CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 What is Syntax?
One of the branches of linguistics that talks about sentence or clause is Syntax. English Syntax was concerned with how we studied sentences. Syntaxis not only related to the structure of sentences, but also to structure of phrases and clauses. Baker (1989:03) says, “By the Syntax of a language, we mean the body of rules that speakers of the language follow when they combine words into sentences.” Thus, when we investigate English Syntax, we will trying to study the rules which underline how English speakers combine words to make sentences.
In addition to referring to the discipline, the term Syntax is also used to refer directly to the rules and principles that govern the sentence structure of any individual language. Modern research in Syntax attempts t professional in this discipline attempt to f languages.
assumption that language is a direct reflection of thought processes and therefore there is a single, most natural way to express a thought.
The writer of this thesis wants to show the readers some definitions of Syntax given by the Linguistics below:
Linda (1993:01) states, “Syntax describes the way words fit together to form
sentences”. She adds one way to study syntax is to look at sentences which are already known to be considered syntactically ‘well-formed’ sentences to the speakers of that language.
John Lyons (1981:103) states, “Syntax deals with the distribution of words (i.e
word-forms)”.
Jim Miller (2002: xii) states, “Syntax has to do with how words are put
together to build phrases, with how phrases are put together to build sentences.”
Andrew Carnie (2001:4) states, “Syntax is the cover term for studies of this
level of langauge.”
From the definitions above, we know that Syntax is the study of words which put together to build sentence through human expression.
2.2 Types of Sentence
A sentence is a group of words that we use to communicate our ideas in writing or in speaking. In this thesis, the types of sentence become two, which is active and passive sentence.
In a passive In fact, the action is performed on it. For example:
The dog
Note: “the dog” is the subject of the verb to eat. The dog is performing the action of the verb. ate all the biscuits
2.3 Sentence Structure
Bolinger (1975 : 156) states that the traditional definition of a sentence is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought, and certainly some sense of completeness is essential to it. In sentence, there are the differences between the deep and surface structure. The surface structure of a sentence is its grammatical form, while the deep structure is understood as its meaning (Chomsky). In order to analyze sentence structures, spesific methods and symbols had to be introduced. This is where Syntax tree diagram comes in, and it is utilized to perform the analysis. Tree diagram are the other way of graphically representing the sentence structure.
Tree diagram, also known as a phrase marker since it is intended to represent structure by marking which sequences of words in a sentence are its constituent phrases. Besides, it is also known as analytical tree, systematic diagram or hierarchy diagram. It consists of multiple choices or sub-parts, which come under one broad category.
2.3.1 Kinds of Sentence
There are four kinds of sentences based on their purpose: declarative, exclamatory, interrogative, and imperative :
2. Interrogative sentence or question is commonly used to request information. In an interrogative sentence, the subject and auxiliary are often reserved. For example : Why didn’t you come?
3. Exclamatory sentence or exclamation is generally a more emphatic form of a statement. Such sentences begin with an exclamatory phrase consisting of what or how plus a part of the predicate. For example : What beautiful eyes she has!
4. Imperative sentence or command tells someone or people to do something. In an imperative semtence, only the predicate is expressed. The simple form of verb is used, regardless of person or tense. For exaample : eat your dinner!
2.3.2 Forms of Sentence
This classification is based on the number and kind of clauses within a sentence. A clause may be defined in the same way as a sentence, it is a full predication that contains a subject and a predicate with a finite verb. There are two kinds of clause :
1. Independent clause : A full predication that may stand alone as a sentence. 2. Dependent clause : It has a special introductory word that makes the
predication “depend” on an independent clause.
One traditional scheme for classifying English sentence is by the number and types of finite clauses. There are four types of sentences :
1. A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause with no dependent clauses. For example :
a. Jenny is singing in the bathroom.
c. My mother goes to the supermarket and buys some vegetables. (It contains a compound verb).
2. A compound sentence consists of multiple independent clauses with no dependent clause. These clauses are joined together using conjuctions (for, but, or, nor, yet, so, and). for example :
a. The man stole jewelry and he hid it in his home. b. She likes to eat much but her body is thin.
c. My younger sister wants to be the first rank in her class, so she studies harder now.
3. A complex sentence consists of one or more independent clauses with at least one dependent clause. A dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjuction, such as : that, because, although, where, which, and since. a. I am suspicious with a man that walked in front of our house when I
went home last night
b. You can drink the soft drink,
. (One independent clause and two dependent clauses).
although the water is healthier
4. A compound-complex sentence consists of multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one dependent clause.
. (One independent clause and one dependent clause).
a. I love shopping and my sister loves travelling because they can refresh our mind
b. You can go by taxi, but going by train is
. (Two independent clauses and one dependent clause).
faster as you can get there early
2.4 X-Bar Theory
The theory of X–Bar idea stems from Zellig Harris. Noam Chomskyis a pupil of Harris who adopt this theory while studying at the University of Pensilvania in the 50’s (Solomon, 1993:489). It may be said that Chomsky is the first people who argued that the phrase has the same structure should be studied explicitly. The idea of the X-Bar theory is that the internal structure in different phrases in a language similar pattern was found in each structure (Sells,1985:27).
In this rule, there are two types of lexical categories, such as verbs, nouns, adjectives, and prepositional phrases and categories such as verb phrases, noun phrases, adjective phrases, and prepositional phrases. The fact that through a number of Syntax tests such as substitution, coordination proved the existence of such categories. This is called an intermediate category and the basis for the emergence of X-Bar theory.
It claims that among their phrasal categories, all those languages share certain structural similarities, including one known as the “X-Bar”, which does not appear in traditional phrase structure rules for English or other natural languages. X-Bar theory was first proposed by Chomsky (1970) and further developed by Jackendoff (1977). An X-Bar theoretic understanding of sentence structure is possible in a constituency-based grammar only, it is not possible in a dependency-based grammar.
The letter X is used to signify an arbitrary lexival category (part of speech). When analyzing a specific utterance , specific categories are assigned. Thus, the X may become N for noun, V for verb, an A for adjective, or a P for preposition.
“X-Bar”. The notation XP stands for X Phrase, and is equivalent to X-Bar-Bar (X with a double overbar), written X, usually read as X double bar.
2.4.1 X-Bar Nodes
The deficiency in the earlier model of transformational grammar was remedied by the creation of X-Bar Syntax or X-Bar Theory. It takes into consideration that many other kind of lexical and phrasal units in language need to have an X-Bar category added to their phrase markers. In order to more adequately describe the process, linguists noted that each kind of phrase has a head constituent upon which a phrase is constructed.
HEAD PHRASE COMMENT
N NP
The Noun is the functional head of a Noun Phrase
V VP
The Verb is the functional head of a Verb Phrase
A AP
The Adjective is the functional head of an Adjectival Phrase
P PP
The Preposition is the functional head of a Prepositional Phrase
ADV ADVP
The Adverb is the functional head of the Adverbial Phrase
Q QP
From this pattern of head constructions, linguists were able to generalize that X is the head of XP.
HEAD PHRASE COMMENT
X XP X is the functional head of the X Phrase
This new way of categorizing phrase markers allows linguists to create three levels of categories: X, X-bar, and X-Double Bar.
PHRASE X-BAR UNIT HEAD
X-Double Bar X-Bar X
NP N-bar N
VP V-bar V
AP A-Bar A
PP P-Bar P
ADVP ADV-Bar ADV
QP Q-Bar Q
Further evidence for X-Bar Theory comes from the following sentence in which "very tall girl" must be treated as a unit and pronominalized and not "this very tall girl." Hence, "very tall girl has to be treated as a unit, viz., N-Bar.
Acceptable Sentence Very tall girl though she is, everyone admires her. Unacceptable Sentence *This very tall girl though she is, every admires her.
2.4.2 X-Bar Syntax
Xm Xm-1 ..….. Xn
This description as stated is not adequate because it does not mention the fact that in English Specifiers (SPEC) occur before X and Complements (COMPL) occur after X. Hence, the following rule revision is of X-Bar Syntactical is necessary:
PS Rule 1 X-Double Bar > SPEC + X-Bar PS Rule 2 X-Bar > X + COMPL
PS Rule 3 X-Bar > X-Bar
When these rules are applied, it produces the following phrase marker:
What this variation in the order of constituents means is that each language must have its order specified by general rules known as Licensing Conditions.
Modifiers and Specifiers have been treated as the same constituent in most of the literature in Government and Binding Theory. However, some linguists who work with X-Bar Theory on the lexical level want to make a distinction between Specifiers and Modifiers. By the latter, Modifiers, they have in mind a restricted clause that modifies the Head of the phrase, i. e, it limits the reference. This means that Modifiers function as restrictive complements.
Transform the following surface structure sentences into traditional phrase markers. Next convert these into the constituents of X-Bar Syntax. In the grafic example of analysis, notice that a Noun must belong to a higher constituent, viz., N-Bar and N-Double Bar, example sentence: A Student of Physics with long hair.
Example before the Conversion into X-Bar Categories:
2.5 Globe Asia Magazine
