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Journal of Education for Business
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Core Competence, Distinctive Competence, and
Competitive Advantage: What Is the Difference?
Ann Mooney
To cite this article: Ann Mooney (2007) Core Competence, Distinctive Competence, and Competitive Advantage: What Is the Difference?, Journal of Education for Business, 83:2, 110-115, DOI: 10.3200/JOEB.83.2.110-115
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/JOEB.83.2.110-115
Published online: 07 Aug 2010.
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ABSTRACT.
110
R
ince its genesis in the mid-20th century, the study of business disciplines has become an established academic discipline. The proliferation ofbusinesscurricula,journals,andaca-demic and professional associations is evidenceofadramaticgrowthinbusi-ness education. Although the growth hasimprovedtheunderstandingofbusi-ness and informed busihasimprovedtheunderstandingofbusi-ness practices, with growth comes various problems. For example, business practitioners, researchers,andeducatorsareconfused overimportanttermsandconceptsused pervasivelyinthefield.Anunderstand-ing of key concepts is critical for the foundationfromwhichbusinesspracti-tionersandacademicscommunicateand future research builds. In this article, I explore three important concepts: core competence, distinctive competence, andcompetitiveadvantage.
Businessexperts,particularlyinstrate- gicmanagementandmarketing,arecon-stantlyadvisingfirmsinallindustriesto developcorecompetenciesanddistinctive competencies and create a competitive advantage.Anexaminationoftheuseof these three concepts, however, reveals a problem. They have taken on somewhat of a buzzword status, whereby they are used so frequently that their meanings and interrelations are taken for granted and assumed to represent ideas that are not necessarily valid. Practitioners and researchers seem to underestimate the
complexity of these concepts, perhaps because little guidance exists as to what theseconceptsmeanandhowtheyrelate toeachother.
Inthisarticle,Ireviewandsynthesize theevolutionoftheuseofthreeimpor-tant concepts in the common business lexicon: core competence, distinctive competence, and competitive advan-tage. This analysis of business litera-tureservesasafoundationforoffering comprehensive definitions, conceptual models, and examples with which the concepts can be understood and com-municated.Thisisapracticalapproach becausetheseconceptsareoftenacriti- calpartinthedevelopmentandunder-standing of business strategies. More-over,aclearunderstandingofthethree conceptswillhelpavoidresearchprob-lems stemming from ambiguity, thus allowingforamorerigorousconceptual foundationforfutureresearch.
TheEvolutionoftheUseof CoreCompetence,Distinctive Competence,andCompetitive AdvantageinLiterature
CoreCompetence
Although Andrews (1971) intro-ducedtheconceptofcorecompetence
as“thecoreofcompetence”(p.46)and defined it as “what the company can doparticularlywell”(p.46),anearlier workbyAnsoff(1965)providedarich
CoreCompetence,Distinctive
Competence,andCompetitiveAdvantage:
WhatIstheDifference?
ANNMOONEY
STEVENSINSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY HOBOKEN,NEWJERSEY
S
ABSTRACT. Corecompetence,distinc-tivecompetence,andcompetitiveadvantage are3ofthemostimportantbusinesscon- ceptsthatmanagers,researchers,andedu- catorsrelyonfordecisionmaking,peda-gogy,andresearch.However,littleattention hasbeenpaidtodefiningtheseconcepts. Asaresult,theyhavebecomebuzzwords thatareusedsofrequentlythattheirmean-ingsareoftentakenforgrantedbutarenot fullyunderstood.Inthisarticle,theauthor reviewstheevolutionoftheseconceptsin businessliteratureandprovidescompre-hensivedefinitions,conceptualmodels,and examplestohelpclarifyanddistinguishthe conceptssothatfailuresofcommunication canbeavoided.
Keywords:competencies,competitive advantage,strategy
Copyright©2007HeldrefPublications
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discussion of its meaning.Ansoff did notusethetermcorecompetence,but he described the concept’s major ele-ments in his discussion of creating a “commonthread”(p.105)inthefirm’s competencies that represents “a rela-tionship between present and future product markets which would enable outsiderstoperceivewherethefirmis heading,andtheinsidemanagementto giveitguidance”(p.105).
SinceAnsoffandAndrews,research-ers have added richness to the mean-ing of core competence. One influen-tial study was by Prahalad and Hamel (1990), who explained that core com-petencies are the primary competen-cies that a firm leverages to compete, althoughthecompetenciesmayoftenbe difficulttoidentifyorovershadowedby the importance of the firm’s products. Using the analogy of a tree, Prahalad and Hamel explained that core com-petencies are like the root system that “providesnourishment,sustenance,and blocks for a firm’s corporate strategy (Collis & Montgomery, 1995; Frery, 2006). In particular, when deciding to diversify, researchers have stressed the benefits of choosing businesses that draw on existing core competen-cies (e.g., managerial expertise, inno-vation capabilities) because leveraging such abilities can result in cost effi-ciencies and operational effectiveness that help a firm compete in new busi-nesses (Markides, 1997; Porter, 1987). For example, Nike has leveraged suc-cessfully its expertise in marketing by extendingitsbrandbeyondsneakersto athleticclothingandretailstoresandby hosting athletic clubs and online com- munitiesthatarelikelytobuyitsprod-ucts (Holmes, 2006). An analysis of core competencies can also be helpful in assessing past diversification strate-gies by revealing a need for further competence development, outsourcing, restructuring, or downsizing (Hafeez, Zhang, & Malak, 2002; Webster,
Mal-ter, & Ganesan, 2005). For example, in 2005, IBM sold its personal com-puter (PC) division to Lenova, largely because IBM perceived PCs to be too far removed from its core competence of providing services, software, and high-endcomputers.
My review of core competence re-search highlights two essential attri-butesofcorecompetence.First,acore competencemustbeaskillorcapability ofafirmratherthanthemereownership of a resource. Second, core competen-cies should be prominent in helping a firm achieve its purpose (Collis & Montgomery,1995;Prahalad&Hamel, 1990). In other words, a core compe- tenceiscentraltoafirm’svalue-gener-atingactivities.
DistinctiveCompetence
Thetermdistinctivecompetencewas first coined by Selznick (1957), who argued that distinctive competencies “may yield a better way of classifying organizationsthanfocusingattentionon similarities in structure or in aims” (p. 50).Inotherwords,distinctivecompe- tencieshelpafirmstandoutinitsmar-kets when its competencies are supe-rior to its competitors’ competencies (Andrews,1971,1980;Collis&Mont-gomery, 1995; Hitt & Ireland, 1985; Littler,2005).Selznickexplained,
A distinctive competence is not neces-sarily restricted to the outcome of an organization’s peculiar adaptation to its own special purposes and programs. A somewhatmoregeneralcompetencemay develop, as when we say that a firm is goodatmarketing,butlesssuccessfulin production.(p.50)
Itisimportanttonote,however,that individualsoutsidethefirmmustnotice a competence as distinctive, or as Neil (1986)explained,“Itmustbehighlyvis-ibletoconsumers”(p.20).Furthermore, a distinctive competence must be sus-tainable;otherwise,itsexistencewillbe toofleetingtohaveasignificantimpact on the firm. Collis and Montgomery (1995)recommendedthatforadistinc-tive competence to be sustainable, it shouldbedifficulttoimitate.Firmscan accomplish this goal by involving fac-tors such as brand loyalty, successful technology, causal ambiguity (i.e., dif-ficulty disentangling what the resource
is or how it is created), and economic deterrence (e.g., economies of scale). For example,Target stores have devel- opedadistinctivecompetenceinbrand-ing whereby with a quick glance at a simple, red target mark, customers are abletoassociateitwiththestorechain anditsstrategyofeverydaylowprices.
Insummary,severalkeyattributesof distinctivecompetenceemergefromthe literature.First,distinctivecompetence, like core competence, must be a skill orcapabilityofthefirm.Second,asthe term suggests, distinctive competence mustbedistinctive;itmustbevisibleto concepttodayiscompetitiveadvantage. Despite its wide use, few researchers have attempted to define the concept, anditisoftenconfusedwithdistinctive competence (Day & Wensley, 1988). Exceptions include work by Ansoff (1965), who broadly defined competi-tive advantage as the “properties of individual product/markets which will givethefirmastrongcompetitiveposi-tion” (p. 79), and Uyterhoeven,Acker-man,andRosenblum(1973)andHofer and Schendel (1978), who referred to competitive advantages as the manner in which a firm applies its skills and resources to an individual product or market.
Porter’s(1985)booktitled Competi-tiveAdvantagepropelledtheconceptof competitiveadvantageintopopularbusi-nessvernacular.Porterdidnotarticulate adefinitionoftheconceptbutexplained that a competitive advantage refers to organizationalfactorsthatenableafirm tooutperformitscompetitors.Assuch, Porter argued that sustaining competi-tive advantage should be the central purpose of an organization’s competi-tive strategy and that creating value is themeanstoattainingit.
Competitive advantage grows fundamen-tallyoutofvalueafirmisabletocreatefor theirbuyerthatexceedsthefirm’scostof creatingit.Valueiswhatbuyersarewill-ingtopay,andsuperiorvaluestemsfrom offeringlowerpricesthancompetitorsfor
112
equivalent benefits or providing unique benefits that more than offset a higher price.(Porter,1985,p.3)
Porter’s (1985) arguments reflect the common strengths, weaknesses, oppor-tunities, and threats (SWOT) frame-work for assessing competitive advan-tage.Competitiveadvantagestemsfrom a firm’s ability to leverage its internal strengths to respond to external envi-ronmental opportunities while avoiding externalthreatsandinternalweaknesses. The resource-based view of a firm offersanalternativetothisbasicframe-workbyfocusingonsuperiorresources as a source of sustained competitive advantage (Barney, 1991; Wernerfelt, 1984). As Collis and Montgomery (1995) explained, “Competitive advan-tage, whatever its source, ultimately canbeattributedtotheownershipofa valuableresourcethatenablesthecom-panytoperformactivitiesbetterormore cheaply than its competitors” (p. 120). Moreover, to be sustainable, a com-petitiveadvantageshouldbedifficultto imitateorsubstitute(Barney,1991).For example,King(2007)arguedthatfirms sustain competitive advantage when theircompetenciespossessstrongcaus-al ambiguity because competitors are lesslikelytoidentifyorunderstandsuch competencies well enough to imitate them. For example, competitors have found it difficult to imitate Starbucks’ unique store atmosphere and branding competenciesand,asaresult,Starbucks hassustaineditscompetitiveadvantage (Michelli,2006).
Thus,likeadistinctivecompetence,a competitiveadvantagemustbedifficult to imitate to be sustainable. Unlike a distinctive competence, a competitive advantage must also enable a firm to outperformthefirmstowhichitiscom-pared. Last, a competitive advantage canbeeitheracapabilityofthefirmor, unlikeacoreordistinctivecompetence, it can be a superior resource such as a favorablelocation,desirableproduct,or recognizable brand name that enables thefirmtobesuccessful.
DefinitionsofConceptsandTheir Interrelationships
The earlier review of the literature
showedthatdespitewideuseofthecon-cepts of core competence, distinctive competence,andcompetitiveadvantage, comprehensive definitions of them are lacking.Inthefollowingsection,Ipres-ent definitions for these concepts that incorporatetheconcepts’keyattributes.
Core competence: A capability that is central to a firm’s value-generating activities.
Distinctivecompetence:Acapability thatisvisibletothecustomer,superior tootherfirms’competenciestowhichit iscompared,anddifficulttoimitate.
Competitiveadvantage:Acapability or resource that is difficult to imitate andvaluableinhelpingthefirmoutper-formitscompetitors.
Corecompetence,distinctivecompe-tence,andcompetitiveadvantageshare common attributes, yet are distinct.To stress these differences, Table 1 shows the essential attributes that compose each concept. As Table 1 shows, the conceptsarenotalwaysmutuallyexclu-sive, and each can take on or emulate qualities of the others. I present these relations in Figure 1 and discuss them inthefollowingsections.
Astheconceptualmodelshows(see Figure 1), a core competence can also beadistinctivecompetence(Path1).A core competence is a distinctive com-petence if the core comcom-petence is vis-ible to customers, difficult to imitate, andsuperiortothecompetenciesofthe firms to which it is compared. How-ever,thissituationdoesnotoccuroften because core competencies tend not to be highly visible to customers (Pra-halad&Hamel,1990).Forexample,an important core competence of General Electric (GE) is its ability to leverage and manage diverse businesses, which
isnotadistinctivecompetencebecause it is not highly visible to customers. Customersaremorelikelytorecognize the strength of GE’s products and ser-vices than they are to appreciate GE’s competenceinmanagingdiversity.Con-versely, Nordstrom department store’s customer service is a core competence because it is central to its business, but it is also a distinctive competence because it is highly visible to custom-ersandperceivedassuperiortothatof otherretailers.
AsshownbyPath2ofthemodel(see Figure1),adistinctivecompetencecan become a competitive advantage. As HoferandSchendel(1978)explained, pendent retailers were more likely to create a competitive advantage in mar-ketsdominatedbymassmerchandisers whentheydevelopeddistinctivecompe- tencies.However,distinctivecompeten- ciesdonotalwaysresultinacompeti-tive advantage because they might not be valuable in helping the firm out-perform competitors. For instance, a small local toy store might distinguish itself from mass merchandisers with a superiorstoreatmospherethatincludes a play area for kids. Even though cus-tomers may appreciate the store atmo-sphere,theymaystillbeinclinedtobuy thebulkoftheirtoysfromToys“R”Us becauseofitslowerprices.
Although a core competence may become a distinctive competence, a
TABLE1.EssentialAttributesofCoreCompetence,Distinctive Competence,andCompetitiveAdvantage
Concept
Core Distinctive Competitive
Attribute competence competence advantage
Firmcapability ✓ ✓
Centraltovalue-generatingactivities ✓
Visibletocustomers ✓
Superiortocompetitors ✓
Hardtoimitate ✓ ✓
Valuabletothefirm ✓
distinctive competence can also stem fromotheruniquecompetenciesthatsep-aratethefirmfromitscompetitorsbutare notcentraltothefirm’svalue-generating activitiesandthusarenotcorecompeten-cies(Path3).Forexample,theproduction ofafirm’sendproductscanbeadistinc-tive competence, but it often does not represent the core capabilities that drive a firm’s operations (Prahalad & Hamel, 1990). General Motor’s (GM) Hummer, forexample,isdistinctamongothersport utilityvehiclesintheautomobileindustry becauseofitsuniqueruggeddesign,yet there is little that links this product to otherGMproductofferings.
Similarly, a competitive advantage doesnotnecessarilyemergefromadis-tinctive competence; the competitive advantage can represent a core com-petence that is not also a distinctive competence(Path4).Inasampleof200 middle managers, King, Fowler, and Zeithaml (2001) found that competen-cies that led to competitive advantages were generally characterized as tacit, robust, and embedded, which may or may not mean that they stood out as distinctive competencies. For example, corecompetencies(e.g.,GE’sabilityto leveragediversebusinesses)couldresult inacompetitiveadvantagebecausethey enablethefirmtogarnerstrongermar-gins; however, those margins are not visibletocustomers.
Acompetitiveadvantagealsodoesnot need to emerge from a competence— core or distinctive. Rather, a firm may derive a competitive advantage from a uniqueassetorresourcesuchasafavor-ablelocation(e.g.,agasstationmaybe successfulonlybecauseofitsproximity to a major thoroughfare) or a strong brandname(e.g.,Johnson&Johnson’s strong brand name allows it to outsell manyofitscompetitors;Path5).
AnIllustrationFromthe BeverageIndustry
A richer and more comprehensive example of the interrelations among core competence, distinctive compe-tence, and competitive advantage can be found in the beverage industry. The distribution of the Coca-Cola (Coke) Company is a core compe-tence because it is a key capability that is central to the firm’s value-generating activities—the selling of their beverage products. Coke lever-ages its distribution power to make products available to its customers, pushoutcompetitors,andexpandinto new markets. Coke’s distribution is alsoadistinctivecompetencebecause it is hard to imitate and is generally consideredsuperiortootherbeverage companies. Last, Coke’s distribution is a competitive advantage because it
isvaluabletothecompanyinhelping it outperform its competitors. Con-sumers buy Coke products in large part because they are conveniently availableforpurchase.
Incontrast,thedistributionofRoyal CrownCola(RCCola),anotherbever-age company, satisfies only the attri-butesofacorecompetence.RCCola’s distributionisacorecompetenceofthe firm because, like Coke, it is central to its value-generating activities—the sellingofitsbeverages.RCCola’sdis-tribution, however, does not represent adistinctivecompetenceoracompeti- tiveadvantagebecausealthoughdistri- butionoravailabilityisafactoraffect-ing customers’ purchasbutionoravailabilityisafactoraffect-ing decisions, RC’sdistributionisnotaspowerfulas that of its competitors, such as Coke orPepsi.
Itisimportanttorecognizethatdis-tinctive competence and competitive advantage are measured relative to the firms against which the firm in ques-tion is evaluated. For example, if RC Cola’sdistributionwereevaluatedonly in terms of its strength against smaller beverage companies (excluding Coke and Pepsi), its distribution could be viewedasadistinctivecompetenceand a competitive advantage. Without an explicit comparison to specific firms, judgment tends to be in relation to the industryasawhole.
FIGURE1.Amodeloftherelationshipsamongcorecompetence,distinctivecompetence,andcompetitiveadvantage. Path4
Path5 Path3
Path2 Path1 Distinctive
competence
Competitive advantage Core
competence
Other competencyof
thefirm
Superiorfirmresource orasset
114
BusinessEducationImplications
Researchers and businesspeople commonly use the concepts of core competence, distinctive competence, and competitive advantage. A review of the development of these concepts, however, reveals that comprehensive definitions for these concepts and an understandingoftheirinterrelationsare lacking in the literature, which leaves roomforambiguityandconfusion.For example,scoresofbusinessexpertstout theimportanceofdevelopingcorecom-petencies(Collis&Montgomery,1995; Markides,1997;Porter,1987;Prahalad & Hamel, 1990), but the real value of corecompetenciesisrealizedwhenthey formabasisforcompetitiveadvantage, which does not always happen. The link between core competencies and competitive advantage is so important thatthedefinitionsoftheconceptscan get blurred. For example, one of the most cited articles on core competen-cies—Prahalad and Hamel (1990)— suggeststhatcorecompetenciesshould be difficult to imitate. Although being imperfectly imitable is most desirable because it enables core competencies to become a competitive advantage, a core competence can exist and yet not bringcompetitiveadvantage(e.g.,inthe exampleofRCColarelyingonitscore competenceofdistribution).
The concept of distinctive compe-tence can also be misunderstood. Like with core competence, experts often advise firms to develop distinctive competencies (Andrews, 1980; Col-lis & Montgomery, 1995; Hitt & Ire-land, 1985; Neil, 1986). However, a nuanceofdistinctivecompetenciesthat isnotalwaysclarifiedtothefirmisthat distinctive competencies are valuable only when they help set the stage for a competitive advantage. A distinctive competencedifferentiatesonefirmfrom another. For example, Google has the distinctive competence of developing superior search-engine technology, and Kodakhasthedistinctivecompetenceof creatingsuperiorfilm.Google’sdistinc- tivecompetenceisacompetitiveadvan-tagebecauseitenablesittooutperform competitors such as Yahoo. Although Kodak’sdistinctivecompetenceinfilm setsitapartfromitscompetitors,itdoes
not represent a competitive advantage because the traditional film market is no longer as profitable because of the expandinguseofdigitalphotography.
Thedefinitions,model,andchartthat Ipresentanddiscussinthisarticlecould be useful tools for helping managers and business students understand the conceptsofcorecompetence,distinctive competence, and competitive advan-tage.Forexample,instructorsmightuse these tools in conjunction with case discussionsasawayofhelpingstudents identifyafirm’scompetitiveposition.It would also be worthwhile for firms to use these tools, particularly the model ofconceptinterrelations,asameansof thinking through key elements of their businessstrategy.Forexample,manag- ersmightconsiderwhatcorecompeten-cies or distinctive competenersmightconsiderwhatcorecompeten-cies they haveandifandhowtheseleadorcould leadtoacompetitiveadvantage.
This theoretical research could also form the basis for future theoretical andempiricalresearch.Pastresearchers have explored how firms can develop corecompetencies(Prahalad&Hamel, 1990), distinctive competencies (Collis & Montgomery, 1995), and competi-tiveadvantage(Porter,1985).However, and Zeithaml (2001) argue that “many firmsareonlyvaguelyawareofthevalue of their competencies or the important competencies they lack” (p. 95). As a result, they have little understanding ofhowcompetenciescanbedeveloped into competitive advantages. Ulrich andSmallwood(2004)arguethatfirms often neglect organizational competen-cies—distinctive or core—compared withtheirinvestmentsinmorephysical assets.UlrichandSmallwoodsuggested specific strategies for how managers can assess competencies and build on them to yield competitive advantages. Certain types of competencies may be morelikelytodevelopintocompetitive advantages. For example, distinctive competencies such as superior product development capabilities (e.g.,Apple’s iPod) may be more likely to create a competitiveadvantagebecausetheyare
influential in a customer’s decision to buy one product over another. Further research that explores the intervening factorsbetweencompetencies(coreand distinctive) and competitive advantage wouldbeworthwhile.
Discussion
The meanings of core competence, distinctivecompetence,andcompetitive advantage are often taken for granted butaremisunderstood.Iaddressedthis problem by clarifying the definitions and interrelations among this trio of concepts. I provided clarification by reviewing the evolution of the use of the concepts in the literature and syn-thesizingthereviewintocomprehensive definitions.
Thisreviewofcorecompetence,dis-tinctive competence, and competitive advantageismeanttohelpavoidprob- lemsthathavearisenasaresultofmis-use of the concepts. By understanding the critical attributes and interrelations oftheconceptsemphasizedhere,man-agers will be better able to communi-cate these concepts within their firms. Academics, particularly in strategic management,canalsobenefitfromthe review of literature that I presented in thisarticle.Betterunderstandingofthe concepts will help avoid ambiguity in theliteratureandprovideaconceptually sound foundation from which to build future research. It can also help aca-demicsimprovetheirteachingofthese conceptstofuturebusinesspeople.
NOTES
Dr.AnnMooney ’sresearchinterestsarecon-flict and strategic decision-making practices of boardsofdirectorsandexecutives.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr.Ann Mooney,Assistant Pro-fessor, Stevens Institute of Technology, Howe SchoolofTechnologyManagement,�CastlePoint onHudson,Hoboken,NJ07030.
E-mail:amooney@stevens.edu
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