Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply

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Aggregate Demand and Aggregate

Supply

• Short-Run Economic Fluctuations

– Economic activity fluctuates from year to year.

• In most years production of goods and services rises.

• On average over the past 50 years, production in the

U.S. economy has grown by about 3 percent per year.

• In some years normal growth does not occur, indicating

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Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply

• Short-Run Economic Fluctuations

– A recession is a period of declining real incomes, and rising unemployment.

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THREE KEY FACTS ABOUT

ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS

1. Economic fluctuations are irregular and unpredictable.

– Fluctuations in the economy are often called the business cycle.

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Figure 1 A Look At Short-Run Economic Fluctuations

(a) Real GDP

Billions of 2000 Dollars

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THREE KEY FACTS ABOUT

ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS

2. Most macroeconomic variables fluctuate together.

– Most macroeconomic variables that measure

some type of income or production fluctuate closely together.

– Although many macroeconomic variables

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(b) Investment Spending

196 5 197 0 197 5 198 0 198 5 199 0 199 5 200 0 2005 Billions of

2000 Dollars

0 500 1,000 $1,500

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THREE KEY FACTS ABOUT

ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS

3. As output falls, unemployment rises.

– Changes in real GDP are inversely related to changes in the unemployment rate.

– During times of recession, unemployment rises

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(c) Unemployment Rate

196 5 197 0 197 5 198 0 198 5 199 0 199 5 200 0 2005 Percent of

Labor Force

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EXPLAINING SHORT-RUN

ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS

• The Assumptions of Classical Economics

– Most economists believe that classical theory

describes the world in the long run but not in the short run.

– Changes in the money supply affect nominal variables but not real variables in the long run.

– The assumption of monetary neutrality is not

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EXPLAINING SHORT-RUN

ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS

• Most economists believe that classical theory

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EXPLAINING SHORT-RUN

ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS

• If the quantity of money in the economy were

to double, prices would double and so would incomes. Real variables would remain

constant.

• HOWEVER: These changes will not occur

instantaneously. It takes time for prices and

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The Model of Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply

• Two variables are used to develop a model to

analyze the short-run fluctuations.

• The economy’s output of goods and services

measured by real GDP.

• The average level of prices measured by the

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• Economist use the model of aggregate demand

and aggregate supply to explain short-run

fluctuations in economic activity around its long-run trend.

Time Economic

activity

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• The aggregate-demand curve shows the

quantity of goods and services that households, firms, and the government want to buy at each price level.

• The aggregate-supply curve shows the quantity

of goods and services that firms choose to

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THE AGGREGATE-DEMAND

CURVE

• The four components of GDP (Y) contribute to

the aggregate demand for goods and services.

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Figure 3 The Aggregate-Demand Curve...

1. A decrease in the price level . . .

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Why the Aggregate-Demand Curve Is Downward Sloping

• The Price Level and Consumption:

• The Wealth Effect

• The Price Level and Investment:

• The Interest Rate Effect

• The Price Level and Net Exports:

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• The Price Level and Consumption:

• The Wealth Effect

• A lower price level raises the real value of money and

makes consumers wealthier, which encourages them to spend more.

• This increase in consumer spending means larger

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• The Price Level and Investment:

• The Interest Rate Effect

• A lower price level reduces the interest rate and makes

borrowing less expensive, which encourages greater spending on investment goods.

• This increase in investment spending means a larger

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• The Price Level and Net Exports:

• The Exchange-Rate Effect

• A lower price level in the U.S. causes U.S. interest rates

to fall and the real exchange rate to depreciate, which stimulates U.S. net exports.

• The increase in net export spending means a larger

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Why the Aggregate-Demand Curve Might Shift

• The downward slope of the aggregate-demand

curve shows that a fall in the price level raises the overall quantity of goods and services

demanded.

• Many other factors, however, affect the

quantity of goods and services demanded at any

given price level.

• When one of these other factors changes, the

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Why the Aggregate-Demand Curve Might Shift

• Shifts might arise from changes in:

• Consumption

• Investment

• Government Purchases

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Shifts in the Aggregate Demand Curve

Quantity of Output Price

Level

0

Aggregate

demand, D₁

P₁

Y₁

D₂

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THE AGGREGATE-SUPPLY CURVE

• In the long run, the aggregate-supply curve is

vertical because the price level does not affect long run determinants of real GDP.

• In the short run, the aggregate-supply curve is

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THE AGGREGATE-SUPPLY CURVE

• In the long run, an economy’s production of

goods and services depends on its supplies of labor, capital, and natural resources and on the available technology used to turn these factors of production into goods and services.

• The price level does not affect these variables

in the long run.

• The long-run aggregate supply represents the

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Figure 4 The Long-Run Aggregate-Supply Curve

Quantity of in the price level . . .

2. . . . does not affect the quantity of goods and services supplied in the long run.

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THE AGGREGATE-SUPPLY CURVE

• The long-run aggregate-supply curve is

vertical at the natural rate of output, which is

the production of goods and services that an economy achieves in the long run when

unemployment is at its normal rate.

– This level of production is also referred to as potential output or full-employment output.

– The natural rate of output is level of output

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Why the Long-Run Aggregate-Supply Curve Might Shift

• Any change in the economy that alters the

natural rate of output shifts the long-run aggregate-supply curve.

• The shifts may be categorized according to the

various factors in the classical model that affect

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Why the Long-Run Aggregate-Supply Curve Might Shift

• Labor

• Capital

• Natural Resources

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Figure 5 Long-Run Growth and Inflation

Quantity of Demand, AD₂₀₀₀

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Using Aggregate Demand and Aggregate

Supply to Depict Long-Run Growth and Inflation

• The most important forces that govern the

economy in the long run are technology and monetary policy.

• Short-run fluctuations in output and the price

level should be viewed as deviations from the

continuing long-run trends of output growth and

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Why the Aggregate-Supply Curve Slopes Upward in the Short Run

• In the short run, an increase in the overall level

of prices in the economy tends to raise the quantity of goods and services supplied.

• A decrease in the level of prices tends to reduce

the quantity of goods and services supplied.

• As a result, the short-run aggregate-supply

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Figure 6 The Short-Run Aggregate-Supply Curve

1. A decrease in the price level . . .

2. . . . reduces the quantity of goods and services supplied in the short run.

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• Three Theories:

• The Sticky-Wage Theory

• The Sticky-Price Theory

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• The Sticky-Wage Theory

• Nominal wages are slow to adjust to changing

economic conditions, or are ―sticky‖ in the short run • Nominal wages do not adjust immediately to a fall

in the price level. A lower price level makes employment and production less profitable.

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• The Sticky-Price Theory

• Prices of some goods and services adjust sluggishly in response to changing economic conditions.

• An unexpected fall in the price level leaves some firms with higher-than-desired prices. For a variety of reasons, they may not want to or be able to

change prices immediately.

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• The Misperceptions Theory

• Changes in the overall price level temporarily mislead suppliers about what is happening in the markets in which they sell their output.

• A lower price level causes misperceptions about relative prices.

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• All three theories suggest that output deviates in

the short run from the natural rate when the

actual price level deviates from the price level that people had expected to prevail.

Quantity

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Why the Short-Run Aggregate-Supply Curve Might Shift

• Expected Price Level.

• Labor.

• Capital.

• Natural Resources.

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Why the Aggregate Supply Curve Might Shift

• An increase in the expected price level reduces

the quantity of goods and services supplied and shifts the short-run aggregate supply curve to the left.

• A decrease in the expected price level raises the

quantity of goods and services supplied and

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Figure 7 The Long-Run Equilibrium

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TWO CAUSES OF ECONOMIC

FLUCTUATIONS

• Four steps in the process of analyzing

economic fluctuations:

• Determine whether the event affects aggregate

supply or aggregate demand.

• Decide which direction the curve shifts.

• Use a diagram to compare the initial and the

new equilibrium.

• Keep track of the short and long run

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TWO CAUSES OF ECONOMIC

FLUCTUATIONS

• Shifts in Aggregate Demand

– In the short run, shifts in aggregate demand cause

fluctuations in the economy’s output of goods and

services.

– In the long run, shifts in aggregate demand affect the overall price level but do not affect output.

– Policymakers who influence aggregate demand

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Figure 8 A Contraction in Aggregate Demand

1. A decrease in

aggregate demand . . . 2. . . . causes output to fall in the short run . . .

3. . . . but over time, the short-run aggregate-supply curve shifts . . .

4. . . . and output returns to its natural rate.

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TWO CAUSES OF ECONOMIC

FLUCTUATIONS

• Shifts in Aggregate Supply

– Consider an adverse shift in aggregate supply:

• A decrease in one of the determinants of aggregate

supply shifts the curve to the left.

• Output falls below the natural rate of employment.

• Unemployment rises.

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Figure 10 An Adverse Shift in Aggregate Supply level to rise.

2. . . . causes output to fall . . .

1. An adverse shift in the short-run aggregate-supply curve . . .

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The Effects of a Shift in Aggregate Supply

• Adverse shifts in aggregate supply cause

stagflation—a period of recession and inflation.

• Output falls and prices rise.

• Policymakers who can influence aggregate

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The Effects of a Shift in Aggregate Supply

• Policy Responses to Recession

• Policymakers may respond to a recession in one of the following ways:

• Do nothing and wait for prices and wages to adjust.

• Take action to increase aggregate demand by using

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Figure 11 Accommodating an Adverse Shift in Aggregate Supply

Aggregate demand, AD P price level to rise further . . .

4. . . . but keeps output at its natural rate.

2. . . . policymakers can accommodate the shift by expanding aggregate demand . . .

1. When short-run aggregate supply falls . . .

AD₂

C

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Summary

• All societies experience short-run economic

fluctuations around long-run trends.

• These fluctuations are irregular and largely

unpredictable.

• When recessions occur, real GDP and other

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Summary

• Classical economic theory is based on the

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Summary

• Economists analyze short-run economic

fluctuations using the aggregate demand and aggregate supply model. According to this model, the output of goods and services and the overall level of prices adjust to balance

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