i
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Prestented as Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
YOHANES KRISOSTOMOS ARTARONA BUU Student Number: 044214138
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
iv
For I know the thoughts that I think toward you
to give you an expected end
( Jeremiah 29 : 11 )
For
v
the thesis writing. The title of this thesis is “The Phonological Study on Dayak Embaloh English Learners’ Pronunciation of English Consonant Sounds.”
The respondents of this research are Dayak Embaloh Senior High School students in Benua Martinus, Putusibau, West Kalimantan.
There are a lot of people who guide, support and help the writer in completing this thesis writing. Therefore, the writer would like to thank:
1. Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A as the advisor for guiding and giving a lot of advise so that the writer finally complete his research.
2. Dra. B. Ria Lestari, M.S as the reader for giving suggestions and advises. 3. Adventina Putranti, S.S., M.Hum as the examiner.
4. All lecturers of English Letters study Programme of Sanata Dharma University, and Mbak Ninik.
5. Bapak Nobertus Kombong, S.Pd as the Headmaster of SMU Negeri 01 Benua Martinus for giving research permission in his school to the writer. 6. His Parents Rofinus Buu and Katarina, his beloved sister Agnes Anice
Buu, Grandfathers and Grandmothers, Pa ua Paskalis Soo, Pa ua Moses Salo, uncles and aunties, abang Linus & kaka Lila, abang Leo, abang Kris, abang Frument, kaka Bony, kaka Angelina & abang Fran, adik Rensi, adik Nia, adik Natalia, adik Uly, adik Cici, and all his cousins.
vi
criticisms and suggestions are welcome from those who read this thesis. May God bless all of those who have helped the writer throughout the study.
vii
APPROVAL PAGE ... ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE ... iii
MOTTO PAGE ... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS... vii
ABSTRACT ... ix
ABSTAK ... x
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ... 1
A. Background of the Study ... 1
B. Limitation of Study ... 4
C. Problem Formulation ... 5
D. Objective of Study ... 5
E. Definition of Term ... 6
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ... 8
A. Review of Related Studies ... 8
B. Review of Related Theories ... 9
1. English Consonants ... 9
2. Field Linguistics ... 14
3. Contrastive Linguistics ... 16
4. Phonological Process ... 20
5. The Form of Rule ... 23
C. Theoretical Framework ... 25
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ... 26
A. Object of Study ... 26
B. Method of Study ... 26
C. Research Procedure ... 27
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS ... 32
A. Embaloh Consonant sounds ... 32
I. Plosive ... 32
viii
III. Dental ... 52
IV. Alveolar ... 53
V. Palatoalveolar ... 58
VI. Palatal ... 62
VII. Velar ... 63
VIII. Glottal ... 65
E. Dayak Embaloh English students’ pronunciation ... 65
I. Consonants Change ... 66
I.1.a Substitution of [t] for [θ]... 67
I.1.b Substitution of [d] and [t] for [ð] ... 69
I.1.c Substitution of [s] for [∫] ... 70
I.1.d Substitution of [s] and [ḓʒ] for [ʒ] ... 72
I.1.e Substitution of [ṱ∫] and [t] for [t∫] ... 75
I.1.f Substitution of [ḓʒ] and [t] for [dʒ] ... 77
I.1.g Substitution of [ḓʒ] and [s] for [z] ... 79
I.1.h Substitution of [p] for [b] ... 81
I.1.i Substitution of [t] for [d] ... 82
I.1.j Substitution of [k] for [g] ... 83
I.1.k Substitution of [f] for [v] ... 84
II. Deletion ... 86
II.1.a Deletion of [j] ... 86
II.1.b Deletion of [t] ... 87
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ... 89
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 92
ix University.
Language is an important part in human life because language is used for communication. English as a lingua franca means that this language is used by people whose mother tongues are different so that they can communicate with each other. Therefore, English is learnt by people around the world. In learning English, the students usually face some difficulties. One of the difficulty that students face is pronunciation. This phenomenon happens to Dayak Embaloh students who also learn English in school.
The purpose of this study is to find out how Dayak Embaloh language as the mother tongue influences Dayak Embaloh English learners’ pronunciation of English consonants. Therefore, there are three problems that are discussed 1) what consonants are found in Dayak Embaloh language? 2) How are Dayak Embaloh consonants different from English consonants? 3) How are Dayak Embaloh students’ pronunciations of English different from the Standard English pronunciation?
In this study the writer used an empirical approach which means that this study is done based on the observation. The writer obtained the data from the Dayak Embaloh students of Senior High School in Benua Martinus. The writer asked his informants to pronounce some English words and record their pronunciation.
x
Bahasa merupakan bagian yang penting dalam hidup manusia, ini dikarnakan bahasa adalah sarana untuk berkomunikasi. Bahasa Inggris sebagai lingua franca yang berarti bahwa bahasa Inggris digunakan oleh orang yang bahasa ibunya berbeda sehingga mereka dapat berkomunikasi satu sama lain. Dalam belajar bahasa Inggris, murid-murid biasanya menghadapi beberapa masalah. Salah satu masalah yang di hadapi oleh murid-murid dalam belajar Bahasa Inggris adalah masalah pengucapan. Fenomena ini juga terjadi pada murid-murid suku Dayak Embaloh yang juga mempelajari bahasa Inggris di sekolah.
Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui bagaimana pengaruh bahasa Dayak Embaloh (jarum Banuaka) sebagai bahasa ibu terhadap pengucapan consonant bahasa Inggris. Olehkarna itu ada tiga perumusan masalah yang akan di bahas 1) Apa saja konsonan yang di temukan dalam Bahasa Dayak Embaloh? 2) Bagaimana konsonan Bahasa Dayak Embaloh berbeda dari bahasa Inggris? 3)bagaimana pengucapan murid-murid Dayak Embaloh berbeda dari pengucapan bahasa Inggris standar.
Dalam studi ini penulis menggunakan pendekatan empiris dalam arti bahwa studi ini dilakukan berdasarkan observasi atau studi lapangan. Penulis memperoleh data dari murid-murid SMU di kecamatan Benua Martinus. Penulis meminta informan-informannya untuk mengucapkan beberapa kata-kata bahasa Inggris dan merekam pengucapan mereka.
1 A. Background of Study
Language is something important for human beings. The most important use of language for people is that it is used for communication, since language allows people to say things to each other and express their communicative needs. There are a lot of different languages used by different groups of people around the world.
English belong to the same language, they are separate dialects which are different one from the other. We can differentiate whether someone is from either England or America based on their accent. For example, in British English the word car is pronounced as [ka:] while American English pronounced car as [kar]. In British English consonant /r/ in the final position is not pronounced while in American English, /r/ is pronounced. The same is true with the Indonesian language. There are also a lot of varieties of Indonesian language because the language is spoken by many groups of people in Indonesia. In Indonesia we know whether a person is a Batakese, Javanese, Irianese, etc, based on their accent.
Accent refers to the characteristics of speech that convey information about the speaker’s dialect which may reveal in what country
or what part of a country the speaker has grown up or to which sociolinguistic group the speaker belongs. Therefore American people will know if a person is either from England or Australia based on the accent. (Robert Rodman, 1974 p.225).
language. According to Wolfram and Johnson failure to overcome the patterns of phonology in the native language (abbreviated as L1) in speaking the target language (L2) results in “a foreign accent.” (Wolfram and Johnson, 1982 p.187). Therefore, Dayak Embaloh students will have a different accent or “foreign accent” whenever they pronounce some English words or whenever they speak English. It is due to, among others, the influence of mother tongue whose phonological system is different from English and there are some sounds can not be found in the Dayak Embaloh language (foreign sounds). The easiest example is the sound /∫/ of English. In Dayak Embaloh this kind of sound is a foreign sound and whenever there is a word which has such kind of sound so the sound changes. The process of sound changing is describable phonologically. Therefore, in his thesis the writer will also discuss or describe the phonological process of Dayak Embaloh English learners’ pronunciation. The accent will be seen based on the feature of word stress, and particularly the segmental aspect.
B. Limitation of study
Although the accent relates with pronunciation which contains speech sound such as vowel, consonant, and diphthongs, in this research the writer just concentrates on consonant sounds because first, study the vowel is more difficult than consonants. Second, consonants make English more understood than vowel. D.J O’Connor in his bookBetter English Pronunciation says that consonants contribute more to making English understood than vowel do and consonants are generally made by a definite interference of the vocal organs with the air stream and so are easier to describe and understand. For instance incomplete utterance C—ld y-- p-ss m- - p—c- -f str-ng, pl—s-‘is easy for an English reader to understand even though the vowel letters have been left out. Similarly, if in actual speaking we leave out all the vowel sounds and pronounce only the consonant most English would still be fairly easy to understand.(O’Connor,1967 p.24)
There are some English consonant sounds that can not be found in Dayak Embaloh language. Consonant sounds will also make people misunderstand or confused whenever they are mispronounced. As D.J O’Connor also says that the English speaker from different parts of the
understood, but if the consonants are imperfect there will be a great risk of misunderstanding. In this thesis the writer will use Dayak Embaloh student (Senior High School) as the object of his research because they are English learners.
C. Problem Formulation
There are three main problems that should be analyzed in the study of the Dayak EmbalohEnglish learners/students’pronunciation of consonant sounds toward British English. As there is no book which discusses Dayak Embaloh language, the first thing that, the writer does in his analysis is describing the consonants of Dayak Embaloh language. Thus, to start the writer’s study the problems will be formulated as
follows;
1. What consonants are found in Dayak Embaloh language?
2. How are Dayak Embaloh consonants different from English consonants?
3. How are Dayak Embaloh English learner’s pronunciation of English different from the Standard English Pronunciation?
D. Objective of Study
Embaloh students pronounce some English words which sounds are foreign for them. First the writer tries to find out or compare consonant sounds between these two languages based on VPM (voice - place of articulation - manner of articulation) description. Then the writer will find out how consonant sounds that Dayak Embaloh have and have not. This analysis will be a contrastive analysis which means that the analysis is the comparison of language system not only its structure but also its phonology in order to predict and explain foreign language learning difficulties. In this thesis the writer also would identify Dayak Embaloh English learners (students) mispronunciation by describing the phonological process.
E. Definition of term
In this part the writer would like to point out the definition of terms that are used in his thesis. The terms that are used are the following:
Accent is characteristics of speech that convey information about the speaker’s dialect, which may reveal in what country or what part of
a country the speaker grew up or to which sociolinguistic group the speaker belongs. (Robert Rodman, 1974 p.225).
(Voice–Place of articulation–Manner of articulation). (Lesley Jeffries, 2006 p.17).
Dayak Embaloh language is a language which is spoken in West central, Hulu Kapuas Regency, just south of the Sarawak border, upper Kapuas River: Embaloh, Leboyan, Lauh, Palin, Nyabau, Mandai, and Kalis tributaries. The dialect of this language is Tamanic, and Banuaka language categorized into Western-Malayo-Polynesian family. (http://www.ethnologue.com)
Phonological process is a dynamic system in which units change as they come into contact with other units in the system: assimilation, dissimilation, neutralization, deletion, epenthesis, metathesis (Walt Wolfram and Robert Johnson, 1982 p.88).
8 A. Review of Related Studies
Phonological study on the influence of Surabayanese accent in English pronunciation
In this part the writer would like to talk about the review of related studies that discuss about phonological analysis. A work that almost similar with what the writer is going to analyze in this thesis is The
influence of Surabayanese accent in English pronunciation among some Indonesian members of British councildone by Yola.
A study of the influence of the mother tongue toward English pronunciation has been discussed by Yola Damayanty Gani in her analyisis on The influence of Surabayanese accent in English pronunciation among some Indonesian members of British council. In her analysis she tried to find out what Surabayanese accent might affect their English pronunciation. Her aim is to discover as accurately and objectively as she can what these areas of common weakness are. Based on the findings, the writer classifies the vowel, consonant and diphthong errors'
analysis into six main categories; they are insertion, deletion, flapping,
aspiration, vowel length, consonants change, vowels change, diphthongization and monophthongization. For example in the deletion, the surabayanese speaker left out /j/, /Iz/, /Id/, and /t/ sound in their English
likely happen. The Surabayanese do not aspirate /p,t,k/ in the initial position. They do not hold the articulation of vowels a little longer when they occur before voice consonant, and etc. According to Yola, simplicity is another reason why distortions happen, and the last influential factor is the Indonesian and Javanese orthography system. There are many distortionsin vowel change, monophthongization and diphthongization, as
the result of using the Indonesian and Javanese orthography system in their English pronunciation.
The difference of the writer analysis is only on the object of analysis. The previous study is about how Javanese accent influence English pronunciation while the object that the writer would like to analyze is Dayak Embaloh language. The writer tries to find out how
Dayak Embaloh English learners’ pronunciation of English words whose
sounds are foreign for them are different with the standard English because every language has its own sound features which are different one from the other.
B. Review of Related Theories 1. English Consonants
The way in which we describe consonants in phonetic terms is according to where they take place, how they are articulated
(‘manner’) and whether the vocal cords are vibrating (‘voice’). This
(voice-place-manner) description, and it can be used to describe consonants in any human language. There are other features of articulation that may also be relevant in particular cases (for example aspiration), but in general the VPM description is sufficient to characterize the different consonants of a language. All consonant speech sounds are articulated between the lips and the larynx, the area
of the mouth where a significant obstruction of the airflow takes place.
Based on the place of articulation, the sounds are categorized as the following:
a. Bilabial sounds involve both lips and include /m/ as in music, /p/ as inpen, /b/ as inbomb, and /w/ as inweird. As in all place of articulation, bilabial consonants constrict the airflow to a greater or lesser extent.
b. Labiodental articulation involves the top teeth and bottom lip,
and produces sounds such as /f/, as infine, and /v/, as invine.
c. Dental / Interdental the tip of the tongue is inserted between the
upper and lower teeth. For example sounds /θ/ as in think and
/ð/ as inthough.
d. Alveolar is the sounds produced by touching the tongue to the
bony tooth ridge or alveolar ridge. English made seven sounds
at or near this ridge: /t/ as intop, /d/ as indeep, /n/ as inname,
e. Palato-alveolar is sounds that are produced halfway between
alveolar ridge and hard palate. Post alveolar sounds involve the
body of the tongue being raised towards the front of the palate.
They include the English sounds /∫/ as in shame, /ʒ/ as in leisure, /t∫/ as inchurch, and /ʤ/ as injade.
f. Palatal is the body of the tongue rises towards the most domed section of the palate. English only has one palatal sound, the
‘y’ sound, which is represented as /j/ phonologically and is
found inyes.
g. Velar sounds involve the back of the tongue moving towards or making contact with the soft palate. There are three velar sounds in English: /k/ as in king, /g/ as in goat and /ŋ/, which
only occurs at the end of syllables, is spelt ‘ng’ and occur twice
insinging.
h. The final place of articulation is glottis, where a number of sounds are theoretically possible. The only pressure that can be put upon the airflow in the glottis is by pivoting and closing the vocal folds. For example sound /h/ as inhouse.
Having considered all the places of articulation we shall look at the other main axis of consonant manner of articulation.
i. The most consonantal of the manner of articulation is the
plosive, where there is a complete closure of the vocal tract at
bellow, with the egressive airstream being pushed out of the
lungs and into the oral cavity. Eventually this pushes the
articulators (for example the tongue and alveolar ridge) apart,
resulting in a small explosive sound. The plosive sounds in
English are /p/ as in pick, /t/ as intop, /k/ as incount, /b/ as in
buy, /d/ as inday, and /g/as ingive.
j. Thenasal consonants share a common feature with plosives in
that they involve a complete closure at some point along the
vocal tract. The term that is used for this is stop, and in some
phonetic descriptions the nasal and plosive are designated as a
single group of ‘stop’ consonants. The differencein the case of
nasals is that the velum is lowered away from the back wall of
the pharynx and the air escapes through the nose as the same
time as entering the closed-off oral cavity. The English nasals
are /m/ as inmine, /n/ as innight, and/ŋ/ as insing.
extended as long as the speaker has breath available. The English fricatives are /f/, /v/,/θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /∫/, /ʒ/, and /h/.
l. Affricatesare not always recognized as separate consonants by phoneticians because they appear to be made up of two consonants. However it is the normal convention in English phonology to treat them as individual sounds. Like the plosives they begin with a complete closure, but instead of the air building up and causing an explosive release, it is released slowly with the effect that there is a short fricative phase when the articulators separate but before they move completely apart. The affricates are described as /t∫/ and /ʤ/ and occur twice in wordschurchandjudgerespectively.
m. Still less consonantal, though still not quite vocalic
(vowel-like), are the approximantsor semi-vowels. These sounds are
produced by the articulators moving toward closure but not
getting close enough to cause either frication or a plosive
build-up of pressure. The English approximants include /w/ as in
what, /r/ as inrot, and /j/ as inyacht.
n. Lateralis a speech sound when the tongue touches the alveolar
ridge but the sides of the tongue are lowered to allow the air to
Table I. 1.1 The Consonants of English
Bilabial Labio-dental Interdental Alveolar alveolarPalato- Palatal Velar Glottal
-v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v
Plosive p b t d k g
Nasal m n ŋ
Fricative f v θ ð s z ∫ ʒ h
Affricate t∫ dʒ
Approximant w r j
Lateral l
(Source:Discovering Language; The structure of Modern
English. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p.26)
2. Field Linguistics
As there are no books which have ever discussed or analyzed the Dayak Embaloh language ,the first thing that writer will do in his thesis is to describe the Dayak Embaloh phonology. The way he obtains the data is by asking his informant the basic core vocabularies. Therefore the field linguistics is needed in his thesis.
Pamela Munro in A Hand book of Linguistics says that Field Linguistics refers to the collection of primary linguistic data from the ordinary people. This type of data collection is called “field work.”
Classical field work is done in the “field,” the area where the speakers
actually live (rather than in an artificial setting, such as a university
class room), or even more classically are from which the speaker’s
ancestors originated. (Mark Aronoff and Janie Rees-Miller, 2002:130). Wiliam J Samarin in his book Field Linguistics also defines field
linguistics phenomena. It is involving two participants, the first is the
speaker of the language and the linguistic researcher. It is done by
personal contact. The speaker of language or what we called as the
informant is the source of language.
Field linguistics is generally thought of as a work done on languages
which have either never been studied before or only poorly. It has
played an important part in man’s study of language. If we had to
depend only on the written record of language, our knowledge would
be severely restricted indeed.
There are also some human factors in doing the field linguistics.
The human factors in field linguistics are;
a. The researcher should
1. Have enough knowledge/ skill/ training how to deal with linguistic data.
2. Know the culture where the language is spoken because the language is used in a certain culture and the representation of culture. Many language utterances are only meaningful in their cultures but less in others 3. Know what others have studied about language.
c. The informant is someone who provides linguistics data and helps the researcher verifies the hypothesis. Therefore an informant should;
1. Give the body of data (corpus), which is necessary for generalization about the grammar of language.
2. Check the accuracy of the data
3. Provide phonological aspects of the language, and 4. Provide data of living language.
The characteristics of good informants are;
1. Should have time and be patient, ingenious and tactful to provide, obtain, and interpret data.
2. Should be well informed, independent, intelligent, alert, and good in memory.
3. Should speak the language natively with good diction and articulation.
4. Should be talkative, critical and analytical.
3. Contrastive Linguistics
In this part the writer would like to talk about the contrastive
linguistics. In this part the writer will point out the meaning of
contrastive linguistic and how to apply the theory.
According to Faisak the contrastive linguistics is defined as the
order to determine both the differences and similarities between them (Fisiak, 1981: 1).
In learning the language, the students of the native language usually get difficulties to study the foreign language because of the differences in linguistic feature of two languages. The theory of Contrastive linguistic is useful in identifying or predicting the error possibilities that can be made by the L2 learners. According to Nickel, learning the second language will be much easier whenever there are similarities between the language and the mother tongue. Learning may be interfered with when there are marked contrast between mother tongue and second language (Nickel, 1971: 23)
Robert Lado said that in learning the sound system of a foreign language one finds sound that one physically similar to those of the native language that structure similarly to them, and that are similarly distributed. Learning of such phonemes occurs by transfer without difficulty. On the other hand, one also finds sounds that are not part of the sound system of native language, that structure differently, or that are differently distributed. Learning of these occurs more slowly, and difficulty with them is more persistent. In fact, learning the letter actually means learning the sound of language. We therefore seek to find those problems.
Lado said when the foreign language uses a phoneme that does not
exist in the learners’ native language, that is, when there is no
will have trouble producing and hearing it in the position in which it does occur in the foreign language. For example in comparing French with English we would find that French /ʒ/ as injamais has a parallel English phoneme /ʒ/ as in measure. We would find that its variants would not cause any particular difficulty. But we would notice that in French it appears at the beginning of that word and in English it does not. English speaker will transfer their /ʒ/ with its limitation into French and will have difficulty with learning the word initial /ʒ/ in that language.
When the students find a sequence in which one of the phoneme of the foreign language is not to be found in their native language it of course could simply said as sequence problem and that phoneme itself should be listed as phoneme problem.
of spelling interference with pronunciation arises with inconsistencies in the spelling of the foreign language. The symbol which in one word represents one sound turns out to represent a different sound in another word. For example, any student learning English might pronounce
words ‘honest’ or ‘hour’ with an initial /h/ sound, when of
course there is no /h/ in their pronunciation. The student may have simply generalized on the basis of the many words in which an initial
letter‘h’ does represent an initial sound /h/ as in wordshouse,hat,
have,head,hand, etc.
4. Phonological process
According to Walt Wolfram and Robert Johnson (1982:88) in
Phonological Analysis Phonology is not a static system in which an
established unit remained unchanged in all its occurrences. Rather, it is
a dynamic system in which units change as they come into contact
with other units in the system. We refer to such changes as
phonological process. The examination of a phonological system at a
given point in time will reveal many such processes. There are several
phonological processes:
a. Assimilation
One of the most types of processes found in language is
neighboring sound. There are two necessary components that
define assimilation: first, a sound that changes (the assimilating
sound) and second, the sound that causes the change (the
conditioning sound). In terms of the traditional classification of
phonological changes, one of the ways in which a sound may
assimilate relates to the place of articulation of neighboring
sound. A sound may change to take on position of a preceding
or following sound. The ten bikes in colloquial speech would
be /tem baIks/ not /ten baIks/ is an example of assimilation in
which the sound is influenced by the following sound. Inlunch
score articulated with –s becoming -∫ under the influence of sound ch [t∫].
b. Dissimilation
Whereas assimilation refers to process in which segments take
on the character of neighboring segments, dissimilation refers
to the process in which segment changes to become less like a
neighboring segment. There are several cases of words which
have apparently developed into their current from through
dissimilation. The wordpilgrimis sometimes cited as a case of
dissimilation. It was derived from the Latin form peregrius by
changing the first rto l. Similarly, in non-mainstream varieties
change from n to the non-nasal l may also be viewed as
dissimilation.
c. Neutralization
Particular processes that result in the cancellation of contrasts
between phonological units are often described by the term
neutralization. That is, two or more units that ordinarily
contrast lose that contrast in certain environments. For
example: salad is pronounced as [sælIt], the sound /d/ in the
final position is pronounced as /t/ instead of /d/.
d. Deletion
In phonological process of deletion, units which occur in some
contexts are lost in others. In many cases, deletion processes
change the syllable structure of a word, thereby creating
preferred type of syllable pattern. For example, deletion
processes may break up clusters of consonants or vowels in
order to arrive at the more universally preferred CV pattern.
Some of English deletion processes are readily noticeable;
other are simply forms that we automatically apply but may not
be aware of until they are pointed out. For example: west side
[wεs saId], west end [wεs εnd], blind man [blaIn mæn], blind
eye[blaInd aI]. In these examples ofcluster reduction, the final
segment of a word-final consonant cluster is deleted when the
begins with a vowel, however, this process usually does not
apply.
e. Epenthesis
Inserting a sound segment into a form is called epenthesis.
Although it seems to occur less frequently than deletion,
epenthesis is by no means uncommon as a phonological
process. Both vowel and consonants may be inserted in
epenthetic processes. One process often considered to be
epenthetic involves plural form in English. For example form
of plural occurs after sibilants buses[bΛsIz], dishes[di∫Iz], and
judges [ʤΛʤIz]. The /I/ in this example is inserted between
sibilant.
f. Metathesis
When two segments reverse positions, the process is known as
metathesis. Pronouncing ask as aks (in some nonmainstream
varieties) represent the remnants of this process.
5. The form of Rules: Preliminary Conventions
Phonological rules are formalized according to a set of fairly
well-established conventions. What we present here are those most
generally in current use within generative phonology, although there
are certainly other conventions that might be used to capture the
various processes we have discussed. Several necessary details have to
must be aninput, the unit which is to be affected by the process. Then,
there must be a change, the phonological processes which leads to the
resultant form or output of the rule. And finally, there must be a
relevant linguistic environment in which the change takes place. We
have repeatedly noted the importance of the linguistic environment or
context as factor in describing various changes. These factors might be
captured in the simple type of convention as follows, where the
arbitrary letters stand for the various units within the rule.
X →Y/A ____ B
In this convention, the form to the left of the arrow,X, is the input, and
the form to the right of arrow, Y, the output. The arrow indicates the
change, and should be read as “becomes” or “is changed to” (or, more
theatrically, “is written as”). The diagonal / should be read as “in the
context of.” All information to the right of diagonal specifies the
linguistics environment in which the rule applies. That is the process or
change can only take place when the input is found in the environment
specified to the right of diagonal. The underscore or environmental
bar, indicates where the input X occurs within the string of items
represented by the environment. The relevant environment preceding
the input is placed to the left of the environment bar (here, A__ ), and
the relevant environment following the input is placed to the right of
AYB, whereXis the input, Ythe output,Athe preceding environment,
andBthe following environment.
C. Theoretical Framework
The theory of consonants that are used is to help the writer to find
out the consonants stocks that exist in English and Dayak Embaloh
language so that the differences of consonant sounds between those two
languages can be identified. The Contrastive Linguistic theory is helpful
for the writer to compare two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities so that level of difficulty of Dayak Embaloh students could be predicted based on a comparison of phonological units in the two systems.
The theory of phonological process will help the writer to point out
the changing that occurs as the result of the different of consonant sounds
that Dayak Embaloh language has for example in the wordgod the sound
/d/ voice stop will change become voiceless stop because in Dayak
Embaloh sound voice sounds never occur in final position. The theory of
Phonological rules will help the writer in making rule of the changing of
26
The object of this study is how Dayak Embaloh language as the first language influences Dayak Embaloh English learners’ pronunciation.
As the writer said in the introduction that he is interested in this topic because a lot of Dayak Embaloh students mispronounce some English sounds or some sounds are changing whenever they are pronounced by Dayak Embaloh students, therefore in this thesis the writer would like to find out how Dayak Embaloh students pronounce some English word which sounds are not recognized or foreign in their language. There are several phonological processes that will be analyzed for example how they pronounce the wordthink. From this word the writer tries to analyze either there is changing sound of /θ/ because the sound /θ/ is foreign for them or deletion of sound /k/, or another example is the sound /∫/ which is also a
foreign sound in Dayak Embaloh language, thus how Dayak Embaloh students pronounce the sound /∫/ and what happen to sound /∫/ whenever this sound occurs in certain word of English is what the writer trying to analyze in this thesis.
B. Method of Study
observation. It means that the writer has to go directly to Dayak Embaloh students as English learners (his respondents) to collect the data. However, before the writer collects the data of Dayak Embaloh students’ English pronunciation, the writer first collects the Dayak Embaloh language data as there is no book which has ever discussed about Dayak Embaloh language. After the writer has collected the data, he described the Dayak Embaloh consonants that are found in this language. This data will help the writer in comparing the consonants between English and Dayak Embaloh so that the difficulty of Dayak Embaloh students in pronouncing some English consonants sounds can be predicted. The writer then collects another data that is Dayak Embaloh students’ English pronunciation. The writer uses the tape recorder as the instument to record the Dayak Embaloh students’ pronunciation. The pronunciations that are produced by
his respondents will be transcribed into phonetic transcription, and then the writer will analyze the phonetic transcription of Dayak Embaloh students’ pronunciation by comparing it with the actual English phonetic
transcription.
C. Research Procedure
language or mother tongue. As Jarum Banuaka is used as their first language of mother tongue, of course, the language will influence their English pronunciation.
a. Data Collection
The writer found a Dayak Embaloh person as his informant to obtain the Dayak Embaloh language data. The criteria of his informant are;
1. Ingenious and tacktful to provide and obtain the data. 2. Should be well informed, independent, intelligent, alert,
and good in memory.
3. Should speak the language natively with good diction, and articulation.
4. Should be talkative, critical, and analytical.
1. Dayak Embaloh students were asked to read a list of words, which words were familiar or common words given by the writer one by one.
2. While reading the words the writer recorded their pronunciation. It was done in a certain way in order not to disturb their natural pronunciation.
3. After the writer recorded the data, he transcribed it into phonetic transcription.
b. Data Analysis
After collecting the data the writer will analyze the data based on the following steps:
1. As the writer said previously that there is no book which has discussed the Dayak Embaloh language, thus the first thing that the writer did was find an informant to obtain the data of Dayak Embaloh language.
2. The writer gave the basic core vocabularies. The example can be seen in Samrain’s Field Linguistics. 3. After the writer recorded the basic vocabularies of
4. Based on phonetic transcription the write identified the consonants that were used in the Dayak Embaloh language.
5. The consonants sounds that were identified then would be categorized based on the Place of Articulation, Manner of Articulation, and Voice or Voicelesssound. 6. After obtaining the Dayak Embaloh consonants then the
writer compared Dayak Embaloh consonants sounds and English consonants sounds based on the voiced vs voiceless, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.
7. Based on the comparison of consonant sounds of those two languages, the writer looked for certain sounds that were foreign for Dayak Embaloh students and could predict what kind of sound that had changing possibilities.
8. To find out how Dayak Embaloh students pronounced certain sounds that are foreign for them, the writer recorded and transcribed the Dayak Embaloh students’ pronunciation, and then he found out Dayak Embaloh students’ mispronunciation. The test was not only on
Embaloh language and the sounds that were similar with English which did not occur in the same position as in Dayak Embaloh language.
9. Then he related the Dayak Embaloh students’ mispronunciation into the related study that had been discussed in chapter II. The mispronunciation would be classified based on the phonological processes of certain sounds. For example the deletions of sound /k/ in final position of the wordthink.
10. After classifying the Dayak Embaloh mispronunciation based on phonological processes, then the writer made parentage on the Dayak Embaloh students’
mispronunciation. The percentage of Dayak Embaloh students’ mispronunciation would help the writer in analyzing their mispronunciation tendency toward certain sounds.
11. After making percentage on Dayak Embaloh students’ mispronunciation, the writer would analyze the phonological processes. Then the writer made the phonological rule based on the phonological processes. 12. Then the writer made a conclusion how Dayak Embaloh
32 A. Embaloh Consonant sounds.
As there is no book which has discussed the Dayak Embaloh
linguistics, the writer had to describe the consonants of Dayak
Embaloh himself. The data that he obtained is from his informant whose name is Katarina, an Elementary School teacher in Lanjak, Kapuas Hulu. The way the writer obtained the data was by giving his informant 200 basic words as stated by William J Samarin (1967). However, there are some words of Dayak Embaloh that the writer added in his data therefore the words that the writer obtained is more than 200 words. Based on the data that the writer obtained from his informant, the consonants of Dayak Embaloh language (Banuaka) consist of only seventeen consonants. They were classified based on placed of articulation, Manner of articulation and Voicing as follow: I. Plosive
[p]- [pakoako] ‘lie’
The voiced bilabial stop [b] occurs in initial position and medial position, however it never occurs in the final position.
[b]- [baute?] ‘white’
The Voiced alveolar stop [d] in initial position is not aspirated the same as the other plosive stop. It occurs in the initial position and medial position only.
[d]- [dařa?] ‘blood’
The voiceless velar stop [k] occurs in initial position, medial, and final position. Like the sound [t] and [p], in initial position of word it is not released or aspirated as the sound [p] and [t].
-[k] [bauřuk] ‘bad/rotten’
[ababak] ‘shattered’
[lauk] ‘fish’
[atanak] ‘freeze’
Voiced velar stop [g] occurs in initial position and medial position only.
[g]- [guluŋan] ‘all’
[gado] ‘noisy’
-[g]- [pařagoleŋ] ‘stretched out’ [bagao] ‘chaotic/ uproar’ [guguluŋ] ‘circle’
The voiced glottal stop [?] in Dayak Embaloh occurs in the medial and final position only.
-[?]- [ndi?aŋ] ‘here’
The voiceless alveolar fricative [s] occurs in the initial, medial and final position.
-[h] [kah]
-[lah]
-[bah]
-III. Lateral
The voiced alveolar lateral [l] in Dayak Embaloh language occurs in initial position, medial, and final position. [l] in Dayak Embaloh is clear in all position of words.
[l]- [laki] ‘husband’
The voiced alveolar trill [r] occurs in initial, medial, and final positions. In all position the[ř] is trilling.
V. Approximant (semi vowel)
The voiced semivowel [w] never occurs in initial position and final position. It occurs in medial position only.
-[w]- [bawi] ‘pig’
[mawa] ‘bring’
[tatawa] ‘laugh’
[bawa’] ‘shame’ [mawin] ‘carry for s.o’
The voiced palatal semivowel (approximant) [j] occurs in the medial position only.
Dayak Embaloh has only one affricate sounds. The voiced alveolar affricate occurs only in initial and medial position of a word. William Samarin in his book Field Liguistics used symbol [ ̭ ] for fronting consonant (Wiliam Samarin 1967:183). Because
normally [t∫] or [dʒ] are palatal, therefore the symbol used for
Dayak Embaloh affricate is [ḓʒ] to show that it is alveolar.
VII. Nasal
The voiced bilabial nasal [m] occurs in initial, medial and final positions.
[m]- [mantuaři] ‘human being’
[manḓʒaput] ‘hold’
The voiced alveolar nasal [n] occurs in initial, medial and final position of word.
[n]- [naŋkanak] ‘children’
[nana] ‘and/with’
The voiced velar nasal [ŋ] in Dayak Embaloh never occurs in initial position. It occurs in medial and final position of words. -[ŋ]- [maŋita] ‘to see’
[maŋapuluŋaŋ] ‘to collect’ [saŋaři] ‘breakfast’ [maŋalit] ‘steal’
[piaŋ] ‘grandmother’
[bataŋ] ‘belly’
[aliŋ] ‘echo’
The tables bellow are the result of discussion of the classification that base on Place of articulation, manner of articulation and, voicing. Based on the discussion above the writer also made a table of word-initial, word-medial, and word-final consonant in Dayak Embaloh.
Table II. 1.1: Dayak Embaloh Place and Manner of articulation Bilabial
Labio-(Source: Based on the writer observation)
Dayak Embaloh consonants which occur in the initial, medial and final position of words are noted in the table below. Note that there are four phonemes that never occur in initial position, they are sound /?/ and sound /ŋ/, /w/, /y/, while voiced stops and semivowel never occur in final position.
Table II. 1.2: Word-initial, word-medial, and word-final consonants in Dayak Embaloh
p b t d k g ? m n ŋ s l ř w j ḓʒ h
Initial position of word
Medial
(Source; based on the writer observation)
In Dayak Embaloh language whenever there are two consonants occurring before a vowel, they are restricted to the combination between nasal phonemes and stop plosive phoneme.
- [ndien] ‘have/ exist’ - [ndi?] ‘this’
- [ndin] ‘that’ - [lamba?] ‘walk’
- [mambit] ‘climb’ - [baŋke] ‘corpse’ - [aŋkan] ‘to eat’ - [balaŋke] ‘long’
- [sampulo?] ‘God’ - [dampean] ‘
B. Identifying consonants phoneme in Dayak Embaloh
Victoria Fromkin and Robert Rodman (1988:73) says that to determine the phonemes of any language is to see whether substituting one sound for another results in a different word. If it does, the two sounds represent different phonemes. Therefore, the way to identify consonants sound in Dayak Embaloh language is by identifying minimal pairs. The minimal pairs will be identified based on Natural classes that are place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing.
a. Stop
[p] [b]
paŋkam (slave) baŋkam (bruised)
[p] [b]
bilabial + +
voiced - +
stop + +
Based on table above, it shows that [p] and [b] are different phoneme because they are different in voicing. [p] is [-voiced] whereas [b] is [+voiced], therefore they are two different phonemes.
[t] [d]
talan (swallow) dalan (way / road)
ati? (if) adi? (younger brother/sister)
[t] and [d] are different phonemes. They are different in voicing, [t] is [-voiced] while [d] is [+voiced].
[k] [g]
kalaŋ(arena) galaŋ(bracelet)
laka? (take off) laga? (arrogant)
[t] [d]
alveolar + +
voiced - +
stop + +
[k] [g]
velar + +
voiced - +
The table above shows that [k] and [g] is different phonemes. [k] is [-voiced] while [g] is [+voiced].
[k] [?]
tatak (cut) tata?(prohibition)
tawak(gong) tawa?(share)
b. Nasal
[m] [n]
maba? (possible) naba? (playing music instrument) mamata? (green) manata? (giving a sign) masam(sour) masan(name) (vt)
[m] and [n] are different phonemes. As shown in table above that phoneme [m] is [+labial] while phoneme [n] is [-labial], therefore [m] and [n] are two different phonemes.
[k] [?]
velar +
-voiced - +
stop + +
[m] [n]
bilabial +
-voiced + +
[n] [ŋ] manusuk (stick/stab) maŋusuk (rub) bintan(fishhook) bintaŋ(star)
[n] and [ŋ] are different phonemes. The difference is phoneme [n] is [+alveolar] while phoneme [ŋ] is [-alveolar/ +velar].
[m] [ŋ]
mamali (buy) maŋali (dig)
řařam(soak) řařaŋ(seldom)
[m] and [ŋ] are different phonemes. As shown in table above that [m] is [+labial] while [ŋ] is [-labial]
C. Comparison of Dayak Embaloh consonants and English consonants As the writer mentioned in the introduction that every group of people of a language has their own sound characteristics which are different one from the other. Although there are some sounds seem similar
[n] [ŋ]
alveolar +
-voiced + +
nasal + +
[m] [ŋ]
bilabial +
-voiced + +
there are some sounds seem foreign for a group of people of different language. Thus, sounds are something very important in human language because whenever they are combined into second layer they become meaningful unit. As Wolfram and Robert Johnson said in their book
Phonological Analysis that level of difficulty is predicted based on a comparison of phonological units in the two systems. As Lado also said in his book Linguistics Across Cultures ( 1957:11) that the need for comparing the native and foreign sound systems is to predict and describe the pronunciation problems of the speakers of a given language learning another. Generally speaking, we may say that the higher the degree of similarities between the phonological category in L1 and L2, the easier it will be to learn the L2 categories. Conversely, the more different they are, the more difficult L2 will be to learn. Therefore, the comparison of these two languages is based on Manner of Articulation.
The following tables are the tables of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants based on the manner of articulation. The tables below will show the consonants that exist in Dayak Embaloh and English or the consonants that do not exist in one of them.
a) Stop
Stop
p t k b d g ?
D.Embaloh + + + + + + +
English + + + + + +
b) Nasal
Nasal
m n ŋ
D.Embaloh + + +
English + + +
Table III.1.2Dayak Embaloh and English Nasal c) Fricative
Fricative
f v θ ð s z ∫ ʒ h
D.Embaloh - - - - + - - - +
English + + + + + + + + +
Table III.1.3Dayak Embaloh and English Fricative d) Affricate
Affricate
t∫ dʒ ḓʒ
D.Embaloh - - +
English + +
-Table III.1.4Dayak Embaloh and English Afficate e) Approximant
Approximant
r j w
D.Embaloh + + +
English + + +
Table III.1.5Dayak Embaloh and English Aproximant f) Lateral
Lateral l
D.Embaloh +
English +
Table III.1.6Dayak Embaloh and English lateral
in Dayak Embaloh, they are [f], [ ð], [θ], [v], [z], [∫], [ʒ], [t∫], and [dʒ]. As
these consonants do not exist in Dayak Embaloh, so the Dayak Embaloh students will have possibility mispronouncing English words which consists of those consonants.
D. Distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonant
The writer now will discuss consonant sounds one by one; to find out the distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants. Although both Dayak Embaloh and English have the same phoneme, if some consonants do not occur in the same position as the native language they also will have mispronunciation possibilities. As Lado ( 1957:17) said that when the native language has a similar phoneme and the variants are similar, if it does not occur in the same position as in native language, the student will have trouble producing and hearing it in the position in which it does occur in foreign language. In this part the writer will discuss it based on PVM (Place of articulation, Voice, and Manner of articulation).
Table IV. Distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants
Dayak Embaloh English
Initial Medial Final Initial Medial Final
s + + + + + +
z - - - + + +
∫ - - - + + +
ʒ - - - + + +
h - - + + +
-t∫ - - - + + +
dʒ - - - + + +
r + + + + + +
j - + - + +
-w - + - + +
-l + + + + + +
The table above is the summary of the following discussion of the distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants based on the PVM (Place of articulation, Voice, and Manner of articulation).
The following are the discussion of distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants. As it was mentioned before, the writer will discuss the consonants one by one based on place of articulation, and the writer will make comparison of distribution of consonants to find out whether consonants of both languages share the same consonants distribution.
I. Bilabial
sound and only can be found in initial position and middle position, never in final position.
Table V.1.1D.E and English bilabial-voiced-plosive
Dayak Embaloh English
Sabalu’ [sabalu?] Ribbon [rIbƏn]
-[b]
- - Robe [rƏ℧b]
- - Rub [rΛb]
- - Mob [mb]
A bilabial-voiceless-plosive sound is produced the same as the sound /b/. However, this kind of sound does not involve the vocal cord therefore there is no vibration in vocal cord and results on voiceless sound. In English this kind of sound is represented as /p/ sound and it occurs in all position. This kind of sound can be found in Dayak Embaloh language as well and the sound can be represented the same as in English. Sound /p/ can also occur in all position in Dayak Embaloh language, in final position of the word the phoneme /p/ is unreleased and it is not aspirated in elsewhere position.
Table V.1.2D.E and English bilabial-voiceless-plosive
Dayak Embaloh English
Pakoako [pakoako] pear [peƏ]
-[p]-Topak [topak] chapel [t∫æpl]
Sape [sape] supper [sΛpƏ(r)]
A bilabial-voiced-nasal sound is produced the same as sound /b/ and /p/, involving a complete closure in mouth but it allows the air escape through the nose and whenever the sound is produced the vocal cord is vibrating so that the sound produced is voice sound. In English this kind of sound is represented as /m/ and it can occur in all position.This kind of sound can also be found in Dayak Embaloh language and can be represented the same as in English. In Dayak Embaloh this kind of sound can also occur in all position.
Table V.1.3D.E and English bilabial-voiced-nasal
Dayak Embaloh English
mantuari [mantuaři] muscle [mΛsl] mamele [mamele] muzzle [mΛzl]
near-closure in the mouth but without friction and can be also called as semi-vowel. This sound is represented with /w/ and in English this sound can occur only in initial and medial positions. This sound can also be found in Dayak Embaloh language and occur only in medial position of word.
Table V.1.4D.E and English bilabial-voiced-approximant
Dayak Embaloh English
Table V.2.1D.E and English labiodental-voiced-fricative
A labiodental-voiceless-fricative sound is produced the same as sound /v/. The difference of this sound is it does not involve or cause the vocal cord vibrates and the result is voiceless sound. In English, this kind of sound is represented by /f/ and it can occur in all position of words. As the writer said in the previous that Dayak Embaloh language never involves the lower lip and upper teeth in producing the sound. Therefore this kind of sound cannot be found in Dayak Embaloh language.
Table V.2.2D.E and English labiodental-voiceless-fricative
III. Dental
A dental-voiced-fricative sound is produced by inserting the tongue tip between upper teeth and lower teeth. When producing sound there is friction occurring between the tongue and teeth, and it vibrates the vocal cord which is resulting the voice sound. This sound is represented by symbol /ð/ and can occur in all position of word. However this kind of sound can not be found in Dayak Embaloh language. Dayak Embaloh language never produces sound by inserting the tip of the tongue between the upper teeth and lower teeth.
Table V.3.1D.E and English dental-voiced-fricative
Dayak Embaloh English
A dental-voiceless-fricative sound is produced the same as sound /ð/. The difference is when producing dental-voiceless-sound the vocal cord does not vibrate which is resulting the
voiceless sound. This sound is represented by symbol /θ/. In
As the writer told before that Dayak Embaloh language never produces sound by inserting the tip of the tongue between the upper teeth and the lower teeth, therefore this kind of sound can not be found in Dayak Embaloh language as well.
Table V.3.2D.E and English dental-voiceless-fricative
Dayak Embaloh English
Table V.4.1D.E and English alveolar-voiced-plosive
daiko [daiko] detect [dItekt]
-[d]-sidai’ [sidai?] middle [mIdl]
tundi [tundi] widow [widƏ℧] akadeng [akadeŋ] leader [li:dƏ(r)]
-[d]
- - bid [bId]
- - bad [bæd]
- - deed [di:d]
An alveolar-voiceless-plosive sound is produced the same as sound /d/. However the vocal cord does not vibrate when the sound is produced so the sound becomes voiceless sound. In English this kind of sound is represented by symbol /t/ and can occur in all position of word. In Dayak Embaloh language voiceless alveolar stop /t/ occurs in initial, medial, and final position of the word. In final position the sound /t/ is not released and not aspirated in initial position.
Table V.4.2D.E and English alveolar-voiceless-plosive
Dayak Embaloh English
Alatala [Alatala] little [lItl]
matonai [matonai] cattle [kætl]
inatang [inataŋ] battle [bætl]
[t]-akat [akat] fat [fæt]
mantat [mantat] beat [bi:t]
An alveolar-voiced-nasal sound is produced the same as sound /d/. However, in producing this sound the air is allowed to escape through the nose resulting the nasal sound. In English this sound is represented by the symbol /n/, which occurs in all position in English words. In Dayak Embaloh language [n] Voiced alveolar nasal occurs in initial, medial and final position of word.
Table V.4.3D.E and English alveolar-voiced-nasal
Dayak Embaloh English
nangkanak [naŋkanak] night [naIt] ninang [ninaŋ] nine [naIn]
namin [namin] need [ni:d]
-[n]-danum [danum] lantern [læntƏ]
tana’ [tana?] center [sentƏ(r)] manuk [manuk] peanut [pi:nΛt]
-[n]
araun [ařaun] line [laIn]
laan [laan] mine [main]
angkan [aŋkan] sin [sIn]
An alveolar-voiced-lateral sound is produced with complete closure but allowing the air escapes in both sides of the tongue. In English this kind of sound is symbolized by /l/ and can occur in all position of word. In English this kind of sound will be clear /l/ whenever it occurs in initial and medial position of words
and dark /ł/ whenever it occurs in final position of words. Dayak
Table V. 4.4D.E and English alveolar-voiced-lateral
malola’ [malola?] filter [filtƏ(r)] balangke [balaŋke] sailor [seIlƏ(r)]
ulun [ulun] molest [mƏlest]
-[l]
manutul [manutul] tail [teIl]
agol-agol [agol-agol] mile [maIl]
bakul [bakul] pill [pIl]
An alveolar-voiced-fricative sound is represented by symbol /z/. This sound is produced the same as previous sound. However, when producing this sound the vocal cord is vibrating which causes voiced sound and there is friction between tongue tip and alveolar ridge. In Dayak Embaloh language however, this kind of sound can not be found. Dayak Embaloh language never produces voiced sound for alveolar-fricative. Alveolar-fricative in Dayak Embaloh language is always voiceless sound. In English this kind of sound can be found and occur in all position of words.
Table V. 4.5D.E and English alveolar-voiced-fricative
-/z/
- - rise [reIz]
- - gaze [geIz]
- - size [saIz]
An alveolar-voiceless-fricative sound is produced the same as sound /z/. However, whenever this sound is produced the vocal cord is not vibrating which cause voiceless sound. This kind of sound is represented by symbol /s/. In English this kind of sound can occur in all position of word. As the writer said previously that in Dayak Embaloh language alveolar-fricative is always voiceless. Therefore, this kind of sound can also be found and occur in all position of words in Dayak Embaloh language.
Table V. 4.6D.E and English alveolar-voiceless-fricative
Dayak Embaloh English pasung [pasuŋ] pistol [pIstl]
-[s]
mingkas [miŋkas] bus [bΛs]
amas [amas] kiss [kIs]
karatas [kařatas] miss [mIs]
kind of sound has allophone. In English after fortis consonant /p, t,
k, f, θ, ∫ etc, a devoiced (voiceless) allophone occurs [ɹ] e.g. in
train, crane, free, shrug. Allophone [ɾ] occurs intervocally as in
very, marry. In Dayak Embaloh the [r] sound is never followed or preceded by other consonants.
Table V. 4.7D.E and English alveolar-voiced-approximant
Dayak Embaloh English
maratak [mařatak] marry [mæri]
maripak [mařipak] cry [kraI]
A palatoalveolar-voiced-fricative in English is represented
by the symbol /ʒ/.In English thePalatoalveolar-voice-fricative[ʒ] occurs only intervovally, except for a few loan words from French, where it may occur initially and finally. However this kind of sound is never produced in Dayak Embaloh, because Dayak Embaloh language never produces sounds by raising the body of the tongue toward the front of the palate. This kind of sound will
have higher substitution possibilities that could be made by the
Table V.5.1D.Eand Englishpalatoalveolar-voiced-fricative
A palatoalveolar-voiceless-fricative in English is represented by the symbol /∫/. In English this kind of sound is produced the same as the sound /ʒ/. However, when sound /∫/ is produced, the vocal cord is not vibrating therefore this sound is
categorized into the voiceless sound. In English this sound can
occur in all position of word. As the writer told before that Dayak
Embaloh language never produces sound by raising the body of the
tongue toward the front of the palate. Therefore this kind of sound
is not produced in Dayak Embaloh language. In Dayak Embaloh
the sound that seems similar with the /∫/ is sound /s/. However, this
Table V.5.2D.E and Englishpalatoalveolar-voiceless-fricative
A palatoalveolar-voiceless-affricate in English is represented with the symbol /t∫/. The sound involves a complete
closure, as plosive but the release phase is not with plosive but
friction. In English, this kind of sound can occur in all position of
word. In Dayak Embaloh language this kind of sound does not
exist and is considered as a foreign sound. Dayak Embaloh
language never produces sound in the palatoalveolar. However,
there is a consonant sound that also seems similar with the English
consonant sound/t∫/, it is /c/. This kind of consonant is actually not Dayak Embaloh consonant sound but it is derived from Indonesia
loan word likecacing, candi,etc.
- - chicken [t∫IkIn] -/t∫
/-- - mature [mƏt∫℧Ə]
- - nature [neIt∫Ə]
- - capture [kæpt∫Ə(r)]
-/t∫/
- - fetch [fet∫]
- - catch [kæt∫]
- - match [mæt∫]
A palatoalveolar-voiced-affricate in English is represented
with the symbol /dʒ/. This kind of sound can occur in all position
of English words. In Dayak Embaloh, however, this kind of sound does not exist. There is one sound that is similar to this kind of sound that Dayak Embaloh has, it is sound /ḓʒ/. The writer use/ḓʒ/
symbol in order to differentiate /ḓʒ/ from /dʒ/ of English sound.
/ḓʒ/ in Dayak Embaloh is voiced affricate. The difference between
/ḓʒ/ and /dʒ/is just on the place of articulation. /dʒ/ is produced in
the alveolar ridge while /dʒ/ is produced in the palatoalveolar. In
Table V.5.4D.E and English
The production of a palatal-voiced-approximant in both
English and Dayak Embaloh language is similar means that it is
produced with near-closure between the front of the tongue and
hard palate. In English this kind of consonant sound is represented
with symbol /j/. The occurrence of palatal-voice-approximant is
restricted: it is found in initial position, and in initial consonant
combinations after certain consonants, e.g you [ju:], beauty
[bju:ti], queue [kju:]. In English it also can occur in medial position of word intervocalically as in beyond [bI’jɒnd].
Palatal-voice-approximant in Dayak Embaloh, however, only occurs in
medial position of words or intervocalically as in bayu’[baju’],
Table V.6.1 D.E and English mamayoang [mamajoaŋ] molecule [mlIkju:l]
talayong [talajoŋ] security [sIkj℧ƏrƏti]
A velar-voiceless-plosive is represented by symbol /k/ in both Dayak Embaloh and English language. The sound production of this phoneme is the same in Dayak Embaloh and English that is by involving a closure between the back of the tongue and soft palate. However, it does not cause the vocal cord vibrating therefore it is voiceless. This phoneme can occur in all position of words in both Dayak Embaloh and English.
-/k/
bauruk [bauřuk] take [teIk]
ababak [ababak] make [meIk]
lauk [lauk] like [laIk]
A velar-voiced-plosiveis represented by symbol /g/ in both languages. The sound production of this phoneme is also the same as phoneme /k/. However, this kind of sound causes the vocal cord vibrating (voiced). In English this consonant can occur in all position of words. In Dayak Embaloh language this consonant does not occur in the final position.
Table V. 7.2D.E and Englishvelar-voiced-plosive
Dayak Embaloh English
Table V. 7.3D.E and Englishvelar-voiced-nasal
A glottal-voiceless-fricativein English and Dayak Embaloh is represented by symbol /h/. The production of this consonant is similar in both language that is by pivoting and closing the vocal folds. In Dayak Embaloh this kind of sound occurs in final position while in English consonant /h/ occurs mainly in initial position of words, although it is also sometimes found medially.
Table V.81D.E and Englishglottal-voiceless-fricative
E. Dayak Embaloh Englishstudents’pronunciation
In this part the writer will discuss about Dayak Embaloh English
learners’ pronunciation. The pronunciation will be classified based on the
phonological process that is made by Dayak Embaloh English learners’ pronunciation. As Lado said in his book Linguistics Across Cultures (1957:27) that when a phoneme in a foreign language does not exist in the native language the students tend to substitute the native phoneme that seems nearest within the whole structure of his native language. This happens to Dayak Embaloh English learners when they pronounce English words that contain phonemes which do not exist in their native language. The results of the discussions in this part were summarized into the table below;
Table VISubstitution and deletion of consonants
![table above that phoneme [m] is [+labial] while phoneme](https://thumb-ap.123doks.com/thumbv2/123dok/1664729.2073582/53.595.208.477.185.645/table-phoneme-m-labial-phoneme.webp)
![table above that [m] is [+labial] while [ŋ] is [-labial]](https://thumb-ap.123doks.com/thumbv2/123dok/1664729.2073582/54.595.220.438.383.544/table-m-labial-n-labial.webp)
