswa-siswi pengenalan akan topic terkait. Bagian B, “Let’s Try”, merupakan bagian pokok dari keseluruhan unit, di mana siswa-siswi harus praktek berbicara. Dalam bagian ini ada beberapa tugas yang menugaskan siswa-siswi untuk melakukan kegiatan berbicara. Bagian C, “Feedback”, mempunyai dua pembahasan “Grammar Point” dan “Words Bank”. Dalam bagian ini ada beberapa pembahasan tentang grammar dan kata-kata yang didiskusikan di bagian-bagian sebelumnya. Bagian D, “Homework”, memberikan perintah kepada siswa-siswi tentang apa yang harus dilakukan dan dipersiapkan untuk pertemuan berikutnya.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Jesus Christ above all for everything He has been doing
for me. Through His endless love I can live, enjoy this life, and do my best. I can
never stand alone without His blessing, guidance, and protection.
I would also like to thank Mother Mary for her prayer that always protects and
accompanies me everywhere. I always get the strength I need every time I pray to her.
My great gratitude is directed to my Major Sponsor, F.X. Ouda Teda Ena,
S.Pd., M.Pd., and my Co-Sponsor, Henny Herawati, S.Pd., M.Hum., that have helped
and guided me to finish this thesis. I really appreciate the patience, time, and
guidance they have given.
I dedicate this thesis for my beloved Romoand Mami. All they have given to
me: love, support, guidance, and trust realize me that there is real unlimited love in
this world. My special gratitude also goes to Yu Terry, Mas Nin, Rani’dut’, Ary,
Tegar for being my great family and also friends. Also, I would not forget to express
my gratitude to the big “Pajang” family:YuSri,MasDanang, Pak-Pak Satpam,Pak
Minto, and all who have shared love, care and help. I really appreciate all they have
given to me.
It is never enough to say thanks to my greatest friends that have made my life
more colourful and cheerful: Ade for our full of happiness friendship and great
experiences, and Amri for being my true friend ever. My really big thanks are for
them for accompanying me in my happy and sad times. My thanks also go to Mba
Aitz, Mas Ony, and all my students for many things I could learn from them. For
Icha, Dolip,Mba-mba and Mas-mas in the office, thank them so much for the great
friendships.
My very special thanks are for Yohanes Bayu Radeka that always colours my
days. I thank him for loving, understanding, accompanying, and taking care of me. I
can really see love, faith, and patience because of him.
Finally, for all people that have touched my heart and have shared beautiful
things with me that I cannot mention their names one by one, I would like to dedicate
this thesis for them. Let’s always enjoy the beauties in lives and share to everyone.
God bless us all!
Amrita Saraswati Sasongko
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ……….. . i
APPROVAL PAGES ……… ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………. ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………. xi
LIST OF TABLES ……… xvi
FIGURE ………... xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES …………..……… xviii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study ………. 1
B. Problem Formulation ……… 3
C. Problem Limitation ……….. 3
D. Objectives of the Study ……… 4
E. Benefits of the Study ……… 4
F. Definition of Terms ……….. 4
CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW A. Theoretical Description ………. 7
1. Instructional Design Model ……… 7
2. Communicative Language Teaching ……….. 9
a. The Roles of Teachers ……….. 10
b. The Roles of Learners ……….. 11
c. The Roles of Instructional Materials ……… 11
d. Communicative Competence ……… 12
e. Communicative Activities ……… 13
3. Teaching Speaking ………... 14
a. Nature of Speaking and Oral Interaction ………... 14
b. Principles for Teaching Speaking ………. 16
1) Elements Needed for Successful Language Learning in Classroom ……… 17
2) Type of Speaking Activity Students Should Do ……. 17
3) Encouraging Students to Do Speaking Tasks ………. 18
4) Teachers’ Corrections in Speaking ………. 19
5) Other Considerations for Teachers ………. 19
c. Speaking Activities ……….. 20
1) Characteristics of A Successful Speaking Activity ... 20
2) Problems with Speaking Activities ……… 20
3) Solutions ……… 21
4) Kinds of Speaking Activities ………. 23
4. Materials Development ……….. 24
a. Materials Adaptation ………. 25
b. Materials Writing ……….. 26
1) Selecting Texts ……… 26
2) Writing Instructions ……… 27
3) Using Illustrations ……….. 28
4) Arranging Design and Layout ……… 29
B. Theoretical Framework ………. 29
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Method ……….. 34
B. Research Respondents ……….. 37
C. Research Setting ……… 38
D. Research Instruments ……… 38
1. Questionnaires ……… 38
2. Interviews ……… 39
E. Data Gathering Technique ……… 39
F. Data Analysis ……… 40
1. The Quantitative Data ………. 40
2. The Qualitative Data ………... 41
G. Research Procedures ………. 41
1. Preparation ………. 41
2. Conducting the Needs Survey ……… 42
3. Analyzing the Data from the Needs Survey ………... 42
4. Designing Instructional Materials ……… 42
5. Conducting the Evaluation of the Designed Materials ……… 43
6. Revising and Developing the Final Version of the Materials .. 43
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
A. The Steps of Designing the Materials ……… 44
1. Conducting Pre-design Survey ………. 45
a. Respondents ……….. 45
b. Needs Survey Results ………... 46
2. Enumerating the Important Characteristics of the Learners … 49 3. Stating Goals, Topics, and General Purposes ………. 50
a. The Goals ………. 50
b. The Topics ……… 51
c. The General Purposes ……….. 51
4. Specifying the Learning Objectives ……… 51
5. Selecting Subject Content .……….. 54
6. Selecting Teaching/Learning Activities and Resources …….. 54
7. Coordinating A Support Service ………. 56
8. Evaluation ………... 56
a. Respondents ………. 57
b. Data Presentation and Analysis ………... 59
B. The Designed Materials ……… 61
1. The Most Impressive Experience ……… 67
2. The Future ……….. 68
3. The Hottest News ………... 68
4. Unique Customs ………. 69
5. Technology, Information, and Communication ………. 70
6. Social Issues ……… 71
7. Interviews ……… 71
8. Problem Solving ……….. 72
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions ……… 73
B. Suggestions ……… 76
1. For the Teachers at Quick Concept English Course ………. 76
2. For the Learners ……… 77
3. For Future Researches ……….. 77
REFERENCES ……… 78
APPENDICES ………. 80
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 3.1: The Five Points of Agreement ……… 40
Table 3.2: The Central Tendency ……… 41
Table 4.1: The Respondents’ Backgrounds ………. 58
Table 4.2: The Results of the Closed-Ended Questions of the Evaluation
Questionnaires ………. 59
Table 4.3: The Units, Topics, and Objectives of the Designed Materials … 62
FIGURE
Page
Figure 2.1: Kemp’s Model: The Relationship of each step in the plan
to the other steps ……… 8
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix A: Pre-Design Survey Questionnaire ……… 81
Appendix B: The List of Questions of Informal Interview for Pre-Design Survey ……… 84
Appendix C : Post-Design Survey Questionnaire ……….. 86
Appendix D: The List of Questions of Informal Interview for Post-Design Survey ……….. 88
Appendix E: Syllabus ………. 90
Appendix F: Lesson Plans ……….. 93
Appendix G: Materials Presentation ……….. 110
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
There are six main parts in this chapter. They include the background of the
study, the problem formulation, the problem limitation, the objectives of the study,
the benefits of the study, and the definition of terms.
A. Background of the Study
Nowadays, English is used in almost all over the world. As an international
language, it plays a role like a bridge that connects people from different countries
that speak different languages.
In Indonesia, although used not as the first language, English is very
important. A lot of aspects of life like education, politics, economy, technology,
medicine, communication, information and entertainment use English. It is used by a
lot of people in this country to serve many kinds of purposes: to gain information, to
make relation with other people from other countries, to deal with technology, to
reach higher level of education or occupation and many more.
Considering the important roles of English, the government has determined to
make English as a compulsory subject at schools. However, the time allocation for
this subject is limited. The students learn it for only several hours a week. In addition,
the materials learnt at schools are focused to prepare the students for examinations.
The students’ abilities in using it, as the means of communication, are not well
developed. That is why a lot of students who feel unsatisfied with what they obtain
and learn in schools often try to join additional classes outside schools. Those who
want to improve their abilities in English join English courses that provide chances
for them to obtain more knowledge about English and to practise using the language
more.
One of the English courses that is growing rapidly is Quick Concept English
Course Solo. It is located at Jalan Kawung 3, Solo. Since it was opened on March 27,
2003, the number of the learners is increasing. The teaching methods which are
focused on the language use have given great development for the learners’ abilities
in using English as a communication means.
However, the course only provided one short period course for all learners. It
only offered basic and intermediate levels. After 55 meetings the course had ended
already, whereas in fact, many of the graduates have requested higher levels. Most of
them want to maintain or even increase their English skills, especially their speaking
skills. Responding to the requests,Quick ConceptEnglish Course Solo then provides
a conversation class for the graduates. The activities and the purposes of the class are
focused on speaking skill. The topics include topics that often discussed in daily life
such as life stories, news, science, and social issues. It depends on the teachers that
play roles as the facilitators.
In order to make the class really focus on the speaking activities and to be able
to fulfill the target, that is to increase the learners’ speaking abilities, the teachers
This study is intended to design a set of English conversation materials for the
class. Hopefully, it can give benefits for both sides, the teachers and also the learners.
The teachers are expected to get the benefits by using this design as the guidelines,
and the learners hopefully can increase their speaking abilities by joining this class
using this design as the materials to learn.
B. Problem Formulation
In this study, there are two major research problems to answer. They are
formulated as follows:
1. What are the steps of designing a set of English conversation materials for
advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English
Course Solo?
2. What does a set of English conversation materials for advanced learners of
English Conversation Class atQuick ConceptEnglish Course Solo look like?
C. Problem Limitation
This study concerns with the designing a set of English conversation materials
for advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English
Course Solo. To make the study more effective and focused, this study is limited to
design the materials for advanced learners, those are learners who have passed the
proper mastery in English skills and elements. However, there is no discussion on the
effectiveness of the materials designed.
D. Objectives of the Study
This research is aimed to discover the steps of designing a set of English
conversation materials for advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick
Concept English Course Solo and to design a set of English conversation materials
for advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English
Course Solo.
E. Benefits of the Study
This study is intended to give some benefits. First, hopefully, it can be used as
the guidelines for the teachers of Quick Concept English Course Solo to teach the
advanced learners of the English Conversation Class at Quick Concept English
Course Solo. Second, by using the materials, the learners are expected to obtain
improvement in their speaking skills. Third, it can be used as a reference for other
teachers to teach and for other writers to do similar studies or develop further
researches.
F. Definition of Terms
To clarify concepts and avoid misinterpretation, some words and phrases are
1. Design
Richards and Rodgers (1986) state that design is the level of method analysis in
which several things are considered: the objectives, the ways the language content
are selected and organized, the types of learning tasks and teaching activities, the
roles of learners, the roles of teachers, and the role of instructional materials.
2. English Conversation Materials
According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s dictionary, materials are things that are
needed in order to do a particular activity. Kemp (1977) states that the content of
the materials must closely relate to the objectives and to the students’ needs. In
this study, the English conversation materials relate to the things that are used in
conversation class. The materials are intended to give guidelines for the teachers
and the students in doing teaching-learning activities.
3. Advanced learners
In this study, advanced learners refer to Quick Concept English Course Solo
learners who have passed 55 meetings. They have learned the first, the second,
and the third books of New Concept English for Global Communication
published by Cambridge University Press.
4. English Conversation class
English Conversation Class in this study refers to the English Conversation Class
mainly focused on speaking. The class is provided for those who have passed 55
meetings.
5. Quick ConceptEnglish Course Solo
Quick Concept English Course Solo is located at Jalan Kawung 3, Solo. It was
opened on March 27, 2003. The course provides classes for high school students,
college students and also for general people. The standard number of the meetings
is 55, those are the meetings for basic and intermediate levels. If the students want
to continue the study, they can join the conversation class that has been provided
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter, the writer discusses theories used in this study. The
Theoretical Description discusses literature related to Instructional Design Model,
Communicative Language Teaching, and teaching speaking. The Theoretical
Framework summarizes the discussions in the Theoretical Description.
A. Theoretical Description 1. Instructional Design Model
Instructional design model deals with the planning of instruction used in
teaching-learning activities. It covers the goals, the bases, the targets, and the steps of
the instructional planning.
In this study, the writer uses Kemp’s instructional design model. It offers an
effective instruction, which is based on the learners’ needs and characteristics. It can
be applied on any educational level, from elementary school until college. Kemp
(1977) states that this instructional design plan is designed to supply answers to three
questions, which may be considered the essential elements of instructional
technology. The first question is what must be learned. It is directed to formulate the
objectives. The second question is what procedures and resources will work best to
reach the desired learning levels. It deals with the activities and the resources. The
third question is how will we know when the required learning has taken place. This
last question relates to the evaluation.
In order to answer the questions, there are eight steps to carry out in the
design process. The relationship of each step in the plan to the other steps is
illustrated in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1. Kemp’s Model: The Relationship of each step in the plan to the other steps (Kemp, 1977:9)
The first steps Kemp proposes are considering goals, listing topics, and stating
the general purposes for teaching each topic. The second one is enumerating the
important characteristics of the learners for whom the instruction is to be designed.
The third one is specifying the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of
measurable student behavioral outcomes. The fourth one is listing the subject content
that supports each objective. The fifth one is developing pre-assessments to determine
the student’s background and present level of knowledge about the topic. The sixth
one is selecting teaching/learning activities and instructional resources that will treat
the subject content so students will accomplish the objectives. The seventh one is Revise
Goals, Topics, and General Purposes
Learning Objectives Learner
Characteristics
Pre-Assessment
Subject Content Support Services
Teaching/Learning Activities, Resources
coordinating such support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and
schedules to carry out the instructional plan. The last one is evaluating students’
learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives, with a view to revising and
reevaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement. Kemp (1977) also states
that this process is flexible. The designer can start with whichever element he/she is
ready to start with and then move back and forth to the other steps.
2. Communicative Language Teaching
CLT is an approach that focuses on the use of the target language more than
the understanding of the various grammatical rules of it (Nunan, 1989). Nunan states
the following:
Language is now generally seen as a dynamic resource for the creation of meaning. In terms of learning, it is generally accepted that we need to distinguish between ‘learning that’ and ‘knowing how’. In the other words, we need to distinguish between knowing various grammatical rules and being able to use the rules effectively and appropriately when communicating (1989:12).
American and British proponents, as mentioned by Richards and Rodgers
(1986:66), see CLT as an approach that aims to (a) make communicative competence
the goal of language teaching and (b) develop procedures for the teaching of the four
language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and
communication. However, according to Littlewood’s statement (1981:1), as cited by
Richards and Rodgers (1986:66), the roles of the language elements are not
language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as
structural aspects of language.”
a. The Roles of Teachers
As cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986:77) from Breen and Candlin
(1980:99), the roles of teachers in CLT are described in the following terms:
The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate the communication process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and texts. The second role is to act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group. The latter role is closely related to the objectives of the first role and arises from it. These roles imply a set of secondary roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of resources and as a resource himself, second as a guide within the classroom procedures and activities….A third role for the teacher is that of researcher and learner, with much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed experience of the nature of learning and organizational capacities.
Richards and Rodgers (1986) also describe another three roles of teachers. The first
role is needs analyst, in which the CLT teachers have a responsibility for determining
and responding to learner language needs. It can be done formally by gaining
information of the students’ motivation for studying the language through formal
assessments, and informally and personally by conducting one-to-one sessions with
the students, in which the teachers can discuss the students’ perceptions of their
learning styles, learning assets, and learning goals. The second role is counselor, in
which the teachers are expected to perform an effective communicator seeking to
maximize the meshing of speaker intention and hearer interpretation, through the use
in which the teachers have a role to organize the classroom as a setting for
communication and communicative activities. In this role the teachers monitor and
encourage the students to do communicative activities, and finally give comments
and corrections. However, the focuses in Communicative Language Teaching are not
on the error suppression and correction, but on the fluency and comprehensibility.
b. The Roles of Learners
In CLT the learners play the active roles. They are not only the lesson
receivers but also the active class participants. Breen and Candlin (1980: 110), as
cited by Richards and Rogers (1986:77), describe the learner’s role within CLT in the
following terms:
The role of learner as negotiator-between the self, the learning process, and the subject of learning-emerges from and interacts with the role of joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom procedures and activities which the group undertakes. The implication for the learner is that he should contribute as much as he gains, and thereby learn in an interdependent way.
Richards and Rogers state that even though there is no text, grammar rules are
not presented, classroom arrangement is nonstandard, students are expected to
interact primarily with each other rather than with the teacher, and correction of
errors may be absent or infrequent.
c. The Role of Instructional Materials
Instructional materials have an important role as a guideline that influences
practitioners view materials as a way of influencing the quality of classroom
interaction and language use. Materials thus have the primary role of promoting
communicative language use. Richards and Rodgers mention three kinds of materials
currently used in CLT. The first one is text-based materials, which consist of a theme,
a task analysis for thematic development, a practice situation description, a stimulus
presentation, comprehension questions, and paraphrase exercises. The second one is
task-based materials, which are usually in the form of one-of-a-kind items: exercise
handbooks, cue cards, activity cards, pair-communication practice materials, and
student-interaction practice booklets. In pair-communication materials, there are
typically two sets of material for a pair of students, each set containing different kinds
of information. The last one is realia, which might include language-based realia,
such as signs, magazines, advertisements, and newspapers, or graphic, and visual
sources around which communicative activities can be built, such as maps, pictures,
symbols, graphs, and charts.
d. Communicative Competence
The main goal of Communicative Language Teaching is communicative
competence: the ability to use the target language in the real life. The goal can be
gained by focusing the teaching-learning activities on how to use the target language,
not only on what to understand. According to Hymes (1972), concluded by Richards
and Rodgers (1986:70), communicative competence is what a speaker needs to know
should be able to understand and apply the aspects of competence such as structure,
vocabulary, and expressions of communication in order to actively communicate.
Canale and Swain (1980), as cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986:71),
identify four dimensions of communicative competence. The first one is Grammatical
competence, which refers to linguistic knowledge that contains the knowledge of
lexical items, morphology, syntax, semantics, and phonology. It helps the students
solve the problems of what words/sentences to say and how to produce them
accurately.
The second is Sociolinguistic competence, which refers to an understanding
of the social context in which communication takes place, including role
relationships, the shared information of the participants, and the communicative
purpose for their interaction.
The third is Discourse competence, which refers to the interpretation of
individual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness and of how meaning
is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text.
The forth is Strategic competence, which refers to the coping strategies that
communicators employ to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair, and redirect
communication.
e. Communicative Activities
Activities conducted in classes using communicative approach should focus
Richards and Rodgers (1986:76) state that the range of exercise types and activities
compatible with a communicative approach is unlimited, as long as the exercises
enable learners to attain the communicative objectives of the curriculum, engage
learners in communication, and require the use of such communicative processes as
information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction.
Littlewood (1981), as cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986: 76) distinguishes
two kinds of communicative activities: functional communication activities and
social interaction activities. In functional communication activities, the students are
placed in a situation where they must perform a task by communicating as best as
they can, with whatever resources are available. In social interaction activities, the
students take part in real communications that include social contexts.
3. Teaching Speaking
a. Nature of Speaking and Oral Interaction
Discussing the nature of spoken language cannot be separated from
distinguishing between spoken and written language first. According to Brown and
Yule (1983), as cited by Nunan (1989:26), written language is characterized by
well-formed sentences which are integrated into highly structured paragraphs, while
spoken language consists of short, often fragmentary utterances, in a range of
pronunciations. They also add that in spoken language there is often a great deal of
non-specific references. They suggest that teachers concerned with teaching the
spoken language must confront some types of questions. The teachers must figure out
what the appropriate form of spoken language to teach is and what a reasonable
model, from the point of view of pronunciation, is. They also have to answer the
questions such as how important pronunciation is; whether pronunciation is more
important than teaching; if it is, what is the reason; whether it is all right, from the
point of view of structures taught, to teach the spoken language as if it were exactly
like the written language, but with a few ‘spoken expressions’ thrown in; whether it is
appropriate to teach the same structures to all foreign language students, no matter
what their age is or their intentions in learning the spoken language; whether those
structures described in standard grammars are the structures which our students
should be expected to produce when they speak in English; and how it is possible to
give the students any sort of meaningful practice in producing spoken English.
Brown and Yule, as cited by Nunan (1989:27), also draw a useful distinction
between two basic language functions. They are the transactional function, which is
mainly concerned with the transfer of information, and the interactional function, in
which the main purpose of speech is the maintenance of social relationships. Nunan
also makes the distinction between monologue and dialogue. He states that the
teachers should not generalize the ability of interacting with others and the ability of
making good oral presentations. The second skill is a skill that generally has to be
Bygate, as cited by Nunan (1989:30), differentiates skills in speaking into
two. The first skill is motor-perceptive skills, which are concerned with correctly
using the sounds and structures of the language. The second skill is interactional
skills, which involve using motor-perceptive skills for the purpose of communication.
Until relatively recently, it was assumed that mastery of motor-perceptive skills was
all that one needed to communicative successfully. Bygate gives suggestion that in
particular, learners need to develop skills in the management of interaction and also
in the negotiation of meaning. The management of interaction involves things like
knowing when and how to start a conversation, how to invite someone to talk, how to
keep the conversation going, and when and how to terminate the conversation.
Negotiation of meaning refers to the skill of making sure the person we are speaking
to has correctly understood us and that we have correctly understood them.
Nunan (1989:32) also discusses two different approaches in teaching
speaking, bottom-up and top-down approach. The bottom-up approach to speaking
suggests that we start with the smallest units of language, while the top-down view
suggests that we start with the larger chunks of language.
b. Principles for Teaching Speaking
Teaching speaking is quite different from teaching other language skills and
elements. There are things the teachers should consider in order to be able to conduct
the teaching-learning activity well. Harmer (1998) proposes some substantial points
1) Elements Needed for Successful Language Learning in Classrooms
There are three elements needed for successful language learning in
classrooms proposed by Harmer. The first one is engage. It is the point in a teaching
sequence where the teachers try to arouse the students’ interest, thus involving their
emotions. Activities and materials that frequently engage the students include: games,
music, discussions, stimulating pictures, dramatic stories, and amusing anecdotes.
The second one is study. It includes any activities where the students are
asked to focus on language (or information) and how it is constructed. An example of
study activity in speaking class is the study and practice of inviting patterns (‘Would
you like to come to the cinema/to a concert?’).
The last one is activate. This element describes exercises and activities which
are designed to get the students using language as freely and ‘communicatively’ as
they can. The objectives for the students is not to focus on language construction
and/or specific bits of language (grammar patterns, particular vocabulary items or
functions) but for them to use all and any language which may be appropriate for a
given situation or topic. Some examples of activate exercise are role-plays, debates,
and discussions.
2) Type of Speaking Activity Students Should Do
It should be clear what kind of speaking activity the students are supposed to
using a particular piece of grammar or a particular function, because that kind of
speaking belongs to study. Here, the kind of speaking the students are expected to do
is almost always an activate exercise, where they use any and all the language at their
command to perform some kind of oral task. The important thing is that there should
be a task to complete and that the students should want to complete it.
3) Encouraging Students to Do Speaking Tasks
There are three basic reasons why it is a good idea to give the students
speaking tasks which provoke them to use all and any language at their command.
The first one is rehearsal. Getting the students to have free discussion gives them a
chance to rehearse having discussions outside the classroom. It is important for the
students to ‘get the feel’ of what communicating in the foreign language really feels
like.
The second one is feedback. Speaking tasks where the students are trying to
use all and any language they know provide feedback for both the teachers and
students. The teachers can see how well their classes are doing and what language
problems they are having, while the students can see how easy they find a particular
kind of speaking and what they need to do to improve.
The last one is engagement. Good speaking activities can and should be
highly motivating. If all the students are participating fully and if the teacher has set
up the activity properly and can then give sympathetic and useful feedback, they will
4) Teachers’ Corrections in Speaking
In correcting mistakes made in speaking activities, the teacher should consider
the appropriate ways and time to do that in order not to destroy the purpose of
speaking activity. Many teachers watch and listen while speaking activities are taking
place. They note down things that would be useful to discuss later after the activity
has been finished, such as the impressive way the students use in expressing their
agree/disagreement or the important mistakes they make. The teachers then can
discuss those things with the students. One important thing is they should not single
students out for particular criticism. Many teachers even deal with the mistakes they
have heard without saying who have made them.
5) Other Considerations for Teachers
In conducting a speaking activity, teachers should be careful in placing
themselves and making decisions. They should not get too involved with the students
during the speaking activity. It is better to stand back so that they can watch and
listen to what is going on. They also should be sensitive with the condition of the
class. They should know when the speaking activity should be stopped or be pushed
c. Speaking Activities
1) Characteristics of A Successful Speaking Activity
Ur (1999) mentions characteristics used to measure whether a speaking
activity can be regarded to be successful or not. First, learners talk a lot. As much as
possible of the period of time allotted to the activity is in fact occupied by learner
talk. This may seem obvious, but often most time is taken up with teacher talk or
pauses.
Second, participation is even. Classroom discussion is not dominated by a
minority of talkative participations: all get chance to speak, and contributions are
fairly evenly distributed.
Third, motivation is high. Learners are eager to speak because they are
interested in the topic and have something new to say about, or because they want to
contribute to achieve a task objective.
Fourth, language is of an acceptable level. Learners express themselves in
utterances that are relevant, easily comprehensible to each other, and of an acceptable
level of language accuracy.
2) Problems with Speaking Activities
Ur also mentions problems that may appear in speaking activities. The first
problem is inhibition. Unlike reading, writing, and listening activities, speaking
requires some degrees of real-time exposure to an audience. Learners are often
about making mistakes, fearful of criticism or losing face, or simply shy of the
attention that their speech attracts.
The second one is there is nothing to say. Even if they are not inhibited, often
learners complain that they cannot think of anything to say: they have no motive to
express themselves beyond the guilty feeling that they should be speaking.
The third one is low or uneven participation. Only one participant can talk at a
time if he or she is to be heard; and in a large group this means that each one will
have only very little talking time. This problem is compounded by the tendency of
some learners to dominate, while others speak very little or not at all.
The last one is mother-tongue use. In classes where all, or a number of, the
learners share the same mother tongue, they may tend to use it because it is easier, it
feels unnatural to speak to one another in a foreign language, and they feel less
‘exposed’ if they are speaking their mother tongue.
3) Solutions
There are some solutions the teachers can apply to solve problems that often
appear in speaking classes. First, use group work. Using group work gives many
benefits for both the teacher and the students. It increases participation, improves the
students’ motivation, allows the teacher to wander freely to give help, encourage and
correct the students’ mistakes, and gives the students chances to learn from each
Second, base the activity on easy language. Using too complex and
complicated language and expecting the students to do so will only waste the lesson
time. Basing the explanation and allowing the students to use simple but acceptable
language can make them gain the real purpose(s) of the task given.
Third, take a careful choice of topic and task to stimulate interest. Kinds of
topic and task have big influences in the success of a speaking class. Interesting topic
and task, which are suitable with the students’ needs and wants, can encourage them
to truly participate in the class activities.
Fourth, give some instruction or training in discussion skills. Before the
students do the task, the teacher must make sure that they have understood well what
and how to do the task. Simple but clear explanation can be given before distributing
the things needed in the task, e.g. cards and pictures. It will keep the students paying
attention while the teacher is explaining.
Finally, keep the students speaking in the target language. Allowing the
students to use their mother tongue in class will only create a bad habit. How frequent
they forget or do it on purpose when they feel it is too hard to convey their opinion in
the target language, keep them trying! If they use the target language, they will be
accustomed to do it. They will learn from mistakes. In addition, one encourages
4) Kinds of Speaking Activities
As mentioned before, activities in speaking classes should be focused on the
use of the target language. Prabhu (1987:46), as cited by Nunan (1989:66), proposes
three principal activity types. The first one is information-gap activity. It involves a
transfer of given information from one person to another - or from one form to
another, or from one place to another – generally calling for the decoding or encoding
of information from or into language. An example of information-gap activity is pair
work, in which each member of the pair has a part of the total information and try to
convey it verbally to the other. An incomplete picture or a tabular representation with
information available in a given piece of text can be used as the means of this
activity.
The second one is reasoning-gap activity. It involves deriving some new
information from given information through processes of inference, deduction,
practical reasoning, or a perception of relationships or patterns. The activity, as in
information-gap activity, involves comprehending and conveying information but the
information to be conveyed is not identical with that initially comprehended. The
reasons underlying the taken choices or decisions in a conversation are the primary
things.
The last one is opinion-gap activity. It involves identifying and articulating a
personal preference, feeling, or attitude in response to a given situation. The main
the same outcome from different individuals or on different occasions, but to use
factual information and formulate arguments to justify one’s opinion.
4. Materials Development
Materials include anything which can be used to facilitate the learning of a
language (Tomlinson: 2001). Tomlinson states that they can be linguistic, visual,
auditory or kinesthetic, and they can be presented in print, through live performance
or display, or on cassette, CD-ROM, DVD or the internet. Tomlinson also explains
that materials can be instructional (to inform learners about the language),
experiential (to provide exposure to the language in use), elicitative (to stimulate
language use), or exploratory (to seek discoveries about language use).
Tomlinson (2004:2) also mentions some theories of learning and teaching that
are useful for teachers to determine which materials that help them and the students
gain the learning objectives the most. Firstly, language learners only succeed if
learning is a positive, relaxed, and enjoyable experience. Secondly, language teachers
teach most successfully if they can gain some enjoyment themselves from the
materials they are using. Thirdly, learners only learn what they really need or want to
learn. Fourthly, materials should help learners to connect the learning experience in
the classroom to their own lives outside it. Last, materials should engage the
emotions of the learner. Laughter, joy, excitement, sorrow, and anger can promote
There are two ways of developing materials: materials adaptation and writing
materials.
a. Materials Adaptation
Materials adaptation involves changing existing materials so that they become
more suitable for specific learners, teachers or situations (Tomlinson, 2004:11). Some
principles are mentioned by Tomlinson (2004:13) to be considered by teachers before
adapting materials to be developed. Firstly, teachers should give priority to meaning
and communication outcomes in the teaching procedures. Secondly, students should
experience listening and reading before speaking or writing. Thirdly, teachers should
make the learning activities start and end with the learners. The teachers can start the
lesson with something known by the learners (e.g. a local story), and connect their
lives to the new content (e.g. a story from another culture), then end with the learners
(e.g. the learners retell the story using their own words). Last, the teachers should
provide listening before reading. Listening can be experienced by, for example,
listening to the teachers read a story, listen and mime, and listen and draw.
Tomlinson (2004:15) mentions the procedures of materials adaptation that
involve profiling of teaching context, identifying reasons for adaptation, evaluating,
listing objectives, adapting, teaching, and revising. Tomlinson also describes that in
materials adaptations the teachers can use various techniques that can be divided into
three main categories in terms of quantity. First category is Plus (+). The teachers can
add and/or expand texts and/or activities. Second category is Minus (-). The teachers
The teachers can modify, replace, reorganize, re-sequence, and converse texts and/or
activities.
b. Materials Writing
Bell and Gower, as described by Tomlinson (2004:19), start writing materials
by articulating the principles which they want to guide their writing although most
accounts of materials development describe processes which are spontaneous and
which rely on an intuitive feel for activities which are likely to ‘work’. Tomlinson
also describes that Hall (1995:8) starts writing by articulating his theories of language
learning and insists that before starting to write we need to answer the question:
“How do we think people learn language?”
The procedures of materials writing are also described by Tomlinson. They
include articulating the main theories of language learning, profiling the target
learners, listing objectives and aims, listing procedures which could help to match the
theories, the profile, the objectives and the aims in principled ways, and developing a
flexible unit framework using procedures from the list.
There are some aspects that should be considered in writing materials. Those
are about selecting texts, writing instructions, using illustrations, and arranging
design and layout.
1) Selecting Texts
Tomlinson (2004:27) describes that obviously the criteria for the selection of
for a unit in a set of materials the text should have the potential to engage the learners
affectively and cognitively and should offer the learners a rich experience of both
language and life. If the text is used as a basis for a reading/listening skills lesson, the
text should not be selected just because it focuses on a particular skill which is taught.
It still has to fulfill the same criteria as if it is used as a basis for a unit in a set of
materials. If the text is for use in language teaching, besides the criteria mentioned in
previous part, the text also has to include sufficient samples of the typical use of a
particular language item or feature (e.g. the simple past, reported speech, and
requests) and provide sufficient contextual information to help the learners
understand and generalize about the use of the language item or feature selected for
particular attention.
2) Writing Instruction
There are nine aspects discussed by Tomlinson (2004:29) that can help the
materials writers to write clear instructions. First, it should be very clear for the
learners which words are instructions and which words are not. It can be achieved by
putting the instructions in bold, in a distinctive font, in a different colour or in a box.
Second, each instruction should refer to one action only. It should also contain only
one clause, use an imperative or a simple tense, be in the active voice, and only use
vocabulary known to the students. Third, an instruction should use nouns rather than
pronouns and use clear indicators by mentioning numbers, letters, colours, or bold
useful to give an example of what you want the learners to do. Fifth, it is important to
specify what the learners actually have to do by using specific words such as ‘draw’,
’write’, or ’list’ rather than such words as ‘match’, ’connect’, or ’show’. Sixth,
throughout the materials similar instructions should be expressed in similar ways.
Seventh, the instructions given should be in the same sequence as the actions you
want the learners to do. Eighth, each instruction should be physically separated from
other instructions for the same activity. Last, instructions should be staged so that the
learners do not have to remember a lot of instructions at once.
3) Using Illustrations
Illustrations in this study refer to all kinds of visual elements in materials.
Hill, as cited by Tomlinson (2004:34), points out that photos and drawings are the
two major kinds of illustrations widely used in course books. Both have the strengths
and weaknesses in terms of effects. Photos are useful to give impressions of reality
and authenticity in terms of people, objects, and events. However, photos can lack
focus, inhibit learners’ imaginations and date very quickly. Drawings are more
flexible than photos and can be made to order in terms of specificity, focus, emphasis,
and details. However, drawings can be seen to lack authority and reality, and different
4) Arranging Design and Layout
Layout means structural arrangement of parts (e.g. text and illustrations)
(Tomlinson, 2004:35). Good layout can play a significant role in attracting attention,
providing focus, sequencing smoothly, separating different sections, attracting
aesthetic responses, providing consistency, and providing impact by dramatically
departing from the normal layout. The factors that contribute to good layout may
include positioning, size, sequence, use of space, balance of visuals and text,
separation, and repetition.
Design is an overall plan which governs the appearance and functions of
materials (Tomlinson, 2004:36). Materials with good design are likely to be
appealing, aesthetic, impactful, functionally clear, easy to use, and cost effective.
B. Theoretical Framework
This study is intended to design a set of English conversation materials for
advanced learners of English Conversation Class at Quick Concept Solo. In designing
the materials, the writer uses some theories that are used as the basics of this design.
The first principle, taken from Kemp (1977), is about instructional design
model. The writer uses Kemp’s model as the guideline to design the materials.
Kemp’s offers an effective instruction, which is based on the learners’ needs and
characteristics, and can be applied on any educational level. It tries to answer three
questions: (1) What must be learned? (2) What procedures and resources will work
learning has taken place? The process has eight steps: (1) Considering goals, topics,
and general purposes, (2) Determining learner characteristics, (3) Specifying the
learning objectives, (4) Listing the subject content, (5) Developing pre-assessments,
(6) Selecting teaching/learning activities and resources, (7) Coordinating support
services, and (8) Evaluating students’ accomplishments.
The second principle deals with Communicative Language Teaching.
According to Nunan (1989:12), CLT is an approach which focuses on the use of the
target language more than the understanding of the various grammatical rules of it.
American and British proponents, as mentioned by Richards and Rodgers (1986:66),
see CLT as an approach that aims to make communicative competence the goal of
language teaching and develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills
that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication. However,
according to Littlewood (1981:1), as cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986:66), the
roles of the language elements cannot be neglected at all. In CLT, according to Breen
and Candlin (1980), as cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986:77), the teachers have
roles as a facilitator, participant, organizer, guide, researcher, and also learner.
Richards and Rodgers add that the teachers also play roles as a need analyst,
counselor, and group process manager. According to Breen and Candlin, as cited by
Richards and Rogers (1986:77), the students in CLT have a role as a negotiator
between the self, the learning process, and also the subject of learning. What they
contribute should be as much as what they gain. Richards and Rodgers (1986:79-80)
classroom interaction and language use. Materials thus have the primary role of
promoting communicative language use. They mention three kinds of materials
currently used in CLT: text-based materials, task-based materials, and realia.
According to Hymes (1972), concluded by Richards and Rodgers (1986:70),
communicative competence is what a speaker needs to know in order to be
communicatively competent in a speech community. Canale and Swain (1980), as
cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986:71), identify four dimensions of communicative
competence: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse
competence, and strategic competence. Richards and Rodgers (1986:76) state that the
range of exercise types and activities compatible with a communicative approach is
unlimited. Littlewood (1981), as cited by Richards and Rodgers (1986: 76)
distinguishes two kinds of communicative activity: functional communication
activities and social interaction activities.
The third principles are those which are used as useful guidelines to teach
speaking skill. Brown and Yule (1983), as cited by Nunan (1989:26), mention the
differences between spoken and written language. Brown and Yule, as cited by
Nunan (1989:27), also draw a useful distinction between two basic language
functions. They are the transactional function and the interactional function. Nunan
also makes the distinction between monologue and dialogue. He states that the
teachers should not generalize the ability of interacting with others and the ability of
making good oral presentations. The second skill is a skill that generally has to be
skills in speaking into two. They are motor-perceptive skills and interactional skills.
Bygate gives suggestion that in particular, learners need to develop skills in the
management of interaction and also in the negotiation of meaning. Nunan (1989:32)
also discusses two different approaches in teaching speaking: bottom-up and
top-down approach.
Harmer (1998) proposes some substantial points the teachers should discover
before conducting speaking activity: elements needed for successful language
learning in classrooms, type of speaking activity students should do, encouraging
students to do speaking tasks, teachers’ corrections in speaking, and other
considerations for teachers. Ur (1999) mentions characteristics used to measure
whether a speaking activity can be regarded to be successful or not: learners talk a lot,
participation is even, motivation is high, and language is of an acceptable level. Ur
also mentions problems that may appear in speaking activities: inhibition, nothing to
say, low or uneven participation, and mother-tongue use. Ur proposes several
solutions the teachers can apply to solve some of the problems: use group work, base
the activity on easy language, make a careful choice of topic and task to stimulate
interest, give some instruction or training in discussion skills, and keep the students
speaking in the target language.
The writer also uses three principal activity types from Prabhu
(1987:46), as cited by Nunan (1989:66), as the basics to determine the
teaching learning activities used in the designed materials. They include
Finally, the writer adapts theories proposed by Tomlinson (2001,
2004) discussing about materials development. Here the principles,
procedures, techniques, and aspects of materials adaptations and materials
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
This chapter deals with the methodology of the study. There are six parts
discussed. They are research method, respondents, settings, instruments, data
gathering technique, data analysis, and research procedures.
A. Research Method
This study was based on Educational Research and Development (R&D)
study. Borg and Gall (1982: 772) state that R&D is a process used to develop and
validate educational products. The steps of the process are usually referred to as the
R&D cycle. There are eleven steps in R&D studies. The first step is identifying the
product to be developed. This description includes an overall narrative of the
proposed product, a tentative outline of what the product will include, how it will be
used, and most important a specific statement of the objectives of the product (Borg
and Gall, 1982: 776). The second step is reviewing the literature. According to Borg
and Gall, one purpose of the literature review is to determine the state of knowledge
in the area of concern (1982: 776).
The third step of R&D studies is planning the development program. The
most important aspect of planning a research-based educational product is the
statement of the specific objectives to be achieved by the product. The forth step is
developing a prototype of the product. The fifth step is conducting a preliminary field
test. Borg and Gall state that the purpose of the preliminary field test is to obtain an
initial qualitative evaluation of the new educational product (1982: 782).
The sixth step is revising the product in keeping with the findings of the
preliminary field test. The results of the preliminary test are used as the bases of the
revision. The seventh step is conducting a main field test. The primary purposes of
this test are to determine the success of the new product in meeting its objectives, and
to collect information that can be used to improve the course in its next revision
(Borg and Gall, 1982: 84).
The eighth step is revising the product in keeping with the findings of the
main field test. The ninth step is conducting an operational field test. This test aims to
determine whether an educational product is fully ready for use in the schools without
the presence of the developer or staff (Borg and Gall, 1982: 784). The tenth step is
revising the product in keeping with the findings of the operational field test. All
shortcomings and omissions have been corrected in this step. The last step is
disseminating information of the product and setting up a distribution apparatus for
making it available to potential users.
In this study the writer did not use all steps in R&D cycle because of
efficiency. The steps used included identifying the product to be developed,
reviewing the literature, planning the development program, developing the product,
conducting a main field test, revising the product in keeping with the findings of the
The writer identified the product to be developed by stating the reasons why
this product should be developed, listing the contents that might be used, and
considering the methods to develop the product. She continued the process of the
study by reviewing the literature. In this step, the writer did library research to find
and collect the literature needed. The writer also conducted a pre-design survey called
needs survey to gain information
