DEVELOPING TEACHING STRATEGIES BASED ON REFLECTIVE PEDAGOGY FOR INTEGRATED READING AND WRITING
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By:
Anastasia Beni Indrawati Student Number: 051214072
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
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DEVELOPING TEACHING STRATEGIES BASED ON REFLECTIVE PEDAGOGY FOR INTEGRATED READING AND WRITING
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By:
Anastasia Beni Indrawati Student Number: 051214072
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
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My thesis is dedicated to: My beloved Bapak and Ibu
vii ABSTRACT
Indrawati, Anastasia Beni. 2009. Developing Teaching Strategies Based on Reflective Pedagogy for Integrated Reading and Writing. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
Reading and writing are a part of English lesson that is taught in Senior High School. In fact, nowadays, there are many Senior High School students who still have poor reading and writing proficiencies. The problems in reading comprehension give bad impacts to the students’ writing proficiency. The students lack writing skill because of their poor reading proficiency since those two skills have strong relation. Unfortunately, the teaching of reading and writing is still problematic since the English teacher does not apply particular teaching strategies to enhance the students reading and writing skills. Considering that, this study is then aimed at developing teaching strategies based on Reflective pedagogy for integrated reading and writing. The design teaching strategies are completed with the materials for the tenth grade students of SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta. The design teaching strategies are expected to help the English teacher to teach reading and writing skills and the students to solve the proble ms they encountered and further enhance reading and writing skills of them.
There was one question formulated in the problem formulation i.e. What is the designed teaching strategies based on Reflective pedagogy for integrated reading and writing?
Some steps of Educational Research and Development (R & D) method were employed to solve the problems identified this study. These steps were (1) Research and Information Collecting, (2) Planning, (3) Development of Preliminary Form of Product, (4) Preliminary Field Testing, and (5) Main Product Revision.
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In this study, the data obtained through needs survey was served as the basis to develop the teaching strategies. Once being completed, the designed teaching strategies were evaluated by some English teachers and lecturer. The evaluation was described in terms of central tendency. The data showed that the means ranged from 3. 6 to 4. 6, indicating that the designed teaching strategies was acceptable and well-developed, although some revision was necessary. The evaluation was then emp loyed as the basis for revision.
The designed teaching strategies based on Reflective pedagogy for integrated reading and writing consists of sixteen strategies i.e. (1) Asking Questions to Clarify, (2) Predicting, (3) Activating Background Knowledge, (4) Checking Comprehension, (5) Discussion, (6) Listening, (7) Writing, (8) Independent Reading, (9) Guided Reading, (10) Retelling, (11) Understanding Text Organization, (12) Games, (13) Getting the Main Idea, (14) Summarizing, (15) Evaluating, (16) Student-self Evaluation.
ix ABSTRAK
Indrawati, Anastasia Beni. 2009. Developing Teaching Strategies Based on Reflective Pedagogy for Integrated Reading and Writing. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Reading dan writing merupakan bagian dari pelajaran bahasa Inggris yang diajarkan di Sekolah Menengah Atas. Kenyataannya, saat ini, ada banyak siswa SMA yang masih memiliki permasalahan untuk reading dan writing. Masalah- masalah dalam reading comprehension yang dihadapi oleh siswa memberikan dampak buruk terhadap kemampuan writing mereka. Kekurangan kemampuan siswa untuk writing
disebabkan kemampuan reading siswa yang kurang baik. Hal ini terjadi karena
reading dan writing memiliki hubungan yang sangat kuat. Namun demikian, sangat disayangkan bahwa pengajaran reading dan writing masih ada kendala karena guru bahasa Inggris tidak menerapkan strategi mengajar tertentu untuk mempertinggi kemampuan reading dan writing siswa. Memperhatikan hal tersebut, penelitian ini bertujuan mengembangkan strategi mengajar berdasarkan Reflective pedagogy untuk pegajaran integrasi reading dan writing. Desain strategi mengajar ini dilengkapi dengan materi untuk siswa kelas X SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta. Desain strategi mengajar ini diharapkan dapat membantu guru dalam mengajar reading dan writing dan siswa diharapkan dapat memecahkan masalah serta meningkatkan kemampuan
reading dan writing mereka.
Dalam penelitian ini, terdapat satu pertanyaan dalam perumusan masalah yaitu Bagaimanakah desain strategi mengajar berdasarkan Reflective pedagogy untuk pengajaran integrasi reading dan writing.
Beberapa langkah dalam metode Educational Research and Development (R & D) digunakan untuk menjawab pertanyaan dalam penelitian ini. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah (1) Penelitian dan pengumpulan informasi, (2) Perencanaan, (3) Pengembangan bentuk awal produk, (4) Pengujian awal di lapangan, dan (5) Revisi produk.
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adalah perumusan tujuan, topik, dan tujuan umum, perumusan tujuan khusus, dan pengembangan materi pembelajaran. Penulis juga mengadaptasi dua langkah penting dari model perancangan instruksional Yalden yang tidak bisa ditemukan di model perancangan instruksional Kemp yaitu Survei Analsia Kebutuhan dan Pengembangan strategi pengajaran. Singkatnya, penulis menggunakan 7 langkah dari hasil pengadaptasian dan pengkombinasian dari dua model perancangan instruksional yaitu (1) Survei Analisa Kebutuhan, (2) Perumusan tujuan, topik dan tujuan umum, (3) Perumusan tujuan khusus, (4) Pengembangan kegiatan dan materi pembelajaran, (5) Pengembangan strategi pengajaran, (6) Pengevaluasian, (7) Perevisian.
Dalam penelitian ini, data yang diperoleh melalui survei analisa kebutuhan siswa digunakan sebagai dasar pengembangan strategi mengajaran. Strategi mengajar yang telah selesai dirancang kemudian dievaluasi oleh para guru dan dosen bahasa Inggris. Hasil analisa data tersebut menunjukkan bahwa nilai rata-rata berkisar antara 3,6 – 4,6 dalam skala 1 – 5. Berdasarkan data tersebut, dapat disimpulkan bahwa strategi mengajar yang dirancang telah dikembangkan dengan baik dan dapat diterima. Meskipun demikian, revisi masih perlu dilaksanakan. Data yang diperoleh dari hasil evaluasi kemudian digunakan sebagai acuan untuk revisi.
Rancangan strategi mengajar berdasarkan Reflective pedagogy untuk pengajaran integrasi reading dan writing terdiri dari enam belas strategi mengajar yaitu 1) Asking Questions to Clarify, (2) Predicting, (3) Activating Background Knowledge, (4) Checking Comprehension, (5) Discussion, (6) Listening, (7) Writing, (8) Independent Reading, (9) Guided Reading, (10) Retelling, (11) Understanding Text Organization, (12) Games, (13) Getting the Main Idea, (14) Summarizing, (15) Evaluating, (16) Student-self Evaluation.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to the Almighty Jesus Christ for His love, grace and blessings in my life so that I was able to finish my thesis. I always believe that there is nothing impossible in Him.
My sincere gratitude goes to my sponsor, Gregorius Punto Aji, S.Pd., M. Hum., for his willingness to share his knowledge and expertise. He has been extraordinary in his invaluable supports, guidance, suggestions and patience during my thesis accomplishment. I am deeply grateful to all the lecturers of the English Language Education Study Program for guiding and teaching me during my study in Sanata Dharma University. In addition, I sincerely thank Christina Kristiyani, S.Pd.,M. Pd., for her willingness to evaluate my designed teaching strategies. In addition, I warmly thank Sr. Margaret O’ Donohue FCJ, for kindly spending her precious hours proofreading my thesis. Furthermore, I would also like to say thanks to all the secretariat staff of the English La nguage Study Program, Mbak Danik and Mbak Tari for always helping me with the administrative matters. My special thanks are addressed to all my classmates: Feby, Retno, Indri, Ayuni, Intan, There, Ari for sharing the joy and spirit during my study in this university.
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and Murtiningsih, S.Pd., for assisting me and giving me guidance, all of the grade X studentsand all of the staff who have helped me a lot.
My thanks also go to all REALIA staff especially Mbak Pupu, Mbak TJ, Mbak Sitta, and Bu Diah. I thank them for giving me a great opportunity to develop myself. My special thanks is addressed to all my lovely best friends in Beo 45 boarding house especially Agata Pepi Yerinta and Irmina Budi Utari for their love, support, friendship, and all the happy and sad times we have spent together. I hope our friendship will be everlasting.
My deepest gratitude is addressed to my beloved parents, Methodeus Mardjono and Theresia Kusharyati. I thank them for their prayer, love, support, advice, patience they have given to me. My gratitude also goes to my lovely sisters, Natalia Devian Indrasusanti, Christina Beti Prasetya Ningsih and Bernadeta Novi Andriyani for their love, support, advice, and the wonderful moments we have shared together. Last but not least, I am grateful to Petrus Dika Prasetyo Wibisono for giving me support and advice as well as teaching me the meaning of life. He has showed me that life is not a matter of how long we exist, but it is a matter of what we have done. I love them very much.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE……… i
APPROVAL PAGES………. ii
DEDICATION PAGE……….. iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY……… v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………. vi
ABSTRACT……….. vii
ABSTRAK……… ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS………. Xiii LIST OF FIGURES………. xvi
LIST OF TABLES……… xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES……….. xviii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION……… 1
A. Research Background……….. 1
B. Problem Formulation……… 4
C. Problem Limitation………... 4
D. Research Objectives………. 5
E. Research Benefits……….. 5
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CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE………. 9
A. Theoretical Description……… 9
1. Research and Development Theory………... 9
2. Instructional Design Theory ………. 11
a) Kemp Design Model……… 11
b)Yalden Design Model……….. 16
3. Reflective Pedagogy……….. 19
4. Theory of Teaching Reading……….. 30
5. Theory of Teaching Writing………... 35
6. The Integrated of Teaching Reading and Writing……… 36
7. The 2006 Edition of School-Based Curriculum……… 43
B. Theoretical Framework……….. 43
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY……… 48
A. Research Method………. 48
B. Research Participants………... 51
C. Data Gathering Technique………... 53
D. Research Instruments……… 55
E. Data Analysis Technique………. 56
F. Research Procedure………. 59
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION………….. 63
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B. The Elements of the Design ………... 66
1. The Goals, Topic and General Purposes………. 66
2. The Learning Objectives………. 70
3. The Teaching Learning Activities……….... 74
C. Feedbacks and Revision………... 80
1. Feedbacks from the Participants………. 80
2. Revision of the Product……….... 85
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS……… . 88
A. Conclusion………... . 88
B. Suggestions………. . 90
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Kemp’s Instructional Design Model………. 16
Figure 2: Yalden’s Instructional Design Model ………. 19
Figure 3: Ignatian Pedagogy……….. 20
Figure 2: The Writing Situation……… 35
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: The Data Needed……….. 53
Table 3.2: Degree of Agreement……….. 57
Table 3.3: The Descriptive Statistics of Participants’ Opinion (Blank).. 57
Table 3.4: The Assessment of Central Tendency……… 58
Table 3.5: The Description of the Research Participants’ (Blank)…….. 59
Table 4.1: The Themes & Topic in the Design……….. 67
Table 4.2: The Basic Competencies………. 68
Table 4.3: The Indicators……… 71
Table 4.4: The Teaching Activities in the Design………... 75
Table 4.5: The Description of the Research Participants……….. 82
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Letter of Permission……….. 95
Appendix 2: Interview Guideline and Transcript……….. 99
Appendix 3: The Questionnaire for the Design Evaluation ………. 105
Appendix 4: Syllabus of SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta ………. 108
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the introduction of the study. This includes the research background, problem formulation, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.
A. Research Background
In this globalization era, the English language plays an important role in our lives. English is an International language which many people around the world tend to use it. The broader use of English as the International language forces many people especially students to learn English more and more. One of the effective ways to learn English is through reading. Reading is a beneficial activity that is easy to do. When students read many kinds of reading materials, they should comprehend the text so that they could get the messages of the text. By means of reading comprehension, the students could broaden their knowledge and see the advancement of this world.
Reading and writing skills are a part of English lesson that is taught in Senior High School. Nowadays, many Senior High Schools in Indonesia have divided English class according to the skills. This fact is based on what I have experienced in conducting study task or PPL (Program Pengalaman Lapangan)
in SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta. In fact, there are many Senior High School students who still have poor reading and writing proficiencies. Most of them do not know how to read the text effectively. They just read the text without knowing exactly what they have read. As consequence, they often lack time for the reading activity and they have not got the essential message of the text. It is because they do not comprehend the text and just read it without really understanding what the writers want to convey. These phenomenons would have bad impact on the students’ writing proficiency. They lack writing skill because of poor reading proficiency since those two skills have a strong relation.
It is very interesting to note that actually, nowadays, many students realize the importance of reading comprehension. However, most of them state that in fact, they still face the number of reading problems that become the obstacles for them to comprehend the text. This phenomenon, makes them lose the advantage of reading comprehension activity.
reading activity since this skill would also influence other skills especially writing. According to Raimes, Ann (1983: 50), “The more our students read, the more they become familiar with the vocabulary, idioms, sentence, patterns, organizational flow, and cultural assumption of native speakers of the language.”
This phenomenon of facing reading comprehension and writing problems encountered by Senior High School students demand the teacher to develop the teaching strategies for integrated reading and writing. Therefore, this research would develop teaching strategies based on Reflective Pedagogy for integrated reading and writing. This research also would see how far the students’ understanding of what they have read by asking them to read something which is based on the topic. Why is Reflective Pedagogy? Reflective Pedagogy has power for language teaching. It is a paradigm with inherent potential to go beyond mere theory to become a practical tool and effective instrument for making a difference in the way we teach and in the way our students learn.
Reflective Pedagogy speaks to the teaching-learning process, that addresses the teacher-learner relationship, and that has practical meaning and application for the classroom. The primary focus on Reflective Pedagogy remains just that pedagogical practice in classrooms. The practical expression of Reflective Pedagogy describes five basic principles in developing teaching learning activities. Those are: Context, Experience, Reflection, Action, and Evaluation.
the students will get many advantages. In fact, reading comprehension plays an important role in the development of English ability that has a link with other English competencies. Generally, reading comprehension is not only improving someone’s knowledge but it will also stimulate students in writing and motivating them to read. Therefore, the students could improve their reading and writing proficiencies.
B. Problem Formulation
This research is limited and only focused on this following problem “What is the design of teaching strategies based on Reflective Pedagogy for
integrated reading and writing?
C. Problem Limitation
This research is a research in English Language Teaching (ELT) area that investigates the students’ problems of reading comprehension. This research is limited to design teaching learning strategies based on Reflective Pedagogy for integrated reading and writing.
D. Research Objectives
E. Research Benefits
The teaching strategies based on Reflective Pedagogy for integrated reading and writing give a greater opportunity for the students to have different ways in their style for mastering reading and writing skills and also for the teacher to teach reading and writing. The strategies would encourage the students because before comprehending the material, the students would be given the context of the material. Then, the students would learn through ways that they are interested in, these would encourage the students to be more proactive because after comprehending the material which is supported by their experience, the students will do a kind of reflection which would be followed by some actions relates to the topic. In action step, the students would be asked to write something based on what they have read. Therefore, these teaching strategies would really help the students to see how far their understanding after conducting reading activity by applying the knowledge which they get through writing. Therefore, this study is expected to give positive contribution to English Language Teaching, especially for the English teachers, the students, and other researchers.
Practically, the design of teaching strategies would help the students especially students in SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta by the interaction of the learner with experience. The teaching strategies also would help them to really understand the topic by doing a kind of reflection which would accommodate them to do some actions dealing with the topic. Therefore, the students would be more active in learning the English language through reading and writing.
For other researchers, this study would be useful as the reference to conduct research and write scientific paper related to the topic. It also gives a description about developing teaching strategies based on Reflective Pedagogy for integrated reading and writing. Through the study, other researchers may gain beneficial information that can be used to support their research.
F. Definition of Terms
To avoid misunderstanding and misconception, it is important to have the right of supporting perception of the main terms used in this research:
1. Reading
b. In addition, Burns (1984: 10) explains that reading is a thinking process. In order to comprehend a reading selection thoroughly, a person must be able to use the information to make inferences and read critically and creatively. In this research, reading, then, is defined as a complex act of constructing meaning that involve the thinking process activity to link the text with the reader’s existing knowledge.
2. Writing
Rober & Nancy (1985) states that writing is a way of thinking as well as a means of communication, and one of the things it can be used to think about is yourself
3. The students
The students in this research are students of SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta Grade X. In Indonesia, the students age between fourteen up to sixteen years of age. In this study, tenth grade students is a group of students age between fourteen up to sixteen years old who are now learning in the tenth grade of SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta.
4. Instructional Design
Instructional Design is a process in improving a variety of instructional materials to fulfill the purpose and it has a certain model.
9 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter is intended to review some theories related to the issue of the
study and to formulate the theoretical framework. Therefore, I divide this chapter
into two major sub-headings namely theoretical description and theoretical
framework. The theoretical description provides the theoretical issues related to
the problem, whereas the theoretical framework explains the thread of the theories
to formulate the orientation of the study.
A. Theoretical Description
The study aims to develop teaching strategies based on Reflective
pedagogy for integrated reading and writing. Therefore, there are some theories
discussed in this part, namely Research and Development theory, Instructional
Design Theory, Reflective Pedagogy, Theory of Teaching Reading, Theory of
Teaching Writing, The Integrated of Teaching Reading and Writing and The 2006
edition of School- Based Curriculum.
1. Research and Development Theory
Borg and Gall (1983: 772) explains that education Research and
Development (R&D) is a process used to develop and validate educational
products. The steps of this process are usually referred to as the R & D cycle,
developed, developing the product based on these findings, field testing in the
setting where it will be used eventually, and revising it to correct the deficiencies
found in the field testing stage. In contrast, the goal of educational research is not
to develop products but rather to discover new knowledge (through basic
research) or to answer specific questions about practical problems.
The major steps in the R&D cycles based on Borg & Gall are:
a. Research and information collecting
This stage includes review of literature, classroom observations, and
preparation of report of state of the art.
b. Planning
It includes defining skills, reviewing the English syllabus, determining goals,
topic, and general purposes.
c. Develop Preliminary form of Product
It includes preparation of instructional materials, handbooks, and evaluation
devices.
d. Preliminary Field Testing
It can be conducted by using interview, observational and questionnaire data
collected and analyzed.
e. Main Product Revision
Revision of product as suggested by the preliminary field-test results.
f. Main Field Testing
Conducted in 5 to 15 schools with 30 to 100 subjects Quantitative data on
evaluated with respect to course objectives and is compared with control
group data, when appropriate.
g. Operational Product Revision
Revision of product as suggested by main field-tests result.
h. Operational Field Testing
Conducted in 10 to 30 schools involving 40 to 200 subjects. Interview,
observational and questionnaire data collected and analyzed.
i. Final Product Revision
Revision of product as suggested by operational field-test result.
j. Dissemination and implementation
The contribution of R&D in our education is to finding generated by basic and
applied research and uses them to build tested products that are ready for
operational use in the schools.
2. Instructional Design Theory
In the theory of instructional design there are many models of instructional
design. Each model has some stages which can be used as a step-by-step guidance
to develop the teaching strategies.
a. Kemp Design Model
The Kemp (1977) design model takes a holistic approach to instructional
design. Virtually all factors in the learning environment are taken into
consideration including subject analysis, learner characteristics, learning
and evaluation. The process is interactive and the design is subject to constant
revision. The immediate feel of being interactive and inclusive, and particularly
the fact that the central focus is the learner needs and goals are the strengths of
this model. There is also a focus on content analysis, as there would be in any
educational design and a focus on support and service, which is not present in
other ID models.
The benefit of using Kemp’s model is that the method can be applied to
any educational level – elementary, secondary, or college. It can be best applied
first to individual topics and then to units and to complete courses. When the
instructional designer and teachers have become fully familiar with the design
plan, it may be applied to the efforts of an entire department or grade level (Kemp,
1977:8).
The plan is designed to supply answers to three questions, which may be
considered the essential elements of instructional technology: what must be
learned? (objectives); what procedures and resources will work best to reach the
desired learning levels? (activities and resources); and how will we know when
the required learning has taken place? (evaluation) (Kemp 1977:8).
The plan consists of eight parts. Each part is elaborated below:
1) Considering goals, and then listing topics, stating purposes for teaching each
topic.
According to Kemp, instructional design planning starts with recognition
of the goals and topics. Those goals may be derived from three sources: society,
study, for each of which the teacher explicitly expresses the general statement of
purposes.
2) Enumerating the important characteristics of the learners
According to Kemp, teacher should recognize and respect the student as
individual learner. Even ideally each person should be assisted in pursuing
learning at his or her own pace and with his or her own selection of learning
experiences and materials. Knowing the learner characteristics, the teacher must
obtain information of the learners’ capabilities, needs, and interests. There should
affect the emphases in instructional planning, including the information the
determination of the topics and the level at which topics are introduced, the choice
and sequencing of objectives, the depth of treatment, and the variety of learning
activities.
3) Specifying the learning objectives
This step is specifying the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of
measurable student behavioral outcomes. Kemp states that this part is the difficult
part but it is essential. Learning objective is concerning with learning as the
outcome of instruction. Learning requires active effort by the learner. Thus, all
objectives must be stated in terms of activities that will best promote learning.
Objective tell students what goals they must attain, what ideas and skills will be
included in the upcoming instruction, and what types of behavior will be expected
4) Listing the Subject Content
Subject content comprises the selection and organizing the specific
knowledge (facts and information), skills (step-by step procedures, conditions,
and requirements) and attitudinal factors of any topic. In selecting subject
content, Kemp offers four questions. Those are: What specifically must be taught
or learned in this topic? What facts, concepts, and principles relate to this topic?
What steps are involved in necessary procedures relating to this topic? And what
techniques are required in performing essential skills? When content is being
selected, consideration might also be closely related to the objectives and the
students’ needs.
5) Developing pre-assessment
This assessment is to determine the students’ background and present a
level of knowledge about the topic. In order to plan learning activities for which
students are prepared and at the same time on things they already know, Kemp
suggests to find out specifically to what extend each student has acquired the
necessary prerequisites for studying the topic and what the student may have
already mastered about the subject to be studied. By the pre-assessment, he added,
the objectives of student may have already achieved.
6) Selecting teachings learning activities and instructional resources
This will treat the subject content so students will accomplish the
objectives. In selecting teaching/ learning activities and instructional resources,
Kemp argues that there is no formula for matching activities to objectives.
of various materials. Then they can make their selections in terms of the student
characteristics and needs that will best serve the objectives they have established.
7) Coordinating such support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment,
and schedules
This activity is to carry out the instructional plan. According to Kemp, the
support services required to implement the design plan are: budget, facilities,
equipment, time, and schedules and coordinating with other activities. He adds,
there are many interrelated elements in any instructional situation, and each needs
careful consideration during the appropriate planning step. Support services must
be considered at the same time instructional plans are being made and materials
being selected. In addition, consideration must be given to coordinating the
planned program with other operational aspect of institution (student’s schedules,
guidance services, and so forth)
8) Evaluation
Evaluating students’ learning in terms of their accomplishment of
objectives, with a view to revising and reevaluating any phases of the plan that
need improvement. Kemp argues that evaluation is the payoff step in the
instructional design plan. The teachers are ready to measure the learning outcomes
relating to the objectives. The objectives indicate what the evaluation should be.
By stating them clearly, teachers have assured measuring directly what they are
teaching. At present, he adds, most teachers prepare a final examination for a
then develops essay or objective questions that refer to the subject content covered
in the course or unit, making little reference to the objectives.
Figure 1: Kemp’s Instructional Design Model (Kemp, 1977: 9)
According to Kemp, the plan is a flexible process. There is
interdependence among the eight elements; decisions relating to one may affect
others. The planners can start with whichever element they are ready to start with
and then move back and forth to the other steps. The sequence and order are the
planners’ choice.
b. Yalden Design Model
Yalden offers a communicative syllabus in designing a set of instructional
components is increasingly referred to as communicative (Yalden, 1987: 87). The
principle on which a syllabus is structured is different from those for selecting the
linguistic content to be included in it. The teacher has to ensure that the learners
acquire the ability to communicate.
Yalden (1987) presents the stages to design a communicative syllabus.
The model consists of seven stages, namely:
1) Needs Survey
This stage is necessary to gather information about the learners such as
personal needs, motivation, and learners’ characteristic. Needs surveys is
conducted to identify as much as possible of the learners’ need in the designing of
the program in order to establish acceptable objectives.
2) Description about the purpose
The result of the need survey will guide the syllabus designer to clarify the
purpose of the language program. The description of purpose is prepared in term
of: (1) the characteristic of the students, and (2) the skills of the students on entry
to and on exit from the program.
3) Selection and development of syllabus type
It is in terms of proto syllabus and physical constraint on the program
(Yalden, 1987: 96). The syllabus does not only concern with anything to be taught
and the way to do it. It also concerns with the teaching materials such as textbook
4) The photo syllabus production
In this stage, the content of the syllabus will be decided. It means the
description of language use to be covered in the program (Yalden, 1987: 96). The
designer specified the description of the content of the syllabus. Selection and
combination of contents are designed in line with the type of syllabus.
5) The pedagogical production
Pedagogical syllabus represents a plan to implement the content of the
language teaching/learning at the classroom level. The language program
designer, in this step, should realize the syllabus in the form of teaching-learning
materials and testing approach.
6) The development and implementation of classroom procedures
In this stage, the designer is supposed to develop the classroom procedure
such as selection of exercise types and teaching techniques, preparation of lesson
plans, and preparation of the weekly schedules. Yalden also states about the
teacher training in this stage, such as creation of teaching materials.
7) Evaluation
The evaluation has two broad aspects; those are the students in the
program and the teaching as well as the over-all design. Then this is labeled as
the recycling stage because the whole cycle can be begun again at this point.
Those stages represent operations for the sake of clarity in
Figure 2: Yalden’s Instructional Design Model (Yalden, 1987: 88)
3 Reflective Pedagogy
According to Kolvenbach Peter Hans, S.J., (1993: 6), pedagogy is the way
in which teachers accompany learners in their development. Pedagogy must
include a world view and a vision of the ideal human person to be educated. These
provide the goal, the end towards which all aspects of an educational tradition are
directed. They also provide criteria for choices of means to be used in the process
of education.
Reflective Pedagogy which is also called Ignatian Pedagogy since it’s
derived from Saint Ignasius Loyola is intended not only for formal education
provides in Jesuit schools, colleges and universities, but it can be helpful in every
form of educational service. It is actually inspired by the experience of St. Ignatius
recorded in the Spiritual Excercises, in Part IV of the Constitutions of the Society
of Jesus, and in the Jesuit Ratio Studiorum. (Kolvenbach, 1993:2)
Ignatian Pedagogy is inspired by faith. But even those who do not share
this faith can gather valuable experiences from this document because the
pedagogy inspired by St. Ignatius is profoundly human and consequently
universal. This pedagogy from its beginnings has been eclectic in selection of
methods for teaching and learning. (Kolvenbach, 1993: 3)
Ignatian Pedagogy assumes that worldview and moves one step beyond
suggesting more explicit ways in which Ignatian values can be incarnated in the
teaching learning process. An Ignatian paradigm suggests a host of ways in which
teachers might accompany their students in order to facilitate learning and growth
through encounters with truth and explorations of human meaning. It is a
paradigm with inherent potential for going beyond mere theory to become a
practical tool and effective instrument for making a difference in the way we teach
and in the way our students learn. The model of experience, reflection and action
is not solely an interesting idea worthy of considerable discussion, nor is it simply
an intriguing proposal calling for lengthy debate (Kolvenbach, 1993: 18-19).
Figure 3: Ignatian Pedagogy
Action Reflection
A critically important note of the Ignatian paradigm is the introduction of
reflection as an essential dynamic. For centuries, education was assumed to
consist primarily of accumulated knowledge gained from lectures and
demonstations. Students experience a lesson clearly presented and thoroughly
explained and the teacher calls for subsequent action on the part of students
whereby they demonstrate, frequently reciting from memory, that what was
communicated has, indeed, been sucessfully absorbed. Research over the past two
decades has proven time and again, that effective learning occurs through the
interaction of the learner with experience. As a teaching model, it is seriously
deficient for two reasons:
1.Experience is expected to move beyond rote knowledge to the
development of the more complex learning skills of understanding,
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
2.If learning were to stop there, it would lack the component of
REFLECTION where students are impelled to consider the human
meaning and significance of what they study and to integrate that
meaning as responsible learners who grow as persons of competence,
conscience and compassion. (Kolvenbach, 1993: 20-21)
A comprehensive Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm must consider the
context of learning as well as the more explicitly pedagogical process. In addition,
it should point to ways to encourage openess to growth even after the student has
CONTEXT; EXPERIENCE; REFLECTION; ACTION; EVALUATION.
(Kolvenbach, 1993: 21-22)
a. Context of Learning
Ignatius makes judgements about readiness to begin, whether a person
would profit from the complete Exercises or an abbreviated experience. The
experiences of the retreatant should always give shape and context to the exercises
that are being used. It is the responsibility of the director, therefore, not only to
select those exercises that seem most worthwhile and suitable but to modify and
adjust them in order to make them directly applicable to the retreatant. Ignatius
encourages exercises to become as familiar as possible before-hand with the life
experience of the retreatant so that, during the retreat itself, the director will be
better equipped to assist the retreatant in discerning movements. (Kolvenbach,
1993:22)
Personal care and concern for the individual, which is a hallmark of Jesuit
education, requires that the life experience, always the starting point in an Ignatian
Pedagogy. We must know as mush as we can about the actual context within
which teaching and learning take place. As teachers, therefore, we need to
understand the world of the student, including the ways in which family, friends,
peers, youth culture and mores as well as social pressures, school life, politics,
economics, religion, media, art, music, and other realities impact that world and
affect the student.
Therefore, teachers as well as other members of the school community
1) The real context of a student’s life which includes family, peers, social
situations, the educational institution itself, politics, media and other
realities. All of these have an impact on the student for better or worse.
From time to time it will be useful and important to encourage students to
reflect on the contextual factors that they experience, and how they affect
their attitudes, perceptions, judgments, choices.
2) The socio-economic, political and cultural context within which a
student grows can seriously affect his or her growth as a person for others.
3) The institutional environment of the school or learning center, i.e the
complex and often subtle network of norms, expectations and especially
relationships that create the atmosphere of school life. Concretely, concern
for quality learning, trust, respect for others despite differences of opinion,
caring, forgiveness and some clear manifestation of the school’s belief in
the Trancendent distinguish a school environment that assists integral
human growth. Thus, alumnorum cura personalis, i.e., a genuine love and
personal care for each of our students, is essential for an environment that
fosters the Ignatian pedagogical paradigm proposed.
4) What previously acquired concepts students bring with them to the
start of the learning process. Their point of view and insights that they
may have acquired (Kolvenbach, 1993: 24-27).
b. Experience
In the first place this calls for knowing facts, concepts, principles. This
analyze and evaluate ideas, to reason. Ignatius urges that the whole person – mind,
heart and will – should enter the learning experience. He encourages use of the
imagination and the feelings as well as the mind in experience. Thus affective as
well as cognitive dimensions of the human person are involved, because without
internal feeling joined to intellectual grasp, learning will not move a person to
action. (Kolvenbach, 1993: 27)
Thus, we use the term EXPERIENCE to describe any activity in which in
addition to a cognitive grasp of the matter being considered, some sensation of an
affective nature is registered by the student. In any experience, data is perceived
by the student cognitively through questioning, investigating its elements and
relationships, the students organizes this date into a whole or a hypothesis. “What
is this?” “Is it like anything I already know?” “How does it work?” and so on
(Kolvenbach, 1993:28).
At the beginning of a new lesson, teachers often perceive how students’
feeling can move them to grow. For it is rare that a student experiences something
new in studies without referring it to what he or she already knows. New facts,
ideas, view points, theories often present a challenge to what the student
understands at that point. This calls for growth – a fuller understanding that may
modify or change what had been perceived as adequate knowledge (Kolvenbach,
1993: 29).
Human experience may be either direct or vicarious. Direct experience is a
cognitive knowing, however, can leave the reader distant and aloof to the human
person. Direct experience in an academic setting usually occurs in interpersonal
experiences such as conversations or discussions, laboratory investigations, field
trips, service projects, participation in sports, and the like.
But, in studies direct experience is not always possible. Learning is often
achieved through vicarious experience in reading, or listening to a teacher. In
order to involve students in the learning experience more fully at a human level,
teachers are challenged to stimulate students’ imagination and use of the senses
precisely so that students can enter the reality studied more fully. The teacher can
use simulations, role playing, use of audio visual materials and the like that can be
helpful (Kolvenbach, 1993: 30).
In conclusion, whether direct or vicarious, learners perceive data as well as
their affective responses to it. Thus, learners need to be attentive and active in
achieving comprehension and understanding of the human reality that confronts
them.
c. Reflection
At this level of REFLECTION, the memory, the understanding, the
imagination and the feelings are used to capture the meaning and the essential
value of what is being studied, or to discover its relationship with other aspects of
knowledge and human activity, and to appreciate its implications in the ongoing
search for truth and freedom. This REFLECTION is a formative and liberating
process. It forms the conscience of learners in such a manner that they are led to
We use the term reflection to mean a thoughtful reconsideration of some
subject matter, experience, idea, purpose or spontaneous reaction, in order to
grasp its significance more fully. Thus, reflection is the process by which meaning
surfaces in human experience:
• By understanding the truth being studied more clearly
• By understanding the sources of the sensations or reactions I experience in
this consideration.
• By deepening my understanding of the implications of what I have
grasped for myself and for others.
• By achieving personal insights into events, ideas, truth or the distortion of
truth and the like.
• By coming to some understanding of who am I (“What moves me, and
why?”) … and who I might be in relation to others.
A major challenge to a teacher at this stage of the learning paradigm is to
formulate questions that will broaden students’ awareness and impel them to
consider view-points of others. As educators, we insist that all of this be done with
total respect for the student’s freedom. We recognize that it is possible that due to
developmental factors, insecurity or other events currently impacting a student’s
life, he or she may not be able to grow in directions of greater altruism, justice,
etc. ( Kolvenbach, 1993: 32-34).
The reflection envisioned can and should be broadened wherever
have the opportunity to grow together. Shared reflection can reinforce, encourage
and ultimately give greater assurance that the action to be taken is more
comprehensive and consistent with what it means to be a person for others.
The terms EXPERIENCE and REFLECTION may be defined variously
according to different schools of pedagogy, and we agree with the tendency to use
these similar terms to express teaching that is personalized and learner-active and
whose aim is not merely the assimilation of subject-matter but the development of
the person. Those two terms express a “way of proceeding” that is more effective
in achieving “integral formation” of the student, that is, a way of experiencing and
reflecting that leads the student not only to delve deeply into the subject itself but
to look for meaning in life, and to make personal options (ACTION) according to
a comprehensive world vision.On the other hand, we know that experience and
reflection are not separable phenomena. It is not possible to have an experience
without some amount of reflection, and all reflection carries with it some
intellectual or affective experiences (Kolvenbach, 1993: 34-35).
d. Action
Reflection only develops and matures when it fosters decisions and
commitment. The term “Action” here refers to internal human growth based upon
experience that has been reflected upon as well as its manifestation externally. It
involves two steps:
1) Interiorized Choice
A choice which occurs when a person decides that a truth is to be his or
number of decisions. It is at this point that the student chooses to make the truth
his or her own while remaining open to where the truth might lead.
2) Choices Externally Manifested
In time, these meanings, attitudes, values which have been interiorized,
made part of the person, impel the student to act, to do something consistent with
this new conviction. If the meaning was positive, then the student will likely seek
to enhance those conditions in which the original experience took place. For
example, if she has acquired a taste for history of literature, she may resolve to
make time for reading (Kolvenbach, 1993:36).
However, if the meaning was negative, then the student will likely seek to
adjust, change, diminish or avoid the conditions and circumstances in which the
original experience took place. For example, if the student now appreciates the
reasons for his or her lack of success in school work, the student may decide to
improve study habits in order to avoid repeated failure (Kolvenbach, 1993: 37).
e. Evaluation
All teachers know that from time to time it is important to evaluate a
student’s progress in academic achievement. Daily quizzes, weekly or monthly
tests and semester examinations are familiar evaluation instrument to assess the
degree of mastery of knowledge and skills achieved.
Ignatian pedagogy, however, aims at formation which includes but goes
beyond academic mastery. Here we are concerned about students’ well-rounded
growth as persons for others. Thus, periodic evaluation of the student’s growth in
essential. There are a variety of ways in which this fuller human growth can be
assesed. All must take into account the age, talents and developmental levels of
each student (Kolvenbach, 1993: 38).
Useful pedagogical approaches include mentoring, review of student
journals, student self-evaluation in light of personal growth profiles, as well as
review of leisure time activities and voluntary service to others. This can be a
priveleged moment for a teacher both to congratulate and encourage the student
for progress made (Kolvenbach, 1993: 39).
This model of proceeding can thus become an effective ongoing pattern
for learning as well as a stimulus to remain open to growth throughout a lifetime.
A repetition of the Ignatian paradigm can help the growth of a student:
1) Who will gradually learn to discriminate and be selective in choosing
experiences
2) Who is able to draw fullness and richness from the reflection on those
experiences
3) Who becomes self-motivated by his or her own integrity and humanity
to make conscious, responsible choices.
In addition, perhaps most important, consistent use of the Ignatian
paradigm can result in the acquisition of life-long habits of learning which foster
attention to experience, reflective understanding beyond self-interest, and criteria
4. Theory of Teaching Reading
a. Reading
Goodman (1976) and Smith (1878) as citied by Vacca (1981: 12) define
reading as an active process of deriving meaning. A reader interacts with print in
an effort to understand the author’s message and makes sense out of what she or
he reads, reading is not simply a passive process. It is more than seeing words
clearly, more than pronouncing printed words correctly, more than recognizing
the meaning of isolated words. Reading requires thinking, feeling and
imagination.
b. Teaching Reading Comprehension
Previously, teaching reading simply emphasized accurate and fluent
pronunciation. Today, a dominant goal of reading is comprehension. This means
the ability to find meaning in what is read (Mc Neil, et al., 1980: 129). The idea of
gaining understanding, meaning, or knowledge from reading is emphasized.
Pearson and Johnson (1978: 227) states that “Reading comprehension is at
once a unitary process and a set of discrete processes.” In addition, Adoniou
(2007) states that “Reading comprehension is heavily dependent on skilled word
recognition and decoding, oral reading fluency, a well-developed vocabulary and
active engagement with the text.”
1) Comprehension
As we understand that in reading activity, one important point that the
important role in reading activity. It means that when students are doing reading
activity, they should understand what they read. Although comprehension is a
complex activity that involves combining reading with thinking and reasoning, the
students need to achieve it to get the advantages when doing reading activity.
2) Units of Comprehension
Burns C. (1984: 151) explains that the basic comprehension units in
reading are words, sentences, paragraphs and the whole selections. These units
combine to form all written materials the learners encounter.
a) Words
The students’s sight vocabularies should be built from words they already
comprehend. Words that are a part of their meaning vocabularies. This is
concerned with the development of extensive meaning vocabularies and the
difficulties that certain types of words may present to youngsters.
The growth of vocabulary is essentially the development of labels for the
child’s schemata. Because students must call upon their existing schemata to
comprehend, vocabulary development is an important component of
comprehension skill.
Vocabulary building is a complex process involving many kinds of words.
Students need to improve their vocabulary to produce good result. Here are the
four of the most common methods for students to discover the meanings of
1) Context Clues
The use of context clues to help recognize words that are familiar in
speech but not in print. Context clues also key the meaning of an
unfamiliar word by directly defining the word, providing an appositive, or
comparing or contrasting the word with a known word.
2) Structure Clues
Structural analysis as a word recognizing skill, can also be used as an aid
in discovering meanings of unknown words. Knowing meanings of
common affixes and combining them with meanings of familiar root
words can help the learners determine the meanings of many new words.
3) Analogies and Word Lines
Analogies compare two similar relationships and thereby bolster word
knowledge. Educators may teach analogies by displaying examples of
categories, relationships, and analogies, asking and guiding questions
about the examples, allowing students to discuss the questions and
applying the ideas that emerge.
Whereas, the use of word lines is to show the relationships among words,
just as they use number lines for numbers.
4) Dictionary Use
The dictionary is an excellent source to use in discovering meanings of
unfamiliar words, particulary for determining the appropriate meanings of
b) Sentences
The students may find complicated sentences that are difficult to understand,
so they need to know ways to attack them, or derive their meaning. Reseach
has shown that systematic instruction in sentence comprehension increases
reading comprehension. The students will understand the material better when
the syntax is like their oral language patterns.
c) Paragraphs
Paragraphs are groups of sentences that serve a particular within a whole
selection or passage. They may be organized around a main idea or topic.
Understand the paragraphs’ functions, the paragraphs’ general organization,
and the paragraphs’ relationships between the sentences in a paragraph is
important to reading comprehension.
d) Whole Selections
The understanding of the whole selections depends upon understanding the
smaller units (Burns, 1984).
3) Levels of Comprehension
Burns (1984: 177) states that it is possible to understand materials on a
number of different levels. In fact, the students need to achieve higher levels of
reading comprehension to become informed and effective citizens. According to
a)Literal reading comprehension
At this level, the reader is simply “reading the lines.” Literal comprehension
is to take ideas and detail notes that are directly stated. The task of the reader
is to locate and identify information that is explicitly stated by the author.
b)Interpretative reading comprehension
At the inferential level, the reader is “reading between the lines.” The reader
takes the information gained at the literal levels and draws conclusions,
makes inferences, and predicts outcomes based on the explicit information
supplied by the author. In other words, in this level, the learner is expected
to discover conclusion from what is written and find main ideas and cause
and effect relationship when the factors are not stated.
c) Critical reading comprehension
Critical reading is to read for information. At this level, the reader may
apply external information such as background experience, cultural values
and personal values. The reader’s major task at this level is to pass a
personal judgement on the text and to form and express an opinion. In order
to do this, the reader must attend to the meanings both stated and implied by
the author as well as all the information gained at the “Literal” and
“Inferential” levels. Therefore, the reader must attend to both denotative and
d)Creative reading comprehension
Creative reading is to read beyond the lines. It enables the reader to use the
printed matter to solve problems, make judgements regarding the actions of
characters, and draw a conclusion about what they would have done.
5. Theory of Teaching Writing
Robert & Nancy (1985: 3) states that writing is a way of thinking as well
as a means of communication, and one of the things it can be used to think about
is yourself. Every act of communication involves sender who initiates a message
and a receiver who interprets it, a writer explaining communication and a reader
deciphering symbols on a page. But the elements that make up the situation in
which communication takes place can be specified even further. All writing
situations, for example, may be described by a simple diagram:
topic
writer text reader
form of writing
Figure 4: The Writing Situation
The central level of the diagram (writer → text → reader) describes the basic process of written communication. The writer produces a written message
that is transmitted to the reader. The readers read it, interpret it, and understand it,
reader must share two kinds of knowledge, indicated on the diagram by the upper
and lower terms (topic and form of writing) (Robert & Nancy, 1985: 6).
Raimes (1983) explains the reasons to include writing as a part of second
language syllabus. Writing helps our students learn. First, writing reinforces the
grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary that we have been teaching our
students. Second, when our students write, they also have a chance to be
adventurous with the language, to go beyond what they have just learned to say, to
take a risk. Third, when they write, they necessarily become very involved with
the new language; the effort to express ideas and constant use of eye, hand, and
brain is a unique way to reinforce learning.
6. The Integrated Teaching Reading and Writing
Obviously, when the students read, they interact with the finished product.
Reading can do far more in the teaching of writing than simply provide subject
matter for discussion and for composition topics. When our students read, they
engage actively with the new language and culture. Reading is the only activity
that gives them access to unlimited amounts of the language. The more our
students read, the more they become familiar with the vocabulary, idiom,
sentence, patterns, organizational flow, and cultural assumptions of native
speakers of the language (Raimes, 1983: 50).
A short story, a newspaper column, an advertisement, a letter, a magazine
article, or a piece of student writing can work as a picture to provide shared
information gap that leads to communicative activities: if the students work with a
variety of readings at the same time, then they will be dealing with different
content, and anything they write to each other will thus be authentic
communication, conveying new and real information (Raimes, 1983: 50).
The activities we can ask students to do in the classroom to tie their
reading in with their writing fall into two broad categories: they can work either
with the text or from the text. Students work with the text when they copy and
when they examine the writer’s choices of specific linguistic and logical features,
such as cohesive links, punctuation, grammar, sentence arrangement, and
organization. They work from the text when they use it to create a text of their
own, that is, when they summarize, complete, speculate, or react (Raimes, 1983:
51).
In teaching the integrated reading and writing, the teacher can create many
teaching strategies which enhance the students in learning reading and writing
skills. These following strategies are some strategies for teaching integrated
reading and writing:
1) Asking Questions to Clarify
According to Chamot, et al. (1986: 26), in their book The Learning
Strategies Handbook states that asking questions to clarify means clarifying
involves your asking for explanation, verification, rephrasing, or examples.
a. Conducting this strategy, we usually use question words such as:
b. Where…?
d. How do you know?
e. What does it mean…?
f. What’s the reason?
g. What happened…?Etc.
2) Predicting
Predicting involves thinking of the kinds of words, phrases, and
information that you can expect to encounter during the task.” In addition,
Chamot, et al. (1986: 27) states that “The purpose of using prediction is to
motivate the student, increase comprehension, help students to share prior
knowledge and give responsibility of comprehension to the students”
3) Activating Background Knowledge
According to Bonnie and Jean (2002: 85), when you activate background
knowledge, you help students recognize and use information they already posses.
Your students probably posses some degree of knowledge about the text they are
reading, but they may not think about what they know as they read. To activate
background knowledge, you can ask students what they already know about the
topic. You should be able whether their background knowledge is adequate,
inadequate, or erroneous.
4) Checking Comprehension
When conducting reading comprehension activity, the students should
really understand the information on the text. According to Greenall & Michael
passage very closely to find the answer to a question. The information you require
is in the passage all you have to do is find it”.
5) Discussion
According to Bonnie and Jean (2002: 87), the purpose of discussion for
students is to exchange ideas freely in order to gain new understandings or
perspectives. Research has shown that small-group discussion about texts can
enhance comprehension and recall as personal connection to the text.
6) Listening
In many of the studies on listening, the task was to listen to the passage
then answer the comprehension questions. According to Chamot, et al., (1986:
169), in listening, the students in the intervention group were taught to use
selective attention, take notes, and cooperate with a classmate to review their
notes after listening.
7) Writing
According to Bonnie and Jean (2002: 87), writing is a powerful way to
help students connect what they already know with new information in the text
because writing requires the active manipulation of ideas. (Ambruster, et al.,
2002)
8) Independent Reading
Independent reading involves encouraging students to engage with texts
individually. Students may listen to taped texts as they follow the print and reread
texts to increase fluency and to experience success in reading. Students need
of the words are known or can be worked out students consolidate their
understanding and develop confidence in themselves as readers. Students can read
unknown words more easily if the text is structured in such a way that some of its
patterns are recognizable (English K-6).
9) Guided Reading
Guiding students as they read aloud provides for interaction between the
teacher and the student who is learning to read. During guided reading, teachers
can show students how to bring to their reading knowledge of content and
language patterns of the text. Guided reading generally involves:
a. Helping the students read the text
b. Talking about the text with the students
c. Prompting the students when necessary
d. Matching the text with the student’s ability and interest
e. Orientating the student to the text before reading by drawing attention to
the important ideas and language used (English K-6).
10)Retelling
According to Bonnie and Jean (2002: 71), retelling is a strategy identified
by the National Reading Panel. In retelling, the students orally reconstruct stories
that they have heard or read. Some research has shown that retelling is promising
as a strategy for improving comprehension for students who read a story. This
