AN ANALYSIS OF HEDGING USES IN SKRIPSI-S EMPLOYING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD.

A THESIS:

AN ANALYSIS OF HEDGING USES IN SKRIPSI-S EMPLOYING

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for Master’s Degree

in English Education

Written by :

Erfan Muhamad Fauzi

1006932

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

INDONESIA UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

DECLARATION

I hereby certify that this thesis entitled “An Analysis of Hedging Uses in Skripsi-s

Employing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Method” is completely my own work. I am

fully aware that I have quoted some statements and ideas from various sources. All

quotations are properly acknowledged.

Bandung, June 2014

PAGE OF APPROVAL

This thesis entitled “An Analysis of Hedging Uses in Skripsi-s Employing Quantitative and

Qualitative Research Method” written by Erfan Muhamad Fauzi has been approved

by the supervisor and the examiners:

The Supervisor

ABSTRACT

CONTENTS

APPROVAL SHEET ... i

DECLARATION... ii

PREFACE ... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... iv

ABSTRACT... v

CONTENTS ... vi

LIST OF TABLES ... vii

LIST OF DIAGRAM ... viii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1

1.1Background of the study ... 1

1.2Research Questions ... 4

1.3Purposes and significances of the study... 4

1.4The scope of study ... 4

1.5Clarification of terms ... 5

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW... 8

2.1 Academic writing ... 8

2.2.1 Defining academic writing ... 8

2.2.2 Skripsi of quantitative and qualitative research ... 10

2.2.3 Academic writing of non-native English... 12

2.2.4 Academic writing and metadiscourse... 13

2.2 Hedging and discourse ... 15

2.2.1 Basic Notion ... 16

2.2.2 Hedging and epistemic modality ... 17

2.2.3 Categories of hedging surface features ... 20

2.2.4 Polypragmatic models of hedging ... 26

2.3 Hedging in academic writing... 29

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY... 32

CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ... 40

4.1Surface features of hedging in skripsi-s ... 40

4.1.1 Descriptive statistic display of distributional information of the surface features of hedging uses ... 41

4.1.1.1Lexical hedging ... 41

4.1.1.2Non-Lexical hedging ... 50

4.1.2 Total hedges used in skripsi-s... 51

4.1.3 The reconstruction of hedging identified from surface features ... 53

4.1.3.1Lexical Hedging... 53

4.1.3.2Non-Lexical Hedging ... 72

4.2Polypragmatic models of hedging in skripsi-s ... 74

4.2.1 Content-oriented ... 75

4.2.1.1Accuracy-oriented ... 76

4.2.1.2Writer-oriented ... 79

4.2.2 Reader-oriented ... 81

4.3Hedging uses in quantitative and qualitative skripsi-s ... 81

4.3.1 Comparison of surface features of hedging in quantitative and qualitative skripsi-s ... 82

4.3.2 Comparison of polypragmatic models of hedging uses in quantitative and qualitative skripsi-s ... 86

4.4Discussions and implications of hedging uses in skripsi-s employing qualitative and quantitative research method... 87

4.4.1 Discussions of hedging uses in skripsi-s employing qualitative and quantitative research method... 87

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS... 92

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 96

APPENDICES ... 102

Appendix 1 ... 102

Appendix 2 ... 113

Appendix 3 ... 120

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Characteristics of quantitative and qualitative research method ... 11

Table 2.2 Categorization of metadiscourse from Crismore ... 14

Table 2.3 Realization of hedging in auxiliary verbs ... 21

Table 2.4 Realization of hedging in full verbs... 22

Table 2.5 Realization of hedging in adverb ... 24

Table 3.1 Data sources of this study ... 34

Table 3.2 Table to display expressions containing hedging potential ... 37

Table 3.3 The example of table for fourth step ... 37

Table 4.1 The occurrence of modal auxiliaries in all skripsi-s per 1000 words ... 41

Table 4.2 The occurrence of full verbs in all skripsi-s per 1000 words ... 42

Table 4.3 The occurrence of adverbs in all skripsi-s per 1000 words ... 44

Table 4.4 The occurrence of adjectives in all skripsi-s per 1000 words ... 46

Table 4.5 The occurrence of nouns in all skripsi-s per 1000 words ... 48

Table 4.6 The occurrence of other hedges in all skripsi-s per 1000 words ... 50

Table 4.7 The overall occurrences of hedging uses in all skripsi-s ... 51

Table 4.8 Models of hedging occurring in form of sentences per 100 lines ... 74

Table 4.9 The percentage of distributional information of overall hedging uses ... 82

Table 4.10 Hedging in qualitative and quantitative research methods ... 84

LIST OF DIAGRAM

1 of intellectuality of academician makes teaching writing an urgent concern (Alwasilah, 2008). Moreover, most exams that assess one’s degree of education achievement often rely on writing proficiency for measurement of knowledge (Harmer, 2004). Weisser (2002) also regards the compositionists or writers of any kind of text types as public intellectuals. These show how writing is adhered to intellectuality.

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(Hyland, 1998; see also Hinkel, 2004). This view about the use of hedging in academic writing shows opportunity to reveal the different tendency of undergraduate students using hedging as rhetorical device in their academic writing. Graduate study as continuation from undergraduate study is expected to produce better writing; the use of hedging as one of language devices becomes one aspect that could measure graduate students’ skill in the awareness of claiming the truth (Hyland, 1998).

Since Lakoff (1972) conceptualizes hedging as rhetorical devices to make fuzzy concept of a thing. This hedge or hedging as linguistic terminology was developed in pragmatist and discourse analysts hand. Meyer (1997) more specifically observes how hedging is used in academic writing as strengthener of arguments by weakening the claim in terms of cooperative principles. Following the observation of Meyer, Skelton (1997) also finds how hedging is used in a particular discipline, namely medical discipline. Skelton figured out that speculative judgment words such as suggest, indicate or imply become technical terms for the sake of modest uniformity of style. Some studies concerning hedging used in academic discourse were conducted in several sites of different nations. Most of them usually focused on certain discipline or the comparison among academic writings of different disciplines (Hyland, 1995; Vertalla, 2001; Martin, 2008; Taweel, Saidat and Saidat, 2011 and Nivales, 2011). Hedging is also used differently in terms of the language speaker, namely, native or non-native speaker (Riekkinen, 2009; Nasiri, 2012).

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result shows significant difference of the use of hedging in different disciplines (Vertalla, 2001).

On the basis of elaboration about hedging above, there is still question that needs depicting, in terms of the use of hedging in undergraduate students as they use qualitative and quantitative research method. This study qualitatively leads to the realization whether hedging as rhetorical device is acquired differently as writers use different frameworks of seeing phenomena in certain perspectives (qualitative and quantitative research method).

1.2Research questions

The following research questions realize the problems of hedging used in the skripsi-s employing quantitative and qualitative research method:

1. What surface features of hedging occur in skripsi-s employing qualitative and quantitative research methods?

2. What are the polypragmatic models of hedging used in those skripsi-s?

3. What are the differences of the uses of hedging in quantitative skripsi-s from those in qualitative skripsi-s in terms of their surface features and polypragmatic model?

1.3Purposes and significances of the study

Regarding the aforementioned background of this study, purposes and significance of the study are:

1. Presenting comprehensive evidence of undergraduate students’ using hedging in their skripsi-s. Hopefully, this can be used as needs analysis about students’ rhetorical skill in written language.

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1.4The scope of study

This study does not widely concern all aspects of hedging in academic writing context. This study touches only some types of hedging and identification of its pragmatic use. The strategy of hedging and semantic exploration is conducted explicitly particularly in necessary condition of explaining and describing hedging based on its surface features and polypragmatic model.

In terms of writing genre, this study concerns only academic writing. However, regarding some researches done by Vartalla (2001) and Taweel, Saidat, Hussein and Saidat (2011) concerning the use of hedging in certain register on politics, economics, medicine and technology, this kind of study focuses on academic writing in applied linguistics context. This study was conducted particularly in English education major. In this academic context, the tendency of undergraduate students’ using hedging in their academic writing becomes the main quest of this study. Systematically, the main body parts of skripsi-s as academic writing in the research site are typically divided into titles, acknowledgment, abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, findings, discussion/analysis and conclusion. The body parts analyzed in this study are only findings and discussions. They are integrated in chapter 4. The reason of choosing this chapter 4 is based on Hyland’s (1997) and Vartalla’s (2001) who found that hedging are used more frequently in result or discussion sections. It is reasonable since the argumentation is generated from these sections.

1.5Clarification of terms

Academic writing:

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variation of rules that have to be subjected by those who want to leave the academy.

Skripsi:

Skripsi in this study refers to scientific composition/writing that has to be written

by students as requisite for completing academic education (Kamus Bahasa Indonesia, 2008), usually for undergraduate degree, meanwhile thesis is for graduate degree. In this study, skripsi is the realization of academic writing (Sudjana, 2004). In the beginning, terminology skripsi in Indonesian context refers to writing based on observations, reviewing some literatures and strict methodology as procedure for examining an issue. The differences of skripsi, thesis and dissertation lay in the depth of examination and explanation, and usually skripsi is for undergraduate students meanwhile thesis and dissertation are for graduate students (Suryadi, 1980). In terms of the interpretation of the depth of examination, Nasution and Thomas (2010) warn that it is not about the quantity of the writing but how effective the writing explains the issue. In this study, the skripsi-s used as data sampling are from English language education major of the same university.

Hedging:

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truthfulness of statement, while booster/intensifier increases the grade of truthfulness of statement.

Surface Features of Hedging:

Surface features exists for the sake of quantification of hedging, practical efforts to identify hedging phenomena are needed. Hedging as pragmatic phenomenon cannot be easily identified without comprehensive judgment and recursive interpretation. This identification of hedging was designed at the first place by Hyland (1997). Those surface features of hedging are lexical and non-lexical items that frequently generate hedged expression. Some classification of this surface features of hedging were developed by Vartalla (2001). Therefore, considering those two experts, the surface features of hedging becomes primary issue in this study.

Polypragmatic Models of Hedging:

From the consideration that the use of hedging in research writing setting should regard the writer, the expected reader and the content of the research writing, Polypragmatic models of hedging emerge by considering those three aspects. Hedging is considered to be polypragmatic because hedging as language device often has different semantic interpretation and convey a range of meanings for particular users in particular contexts (Hyland, 1997). In line with Halliday’s (1994) belief above that the speaker, the interlocutor and the situation, at once, affect how language should be interpreted.

1.6Thesis organization

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The chapter II presents theoretical framework of this study used to interpret the data. It begins from description of academic writing as the setting of this study. The description of academic writing also includes particular characteristics of academic writing that becomes the data source. More specifically, one aspect in academic writing is taken for the focus of this study. This study concerns one of metadiscourses strategies, namely, hedging. Finally, the description of hedging in academic writing is also presented to expose some theories to put into the consideration when interpreting data.

The chapter III explains how the research is conducted from the beginning to the end. The explanation of design of research is presented in order to see how the research problems and the way to interpret it are matched. The data collection follows the explanation of research design is presented to see that data source and the way to gain the data are appropriate as it is related to the focus of this study. In the end, step by step analysis is presented to see how the data are interpreted.

In the chapter IV, answering two research questions of this study that become the guideline for this chapter. The first sub-chapter is to find out distributional information of hedging uses in skripsi-s employing quantitative and qulittive research method. The second sub-chapter is about the polypragmatic models of hedging uses in research reporting.

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter explains how the research is conducted from the beginning to the end. The explanation of design of research is presented in order to see how the research problems and the way to interpret it are matched. The data collection follows the explanation of research design is presented to see that data source and the way to gain the data are appropriate as it is related to the focus of this study. In the end, step by step analysis is presented to see how the data are interpreted.

3.1Statement of the problems

The use of hedging in academic writing is considerably important. In presenting factuality and truthfulness of statement, the use of hedging is beneficial in that the statement becomes not too assertive and judgmental (Markannen and Schroder, 1997). The study about hedging in academic writing across disciplines is already done by many researchers. The result shows significant difference of the use of hedging in different disciplines (Vartalla, 2001). From such condition, there are still some problems that need depicting, in terms of the use of hedging in undergraduate. This study qualitatively leads to the realization whether hedging as rhetorical device is acquired naturally or whether level of education determines the advance of the rhetorical devices use. In short, this study tries to decipher hedging uses occurring in skripsi-s employing qualitative and quantitative research methods in terms of the surface features and polypragmatic models of hedging.

3.2Research Design

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hedging in academic writing. Creswell (2011) believes qualitative research is the suitable research method for exploration of variables and problems that has been clearly revealed.

One of qualitative research method characteristics is exploring a problem and developing a detailed understanding of a central phenomenon (Creswell, 2011). This is in line with what Sinclair (2004) suggests trusting the text, in discourse analysis. Discourse analysis is employed in this study as one type of qualitative research methods. Jorgensen and Phillips (2002) believes that discourse analysis can be used not only as theory in interpreting the text but also occurrence of a linguistic feature throughout a text.

By characteristics above, exploration of hedging as (meta)discourse phenomenon can be included in qualitative research. Qualitative research design can reveal the unsuspected patterns of language through examining the nature and structure of language of large collection of text (Sinclair, 2003 and 2004).

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employing quantitative research method and two skripsi-s employing qualitative research method.

Because this study tries to figure out the contrast of the use of hedging in skripsi-s employing quantitative and qualitative research method, this study used

purposive sampling. In purposive sampling, the case included in the sample is the basis of judgment of typicality or possession of the particular characteristics being sought (Cohen et al, 2006). The data are taken due to the availability of this research procedure that needs digital copy of skripsi-s in the same major of study. The same university in similar management is advantageous as well, in terms of internal validity, in that the environment and management are almost equal in certain conditions. Therefore, this study has two female undergraduate with qualitative skripsi and two female undergraduate with quantitative skripsi. The following table illustrates the research participants involved in this study.

Table 3.1 Data sources of this study

Variables 2011 2010

Quantitative 1 1

Qualitative 1 1

Total 2 2

The text for research data were taken from skripsi-s of the undergraduate students from the same major. However not all the contents of the reserach are analyzed due to time constraints of the participants. Therefore, this study takes chapter IV (result and discussion sections) in similar proportion out of each skripsi-s. This effort is done in order to retain the naturality of reserach findings,

bacause naturality is what qualitative study tries to hold (Alwasilah, 2008).

3.4Data Collection

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use of hedging in academic writing and from interview to support the interpretation.

Quantitative data were taken from the text selected as mentioned in data source section. However, the statistical counts are possible by counting the occurrences of words identified by Vartalla (2001) as potentially generating hedging (see appendices). This involves two main processes, namely, the collection of the texts and the computerization of the texts (Meyer, 2002). First, collection of the texts are taken manually from digital text from each participant permission. They are usually in .doc/x format. Thus, there are 4 skripsi-s selected in the qualification mentioned before (cf. § 3.3). Computerization of the text are done: 1) by converting files in .doc/x format into .txt format. Antcont was used as software to analyze occurrence of hedging based on word per word identification. The categorization using this software makes the mapping of words use in text easier.

Qualitative data were from the text (in clausal unit) to interpret according to theoretical framework of hedging. This is for the sake of superficial statistical description and in-depth understanding of phenomenon observed. The second stage of data collection of this study is to get further information about the data that are colleted in the first stage. Namely, the researcher himself who analyzed the text based on the nature of hedging, in case there are implicitly stated

expressions of hedging uses out of Vartalla’s categorization. Another instrument to support the second stage data collection was also provided, namely, interview.

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3.5Data Analysis

There are two parts of data analysis in this study. The first part is to answer the first research question, namely, to find out distributional information of hedging uses in skripsi-s employing quantitative and qualitative research method. The first part of data analysis involves a careful investigation into the hedging markers used in the aforementioned data inspired from Hyland (1997), Vartalla (2011), and Taweel, Saidat, Hussein and Saidat (2011). There are four steps of the first part of the data analysis. The first step is identifying the hedging markers (see appendices for hedging markers based on Vartalla’s identification) in the chosen skripsi-s in order to extract all words potentially showing hedging based on tokens identified as hedging by Vartalla. This step requires Antcone Software to search effectively for how particular words used. The second step is

classifying the result of the first step based on theories proposed by Hyland (1997) and Vartalla (2001), that all expressions potentially containing hedging are classified into eight categories: modal auxiliaries, full verbs, adverbs, adjectives, nouns, clausal element, questions and other hedges. The third is

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Table 3.2 Table to display expressions containing hedging potential

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Table 3.3 The example of table for fourth step

Modal Auxiliaries ST RS TT WD Sub-Total of skripsi-s. Columns for each initial name represent individual hedging uses.

The quantification of this hedging uses is made for displaying distributional information of how hedging are used in skripsi-s employing quantitative and qualitative research methods. The final result of this quantification is to find out the comparison of hedging uses in the form of ratio or the percentage of the difference of quantitative and qualitative skripsi-s.

The second stage is analyzing the basic pragmatic functions of lexical and syntactic hedges as used contextually in the data are interpreted by some theoretical concept of hedging, based on the data analysis steps in Table 3.2. This builds a logical chain of evidence, noting causality and making inferences.

For answering the second research question, namely, to interpret and

clarify how hedges are used in undergraduate students’ academic writing (

skripsi-s), the framework from Hyland’s (1995, 1996 and 1997) is used. The categorization of how hedging function are created are done by discerning identification displayed in Table 3.2. Those occurrences of hedging from superficial features are interpreted further, discerning their effects to content, writer and readers. In research writing, the explanation of those three is inevitable because hedging is regarded as polypragmatic phenomenon (Hyland, 1995, 1996, 1997; and Vartalla, 2001).

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Chapter V presents the essential points that this study has found through analyzing hedging from skripsi-s based on Hyland‟s (1998) and Vartalla‟s (2001) theories. In addition, the recommendations that are realized from the interpretation of data are also presented so that the significance of this study in language education context is visible and the possibility for further research can be attempted.

5.1Conclusions

This study focuses on hedging uses of non-native speakers of English in their academic writing skill. Particularly, the primary issue in this study is the difference in academic writing in research setting, namely, quantitative and qualitative skripsi-s. In order to decipher this issue, two research questions are formulized for clearer orientation of this study.

Based on the two research questions, this study finds out how hedging uses in skripsi-s are like. First, from belief on text based on frequency counts

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Skripsi-s employing quantitative research method dominates the use of

hedging in most of hedging sub-categories. In another side, hedging in skripsi-s employing qualitative research method occurred more frequently in sub-categories: adjective indefinite frequency, probability adverb, adverbs of indefinite degree, tentative cognitive verbs, indicating limits of accuracy, and theoretical information. However, from overall calculation, the quantitative skripsi-s (19.22) get more hedging uses than qualitative ones (12.72). The gap of difference between both groups is 33.8%. This is implied that Phenomena of hedging uses in academic writing setting are not always naturally occurred. Implicitly, Hinkel (2004) suggests that hedging should be used as one of materials in teaching writing mechanics. This suggestion is supported by Al-Quraisy‟s (2011) finding that there are significantly different hedging uses of students‟ academic writing when they were treated by learning instruction including materials about hedging. Therefore, the explicit teaching of hedging as metadiscoursive strategy in academic writing takes important role.

Second, in answering the research questions about polypragmatic models

of hedging uses, the theory from Hyland (1995, 1996 and 1997) about are used. Quantitative skripsi-s tend to have hedging uses more than quantitative skripsi-s do. The percentage of difference is 36.2%. This is in line with the findings in the difference of hedging based on surface features. However, there is one specific issues worth to mention in the polypragmatic models of hedging uses, namely, that extreme samples exist in this quantification in qualitative and quantitative skripsi-s.

The 28 exemplifications of polypragmatic models of hedging from

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exemplifications: indicating an assessment of the reliability of truth, keeping interpretation close to findings, where may be less tenuous; using conventional epistemic forms in the main grammatical classes; commenting on probability of the content of a proposition being true and including both adverbs of uncertainty, which simply convey doubt on the information; and commenting on probability of the content of a proposition being true and include both adverbs of mental perception, which show how result are understood. In writer-oriented hedge, there are five exemplification: avoiding assuming explicit responsibility for an

assertion, while seeking to secure „uptake‟ by moving the reader to the writer‟s

standpoint; presenting a construction of abstract rhetors which, by nominalising a personal projection, suggest that the situation described is independent of human agency; serving qualification of specific claims; showing that the writer does not wish to be thought fully and personally committed to a belief in the proposed state of affairs; and referring to both the warrant for the claim and citing supporting. In reader-oriented hedge, there is only exemplification found, namely, using

personal attribution.

5.2Recommendations

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experimental study on students‟ hedging use with and without explicit learning instruction of hedging uses.

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