ABSTRACT
Lasar, Aloysia Berlindis. (2016). A Case Study of Learner Language on Written Reflection of Bahasa Inggris I Class B Students in Theology Faculty – Sanata Dharma University. English Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Students of Theology Faculty in Bahasa Inggris I class B are considered as second language learners. In that class, they were assigned to write reflections related to topics discussed every two weeks. Using the writings, the researcher analyzed learner language as defined by Ellis (2005). In writing a reflection, one needs to use past tense appropriately so the message and values can be well delivered. Using error analysis theory, this research elaborated learner language further in order to complete the description with focus on errors of past tense made by the students.
There were two questions to be answered. There were 1) how are the written reflections of Bahasa Inggris I class B best described? and 2) to what extent did the students’ personal experiences demonstrate their mastery of using past tense as seen in the writing performance?
The research used qualitative inquiry. It was in a form of case study in students of Bahasa Inggris I class B’s ten sets of writings as the sample of learner language. To answer the first research question, a rubric of writing assessment was used. In order to complete the description with specific focus of students’ mastery in using past tense, theory of error analysis also was used. To answer the second research question, the researcher used interview as the data gathering technique. In analyzing the data of interview, the researcher referred to notion of source of errors proposed by Brown (1980).
The findings of this research were the description of the writings completed with the result of error analysis in past tense and the analysis of interview result. The description showed that these students achieved the lowest point in terms of accuracy. The error analysis showed that most of them made error in using form. As the confirmation, the analysis of interview result elaborated that learners’ mother tongue, limited competencies in the target language and context of language teaching that they had ever experienced impact to the error making.
ABSTRAK
Lasar, Aloysia Berlindis. (2016). A Case Study of Learner Language on Written Reflection of Bahasa Inggris I Class B Students in Theology Faculty – Sanata Dharma University. Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Mahasiswa di Bahasa Inggris I Kelas B Fakultas Teologi memelajari bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua. Di kelas tersebut, mereka diberi tugas membuat refleksi tertulis berdasarkan tema-tema yang didiskusikan di kelas setiap dua minggu sekali. Menggunakan tulisan-tulisan tersebut sebagai obyek, peneliti menganalisis bahasa pelajar berdasarkan definisi yang diperkenalkan Ellis (2005). Dalam menulis refleksi, penggunaan past tense harus tepat agar pesan dan nilai refleksi bisa tersampaikan dan dimengerti dengan baik. Dengan menggunakan teori analisis kesalahan, penelitian ini juga mengelaborasi lebih jauh bahasa pelajar untuk mendukung deskripsi tersebut. Penjelasan itu kemudian difokuskan pada kesalahan penggunaan past tense yang ditemukan dalam tulisan-tulisan tersebut.
Dalam penelitian ini, ada dua rumusan masalah: 1) Bagaimana refleksi tertulis mahasiswa Bahasa Inggris I Kelas B di Fakultas Teologi dideskripsikan? dan 2) Sejauh mana pengalaman pribadi para mahasiswa tersebut dalam belajar bahasa Inggris mendemonstrasikan pemahaman mereka tentang penggunaan past tense seperti yang tercermin dalam tulisan-tulisan tersebut?
Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dalam bentuk studi kasus terhadap sepuluh set refleksi tertulis dari para mahasiswa di kelas B Bahasa Inggris I sebagai sampel dari bahasa pelajar. Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, peneliti menggunakan sebuah rubrik untuk mengevaluasi tulisan-tulisan tersebut lalu kemudian dideskripsikan. Hasil analisis kesalahan pada penggunaan past tense kemudian melengkapi deskripsi tersebut. Untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, peneliti melakukan wawancara. Untuk menganalisis hasil wawancara, peneliti merujuk pada konsep mengenai faktor penyebab kesalahan yang dijabarkan oleh Brown (1980).
Temuan dari penelitian ini adalah deskripsi lengkap dengan hasil analisis kesalahan yang ditemukan dari tulisan-tulisan tersebut dan analisis pada hasil wawancara. Deskripsinya menunjukkan bahwa performa dalam hal grammar pada tulisan-tulisan ini merupakan yang terendah. Hasil analisis kesalahan pada penggunaan past tense menunjukkan bahwa kesalahan terbanyak dilakukan dalam penggunaan bentuk past. Sebagai buktinya, analisis pada hasil wawancara menunjukkan bahwa bahasa ibu, keterbatasan pemahaman konsep bahasa kedua dan konteks pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang pernah diterima dan dialami para mahasiswa berpengaruh besar terhadap kesalahan yang mereka lakukan.
A CASE STUDY OF LEARNER LANGUAGE ON WRITTEN
REFLECTION OF BAHASA INGGRIS I CLASS B STUDENTS
IN THEOLOGY FACULTY SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By:
Aloysia Berlindis Lasar Student Number: 121214154
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
iv
The greatest victory is
to beat yourself
I dedicate this Thesis for my incredible Mom and Dad,
Oncu de Rozari
&
Yos Lasar,
also
my heart guardians,
Mario Lasar
and
Pedro Lasar.
I,
too,
present this as
special
“
thanks
!”
to the one I give my heart to,
vii ABSTRACT
Lasar, Aloysia Berlindis. (2016). A Case Study of Learner Language on Written Reflection of Bahasa Inggris I Class B Students in Theology Faculty – Sanata Dharma University. English Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Students of Theology Faculty in Bahasa Inggris I class B are considered as second language learners. In that class, they were assigned to write reflections related to topics discussed every two weeks. Using the writings, the researcher analyzed learner language as defined by Ellis (2005). In writing a reflection, one needs to use past tense appropriately so the message and values can be well delivered. Using error analysis theory, this research elaborated learner language further in order to complete the description with focus on errors of past tense made by the students.
There were two questions to be answered. There were 1) how are the written reflections of Bahasa Inggris I class B best described? and 2) to what extent did the students’ personal experiences demonstrate their mastery of using past tense as seen in the writing performance?
The research used qualitative inquiry. It was in a form of case study in students of Bahasa Inggris I class B’s ten sets of writings as the sample of learner language. To answer the first research question, a rubric of writing assessment
was used. In order to complete the description with specific focus of students’
mastery in using past tense, theory of error analysis also was used. To answer the second research question, the researcher used interview as the data gathering technique. In analyzing the data of interview, the researcher referred to notion of source of errors proposed by Brown (1980).
The findings of this research were the description of the writings completed with the result of error analysis in past tense and the analysis of interview result. The description showed that these students achieved the lowest point in terms of accuracy. The error analysis showed that most of them made error in using form. As the confirmation, the analysis of interview result
elaborated that learners’ mother tongue, limited competencies in the target
language and context of language teaching that they had ever experienced impact to the error making.
viii ABSTRAK
Lasar, Aloysia Berlindis. (2016). A Case Study of Learner Language on Written Reflection of Bahasa Inggris I Class B Students in Theology Faculty – Sanata Dharma University. Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Mahasiswa di Bahasa Inggris I Kelas B Fakultas Teologi memelajari bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua. Di kelas tersebut, mereka diberi tugas membuat refleksi tertulis berdasarkan tema-tema yang didiskusikan di kelas setiap dua minggu sekali. Menggunakan tulisan-tulisan tersebut sebagai obyek, peneliti menganalisis bahasa pelajar berdasarkan definisi yang diperkenalkan Ellis (2005). Dalam menulis refleksi, penggunaan past tense harus tepat agar pesan dan nilai refleksi bisa tersampaikan dan dimengerti dengan baik. Dengan menggunakan teori analisis kesalahan, penelitian ini juga mengelaborasi lebih jauh bahasa pelajar untuk mendukung deskripsi tersebut. Penjelasan itu kemudian difokuskan pada kesalahan penggunaan past tense yang ditemukan dalam tulisan-tulisan tersebut.
Dalam penelitian ini, ada dua rumusan masalah: 1) Bagaimana refleksi tertulis mahasiswa Bahasa Inggris I Kelas B di Fakultas Teologi dideskripsikan? dan 2) Sejauh mana pengalaman pribadi para mahasiswa tersebut dalam belajar bahasa Inggris mendemonstrasikan pemahaman mereka tentang penggunaan past tense seperti yang tercermin dalam tulisan-tulisan tersebut?
Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dalam bentuk studi kasus terhadap sepuluh set refleksi tertulis dari para mahasiswa di kelas B Bahasa Inggris I sebagai sampel dari bahasa pelajar. Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, peneliti menggunakan sebuah rubrik untuk mengevaluasi tulisan-tulisan tersebut lalu kemudian dideskripsikan. Hasil analisis kesalahan pada penggunaan past tense kemudian melengkapi deskripsi tersebut. Untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, peneliti melakukan wawancara. Untuk menganalisis hasil wawancara, peneliti merujuk pada konsep mengenai faktor penyebab kesalahan yang dijabarkan oleh Brown (1980).
Temuan dari penelitian ini adalah deskripsi lengkap dengan hasil analisis kesalahan yang ditemukan dari tulisan-tulisan tersebut dan analisis pada hasil wawancara. Deskripsinya menunjukkan bahwa performa dalam hal grammar pada tulisan-tulisan ini merupakan yang terendah. Hasil analisis kesalahan pada penggunaan past tense menunjukkan bahwa kesalahan terbanyak dilakukan dalam penggunaan bentuk past. Sebagai buktinya, analisis pada hasil wawancara menunjukkan bahwa bahasa ibu, keterbatasan pemahaman konsep bahasa kedua dan konteks pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang pernah diterima dan dialami para mahasiswa berpengaruh besar terhadap kesalahan yang mereka lakukan.
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Above all, I praise the Almighty God, Jesus Christ, Holy Spirit and Mother Mary for the wonderful grace and unstoppable blessings upon my life. I dedicate this as the biggest thank to my incredible parents, ema Oncu de Rozari and bapa Yos Lasar for the irreplaceble love, care and sacrifice for me. My thankfulness also goes to my beloved little brothers, Ais and Edo, for their prayers, spirits and love, especially during the process of finishing my study. My special gratitude also goes to tta Dion Lamanepa, for his love, presence and
‘lessons’ of how to be faith and tough. I believe that God’s blessing has been
granted for me within the presence of Bapa Romo Datus Du’u, Pr., Om Romo Richardus Muga Buku, Pr., Bapu Anton Tukan and family, Bapa Ambar Hadipurnomo and family, and Kaka Romo Yance Sengga, Pr. I highly thank their super love and support during my study.
x
University, academic year 2015/2016, especially for Fr. Nade, SSCC., Fr. Lius, CMF and Fr. Jorgi, SCJ. May God always be with them.
I thank my constant companions in PBI ’12 Class F for accepting and supporting me so my dream of being a teacher has grown very well. For all members of English Mass Community and Campus Ministry I dedicate my deep gratitude for giving me chance to grow better as a person. I also would like to present my thankfullness to all members of Badan Eksekutif Mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma Kabinet Menyala and the whole committee of every event we had held in unforgottable togetherness. I learned how to be a leader and
‘a man for all’ from all of them. I address my appreciation and thankfulness also
to the big family of Flobamorata Paingan USD, where sweet memories, unforgotten love and meaningful experiences I found. I thank to all members of Rejoice Choir for boosting my mood and spirit everytime I am lost. For all my friends in Kuliah Kerja Nyata, Program Pengalaman Lapangan, Titanium SPD class, and Thesis class, I blow my special thanks also for standing beside me through the whole process. All crew of English Action Days, Undergraduate Conference, PROCESS 2013/2014, Gerakan 6000 Buku, would always remind me the meaning of being a servant whole-heartedly so I thank them deeply. Last but not least, I will never forget the presence of a true friend within Vania. I thank her for her support and never ending patience upon me these years.
xi
pictures and written incredible stories in my life. I hope all of them still will be the proofreaders for the living book I am writing. May God bless them all.
xii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL PAGES ... ii
DEDICATION PAGE ... iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... vi
ABSTRACT ... vii
ABSTRAK ... viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... xii
LIST OF TABLES ... xv
LIST OF FIGURES ... xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xvii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Research Background ... 1
B. Research Problems ... 5
C. Problem Limitation ... 6
D. Research Objectives ... 6
E. Research Benefits ... 7
xiii
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Description ... 11
1. Analysing Learner Language ... 11
2. Error ... 15
a. Definition of Error ... 15
b. Types of Error ... 16
3. Sources of Errors ... 19
4. Past Tenses ... 21
a. Simple Past ... 21
b. Past Continuous ... 21
c. Past Perfect ... 22
d. Past Perfect Continuous ... 22
B. Theoretical Framework ... 22
CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A. Research Method ... 24
B. Research Participants ... 25
C. Research Setting ... 26
D. Research Instruments ... 27
E. Data Analysis Technique ... 28
F. Research Procedure ... 29
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Research Results ... 32
xiv
2. Error Analysis on the Writings ... 36
3. Learners’ Personal Narratives ... 42
B. Discussion ... 57
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS A. Conclusions ... 64
B. Recommendations ... 66
REFERENCES ... 69
xv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Types of linguistic knowledge ... 12 Table 2.2 Regularization errors in the misformation category observed in second
language learner production ... 19 Table 3.1 Error analysis on each learner presented in frequency and precentage
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A. Interview Transcription ... 71
Appendix B. Learners’ Errors ... 80
Appendix C. Rubric for Writing ... 89
Appendix D. Frequency of Error Type ... 92
1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This research deals with the analysis of learner language produced in writing and how the personal narratives of the writers demonstrate their mastery on past tense. This chapter consists of some parts namely background of the study, research problems, research limitation, research objectives, research benefits and the description of terms.
A.Research Background
Facing the rapid development of technology and science these days, English as it is used as a contact language - or is generally known as a lingua franca- is becoming more important for everyone. It is used widely to communicate among countries. Even literatures, verbal and non-verbal vital communication nowadays are internationally conducted in English. People then, who compete in the global areas from almost all of occupations, are required to master English well. In other words, whether we like it or not, English is becoming the minimum requirement to manage ourselves to survive.
chance to break the challenge in global life competition. English proficiency brings along that chance.
According to Brown (2007), “learning a second language is a long and a complex undertaking. It makes the person will fully be affected by the struggle of switching culture, feeling, way of thinking and acting from the mother tongue into the second language” (p. 15). Further, Krashen (1981) introduces that language acquisition is very similar to the process children use in acquiring their first and second languages. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language in which speakers concern not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding. It shows that we still have the way to accomplish a good result of second language acquisition among the complexities.
These days, learning English is not merely perceived as an instrument by nature. More than that, it also deals with some soft skills, such as self-reflexivity, or discussions on values or morality. Those activities are in order to provide what so called as meaningful interaction in the target language Krashen mentioned. Therefore, even though the process of helping our second language learners acquire English surely might be complicated, we have so many theories and researches to help us. We are going to find the most suitable methods for the learners of second language. Yet, the most important point to remember is that we, ourselves, hold the control of constructing meaning towards the teaching and
learning processes. That is then surely hanged on teachers‟ hands. For the early
acquire the second language easier is to provide the chance to get in touch meaningfully with the target language. Teachers are required to be able to do that.
There are four skills required in language learning named speaking, listening, reading and writing skills. According to Hyland (2003), writing is among the most important skills that second language students need to develop. Moreover, Troyka (1987) explains some reasons for it. First that writing is a way of thinking and learning. Second, it is a way of discovering. Third, it can create reading. Through writing, one expresses thoughts and learns to compose ideas. During the process one can also discover things in many aspects since writing itself requires the awareness of grammar and the skill of communicating ideas using words. As the result, writing produces sources of information that can be read by other people.
This research is conducted on the accomplishment of a language learner in second language acquisition process through writing. Ellis (2005) explains some types of data that can be studied in second language acquisition researches related to the skill that a language learner required to accomplish. “One of the types is non-linguistic performance data which involve measuring learners‟ non-verbal responses to linguistics stimuli” (p. 15). Further Ellis (2005) explains:
They include measures of learners‟ reaction times to linguistic stimuli,
non-verbal measures of learners‟ comprehension of linguistic input, and
measures of learners‟ intuitions about the grammaticality or acceptability of sentences. These measures enable inferences to be made about learners‟
linguistic knowledge based on their ability to process language receptively. (p. 15-16)
The measurement offered by Ellis then would be used to construct an
English reflection then is considered properly as a tool to provide a meaningful activity in the process of acquiring English as their second language.
In this study, students‟ writing as the product of learning process is
analyzed especially in terms of how student use past tense. As they write reflection, past tense presence matters. The role of past tense in the reflective writing is important to reveal the story and ideas. That is why, it is important to see the capability of the objects here in this study; how they understand the use of past tense and to what extent they apply their knowledge about it in their writings.
Further, as Hillier (2005) states that people not only have different level of experience and knowledge relevant to what we are having as the process of learning activities, they also have different ways of it. This works the same in their preferences. The notion gives the researcher idea to think about asking the students for their personal narratives. This may give information to help researcher forming a pattern of each student, to clarify their level of mastery in using past tenses.
B. Research Problems
Referring to the previous explanations, there are some problems need to be solved. Those are:
1. How are the written reflections of Bahasa Inggris I class B students best described?
C.Problem Limitation
This study is limited to ten sets of written reflections and also personal experiences of first-semester students of Theology Faculty, Sanata Dharma University Academic Year 2015/2016. The sets of writings are reflection upon four different topics. The reflections are in various forms. Two of them are in forms of personal reflection, including personal opinion which is related to personal experience. Another two are in forms of homily (type of reflection made by clergy, to be shared and/or spoken). In those writings, the students are expected to retell stories (based on video/children story presented in class and Bible stories as well) then reflect them with their own opinion and finally relate it to deliver particular value or message to the readers. Therefore, the presence of past tense is important to be taken into account. The researcher considers past tense as the focus for that reason. While personal experiences that are meant in this study were revealed by the students which generally discussing their experience of learning English as second language, being introduced to concept of past tense, the learning process that they had ever got in the past and their mother tongue.
D.Research Objectives
This study is aimed to provide model of learner language in second
study contributes to informing the students (of Bahasa Inggris I class B) about what should be improved in terms of their English and English writing skills.
E.Research Benefits
This research would be beneficial for some academic parties. It is expected that this study would bring some benefits for the researcher, the students of Bahasa Inggris I class B Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University
Academic Year 2015/2016, the ELESP students as the candidate teachers for second language learners and also future researchers. Further would be elaborated as follows:
1. For the researcher
This study is useful for the researcher in gaining the real model of second
language learner‟s writing production. It helps the researcher to get deeper understanding on how second language learning process actually can be designed later on if it is dealing with writing activity. Referring to its focus, which is past tense, this study provides data of learner‟s common error. As it represents their mastery of it, this supports the best description of learner language itself.
2. For the students
easy way of learning English and also deepening their ability to reflect more and more.
3. For the ELESP students
As English teacher candidates, students of ELESP also can gain some benefits from this study. It can be in form of better knowledge of second language
learner‟s learning strategy and an option of teaching second language method.
Those might be helpful for them later on when they are about to implement certain strategies of learning in their classes. May the result of this study also can give them sort of guideline in understanding theories in second language learning. 4. For future researchers
For the future researcher, this study can be a reference to support further research on the relevant topic in the future.
F. Definition of Terms
In order to help the readers having the same understanding of this study, there are some terms that needed to be explained. Those terms related to this study are:
1. Learner Language
Ellis (2005) describes learner language is the oral or written language produced by learners. For the study of Second Language Acquisition, learner language serves as a primary data.
There are 10 sets of written reflections used here in this study. The written reflections were the products required by the lecturer of English subject (Bahasa Inggris I class B), Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University, Academic Year 2015/2016. Each set was written under four different topics related to themes or issues discussed in the class. Two of the topics are related to Holy Bible (in forms of homily), and the other two related to personal experience, opinion and arguments about learning strategies and children stories.
3. Students‟ personal experience
In this research, the researcher conducted interview towards some participants in order to gather data. The interviews were conducted under the
general topic namely „personal experience in learning English‟. The result of the
interview then called as personal experience. 4. Students of Bahasa Inggris I Class B
There were 22 male students undergoing their first semester in Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University and taking Bahasa Inggris I class with Mr. Markus Budiraharjo as the lecturer, Academic Year 2015/2016, when the data were gathered. However, only 10 out of those 22 were taken as the objects of this study. Those ten students are called here in this study „the students of Bahasa Inggris I Class B.
5. Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University
11 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter consists of some theories from related literature that are used by the researcher to conduct the analysis in this study. The major parts of this chapter are theoretical description and theoretical framework.
A. Theoretical Description
Researcher reviews on some literature to find out some theories of learner language and the language competencies required to describe written reflection of Bahasa Inggris I class B students in Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University and to define their personal narratives. Researcher found some major theories that meet to support the analysis on this study.
1. Analysing Learner Language
According to Ellis (2005), learner language serves as a primary data for second language acquisition research. For many SLA researchers the goal of SLA
is the description and explanation of L2 learners‟ competence and how this
develops over time.
Further he explains that there are implicit and explicit knowledge that
cover what so called learners‟ competence. Implicit knowledge is the kind of
Implicit knowledge is the kind of knowledge we possess of our mother tongue. That is, it is unconscious and is proceduralized so that is available for automatic use in spontaneous production. (p. 5)
While explicit knowledge is the vice versa. Ellis explains that explicit knowledge is produced under learner‟s consciousness.
Explicit knowledge is consious and declarative. It consists of both conscious awareness of the same minor and major schemas that figure in implicit knowledge (but represented in an entirely different mental form) and of the metalanguage that can assist in verbalizing this analyzed knowledge (p. 6).
Table 2.1 Types of linguistic knowledge
Type of Knowledge Sub-types Definitions
Implicit (procedural) Formulaic Sequence of elements that are stored and accessed as ready-Explicit (declarative) Analysed Conscious awareness of
minor and major schemas
On one hand some SLA researchers choose to rely on learner intuition (in the form of judgements about the grammaticality of sentences presented to them) to discovering what they know. Other researchers, especially those of a more functional orientation, prefer to collect sample of learner language. Not surprisingly analyses based n grammaticality judgements and on learner language frequently produce different results. (p. 6)
As the heterogeneous of the linguistic performance in learner language, Ellis also offers several options of solution. Tarone (1983) says it is “to redefine competence as its variable” (as cited Ellis, 2005, p. 6), or to identify one type of performances as the preferred source of information about competence, or to recognize the need of multiple sources of performance data and look for points of confluence as evidence of what learner knows.
In analysing learner language, Ellis also states that we can view the learner language in two entirely distinct ways; learner language viewed as the expressions and as the content. Both views may serve distinct forms of information. As researcher, Ellis states, one can choose whether, first by examining the linguistic forms produced by the learners as the evidence of what they know about the L2. Second, by viewing it as the set of propositions relating to whatever topics which are being communicated about. First view gives researcher information about
learners‟ beliefs and attitudes to the target language and also their behaviour that
they gain through the process of learning the language. (Ellis, 2005).
a). Collecting a sample of learner language
In this step, Corder (1974) suggests that the researcher should be aware that the nature of the sample that is collected may influence the nature and distribution of the errors observed (as cited in Ellis, 2005, p. 57). However, Corder also shares other possibilities that a researcher can do to keep the originality of the data. He suggests that a researcher may wish to sample errors more generally by collecting a broad sample reflecting different learners, different types of language and different production conditions.
However, it is advisable to provide full and explicit description of the learner productions that make up the sample so that the effect of different variables on errors can be examined post hoc. (p. 58)
b). Identifying the errors
In order to identify the errors, Ellis states that the researcher should involve the comparison between what the learner produced with what a native speaker counterpart would produce in the same context. In this research, the researcher uses general concept and rules of English past tense as what so called
„a native speaker counterpart production‟ as what Ellis mentions.
c). Describing the errors
Corder (1974) writes that “the description of errors is essentially a comparative process, the data being the original erroneous utterances and the reconstructed utterance” (as cited in Ellis, 2005, p. 60). Again, he emphasizes that to describe the errors, the researcher needs to identify how the forms produced by
the learner differ from those produced by the native‟s speaker counterparts.
categories for coding the errors that have been identified and recording the frequency of the errors in each category” (p. 60).
d). Explaining the errors
In here, Ellis explains that the rule of identifying source of errors works. He mentions psychological and sociolinguistic sources of errors as what are used in research for second language acquisition. Meaning to say that, Ellis proposes that in explaining the errors, the researcher elaborates why do the students make certain errors. Further in this researcher, the researcher also looks at what other experts say about errors source in language learning process. Later would be discussed more in the part of sources of errors.
e). Evaluating errors
Ellis states this is not so much a stage in the analysis of learner errors as supplementary procedure. A reseacher needs to involve other steps in order to conduct an evaluation of errors (para. 67). In this research, the researcher only want to describe the writings and specifically the errors in order to provide models for language teacher about learner language. Therefore, this step is considered as not necesarry to be done here in this research.
2. Error
a. Definition of Error
one produced by the native speaker. Here researcher refers to the two taxonomies that are introduced by Dulay, Birt and Krashen (1982).
According to Dulay and Krashen, errors are the flawed side of learner speech or writing. People cannot learn language without first committing errors. To analyze error, here are the taxonomies that James (1998) states that those had been used; (1) a linguistic taxonomy and (2) a surface structure taxonomy. However, James also states that it is also possible to combine those two. Dulay and Krashen mention the other two taxonomies used for the descriptive classification of errors. Those are comparative analysis and communicative effect. Further it is explained that the discussion of these descriptive taxonomies is served to some major aims. Dulay and Krashen say:
Discussion of these descriptive taxonomies is guided by two major purposes: to present error categories which rely solely on observable (rather that inferred) characteristics for their definition; and to report the findings of research conducted to date with respect to error types observed. (p.146)
b. Types of Errors
1). Error Types Based on Linguistic Category
The errors are classified based on the language category which includes phonology (pronunciation), syntax and morphology (grammar), semantics and lexicon (meaning and vocabulary), and discourse (style).
2). Error Types Based on Surface Strategy Taxonomy
According to Dulay, Burt, and Krashen‟s (1982: 150) surface taxonomy is
utterances/sentences. There are four principal ways in which learners modify the target language:
a). Omission
Omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item that must appear in a well-formed utterance. Even generally any morpheme or word in a sentence is possible to be omitted, some of them are more often to appear compared among others. Content morphemes (nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs) are included. For example:
Mr. Kopong is now our new Physics teacher.
The words, Mr. Kopong, Physics, our, teacher, are the content morphemes that carry primary meaning. Reader can still understand if one says
Mr. Kopong our Physics teacher
On the contrary, it could not be understood if it is only grammatical morphemes (including articles, verb auxiliaries and preposition):
is new
Dulay and Krahsen state that language learner omits grammatical morphemes much more frequently than content words.
b). Additions
We didn’t went there.
Because two items marked for the same feature (didn’t and went indicate past tense), it is called double marking error. The second is regularization is a rule typically applies to a class of linguistic items, such as the class of main verbs or the class of nouns. For example, when learners produce sheep in form of plural as sheeps, the same way in producing words like fishes, putted, or cutted as if they are applied the same rule as the regular plural nouns. The third is simple addition errors. Actually books say that no particular features characterize simple addition, as long as the additional element is not double marking error nor regularization error.
- c). Misformation. It is a type of errors which are characterized by the use of the wrong form of the morpheme or structure. Unlike in omission errors where learner supplied nothing, in misformation learner supplies something although it is incorrect. In misformation that are some sub-types there are first, regularization errors. Regularization errors are those in which a regular marker is used in place of an irregular one, such as in runned for run or gooses for geese. The second is called archi-forms which are the error made in using form. For example, the learner happens to select just one of the demonstrative adjectives in producing noun phrase.
That dog That dogs
Table 2.2 Regularization Errors in the Misformation Category Observed in Second Language Learner Production
Linguistic Item
Misformed
Examples* Reflexive pronoun Hisself (himself) Regular past I falled (fell)
Plural Gooses (geese)
Childs (children)
*these examples are taken from raw data collected by Dulay and Burt via the Billingual Syntax Measure (lower and upper grade version) and unstructured natural conversation, unless otherwise specified.
Source: Language Two. Dulay and Krashen page 159.
d). Misordering. It is type of errors which is characterized by the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of morphemes in an utterance/sentence. For example, he is all the time late instead of he is late all the time.
3. Sources of Errors
Brown (1980) proposes three primary points as sources of errors that
commonly affect the process of one‟s language learning. There are interlingual
transfer, intralingual and context of learning. These three factors are used as the
basis of analyzing learner‟s personal experience to answer research question
number two. Furthermore, Corder (1973) also proposes similar concept of factors that make a learner produces an error namely nature of mother tongue, basis analogy, nature of teaching and teaching materials. Generally, they are quite the same with what Brown has proposed.
Hence, in this study, the researcher used the theory of Brown. Where interlingual transfer can cause learner‟s errors for the interference of his/her
confusion in producing same, for instance, sentences in the target language. For example, when a Bahasa speaker is learning concept of the use of past tense. He might be confused to understand that the form of a verb would be changed when it is used in a sentence, based on the time mark (tense), whether by adding –d or –ed (if regular verbs) or by using the other form (for irregular verbs). Since in bahasa, there is no concept alike. When the time is different, the words is replaced by another new word instead of having form changing in a verb as we have in English.
Intralingual as mentioned by Brown (1980: 173) makes learner produces an error for the nature of the target language. There might be confusion on the learner as the presence of rules and formulas in the target language. Afterwards, Brown also stated that intralingual cause of error can be identified when there is kind of overgeneralization in using certain rules in a language done by a learner.
The third, as Brown proposed is the nature of language teaching. This includes material, method and teacher of the language itself that can make learners misunderstand the concept or essence of the language or can also cause the learner to hold false belief in learning the elements of the language.
In Second Language Acquisition scope, Ellis (2005) states that their concern in analysing learner language is psychological source of error. He elaborates as errors that made relating to the processing mecahnism involved in L2 use and to the nature of the L2 knowledge system (Ellis, 2005 p. 62) which similar to what Brown proposes above. Hence, we can use either what is in
4. Past Tenses
Azar (1999) defines past tense as tense that indicates an activity or situation that began and ended at a particular time in the past.
a. Simple Past
1). Simple past form of a verb is V2. Example: lived for live, started for start, wrote for write, died for die. Murphy (1985), explains that often the past simple ends in –ed for regular vers and many other does not ends in –ed (those are
2). In questions and negatives we use did/didn’t + infinitive. Examples:
3). The past of be (am/is/are) is was/were. Examples: I/he/she/it was/wasn’t
We/you/they were/weren’t
b. Past Continuous
We use the past continuous to say that somebody was in the middle of doing something at a certain time. The action or situation had already started before this time but had not finished. The formula is:
c. Past Perfect
We use past perfect to talk about things that happened before a certain starting point. For example, when Sarah arrived at party, Paul wasn’t there. He had gone home. So the starting point meant is when Sarah arrived. It happened in
the past. The formula for past perfect is: had + past participle (V3)
Examples:
- When we got home last night, we found that somebody had broken into the flat
- At first I thought I had done the right thing, but I soon realized that I had made a serious mistake
d. Past Perfect Continuous
We use past perfect continuous to talk about things that happen in the past during certain period of time. For example: It was not raining when I looked out of the window; the sun was shining. But it had been raining before. That’s why the ground is wet. The formula for past perfect continuous is:
had + been + -ing Examples:
- When the boys came into the house, their clothes were dirty, their hair was untidy and one of them had a black eye. They had been fighting. - I was very tired when I arrived home. I had been working hard all day.
B. Theoretical Framework
Faculty of Sanata Dharma University had been introduced and accustomed to activity of writing and reflecting (as a part of daily activity in Seminary), eventhough it is conducted still in Bahasa. Mr. Markus Budiraharjo who was teaching English in Bahasa Inggris I class B, Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University, academic year 2015/2016, proposed set of assignment of writing reflection using English for the students to be done. The researcher then considered writing as the suitable tool to enrich students‟ (of Bahasa Inggris I class B) experience in learning English as their second language. Here in this study, using the theory of analysing learner language by Ellis (2005), the researcher is trying to provide a full description of the writing produced by those students. The rubric was formed with adaptation from what proposed by Brown &
Bailey (1984) entitled „analytical scale for rating composition tasks‟. The rubric
helps the researcher to describe the writings of these students.
Further, the researcher considers the use of English past tense in the activity of writing reflection hold an important role. One could not reflect and retell the experience or events (in order to reflect or flashback) properly in writing without having a well understanding about the use of past tense. Using the theory of error analysis, the reseacher described the writings and mapped the students‟ mastery of past tense. Afterwards, Brown‟s theory which elaborates the source of error in a process of language learning is used to help researcher analyse the
learner‟s personal narrative. By conducting interview, the researcher then find out
24 CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, the researcher discusses how the research was conducted. The chapter consists of six parts which are research method, research participants, research setting, research instruments, data analysis technique, and research procedure.
A. Research Method
The research method used in this study was qualitative research. Qualitative research is defined by Lichtman (2003) as a way of knowing that assumes that the researcher gathers, organizes, and interprets information with his or her own eyes and ears as filter. Lichtman (2003) also mentions that qualitative research often involves in-depth interview and/or observations of humans in natural, online, or social setting.
Further, Lichtman (2003) explains that in qualitative research, the researcher constructs the reality and he/she is the central. The interpretations that might appear are based on the researcher‟s experience and background. The
purpose of this method is to understand and interpret social interaction.
Sherman (1930) states that the purpose of “a qualitative research is not verification of a predetermined idea, but discovery that leads to new insights” (p. 5). Therefore, the researcher in qualitative research depends on natural setting. In this study, the research used content analysis as the method in interpreting the data. Silverman (1993) says that textual analysis which includes in content analysis method is used to understand the participants‟ categories. Therefore, the use of this method is considered relevant since this study specifically describes learners‟ writing and analysis the learner language.
B. Research Participants
The researcher chose 10 first-semester students of Bahasa Inggris I class B in Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University, academic year 2015/2016, who took the class with Mr. Markus Budiraharjo as the participants of this research. Since only those ten that have already done writing in four topics assigned by the lecturer. The rest of the class did not complete the four topics. The four topics are namely: “Learning Strategy”, “Experience of being Forgiven”, “Homily based on the Bible” and “Reflection on Children Stories”. The
the discussion part, due to keep the neutrality and to respect these participants, they are then called as P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, P8, P9, and P10.
C. Research Setting
The research was conducted in Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University. It is because the students of Theology Faculty are all Catholic priest candidates who have accustomed to reflection writing activity. The researcher then believes that the data, which are the writings of the students, are relevant to the study. Further, the location of the campus where the participants are studying is reachable for the researcher. That was very helpful since the researcher also needed to meet the students to gather the data.
The researcher gathered the writings which were sent from the lecturer‟s email. The data started to be gathered on September 26th 2015 of which are the writings of first topic “experience of being forgiven”. The writings with the
second topic which is “learning strategies” were received via email on November 4th 2015. After that, on November 13th 2015, the third writings on topic “reflection on children story” were received. The fourth writings on topic “homily based on
the Bible” were received on November 23th 2015.
Kentungan. While the last interview was conducted to P1 on Wednesday, 20 April
2016 at 3 p.m. in Scolatikat SCY, Kentungan.
D. Research Instruments 1). Document
Merriam (2009) defines document as „a ready-made source of data easily accessible to the imaginative and resourceful investigator‟ (Merriam, 2009 p. 139). Further, Dalen (1979) explains that the materials used in document analysis can be in form of „official records or any written, printed, verbal, or pictorial form (para 290). In this research, the documents are the students‟ sets of written
reflection. The writings were gathered by the researcher through email. All the writings were sent by the students via email to the lecturer then were forwarded by the lecturer to the researcher. After gathering the data, the researcher classified the writings according to the topics and the writers. In analyzing the writings, the researcher then adapted a rubric proposed by Brown & Bailey (1984) entitled „analytical scale for rating composition tasks‟ as the standard used to assess the
writings.
2). Interview Guide
relatively short time. In this research, the researcher conducted interview typically semi-structured interview. It is chosen for its flexibility and appropriateness in this study. Merriam (2009) states that semi-structured interview enables the researcher to give response directly upon the answers of interviewee. Ary et. al (2010) agrees that the interview which conducted in qualitative research typically more probing and less structured than that in quantitative research. However, in this research, the researcher still used questions list as a guide to keep the allure of the interview on the track, as can be seen in Appendix A.
3) Tools
In gathering the data, the researcher also used some tools. Those tools are notebooks for taking notes, pen, and a voice recorder to record the interview.
E. Data Analysis Technique
The data gathered were analyzed in the form of description. Yet before that, the researcher had done some important steps. First, the researcher collected the writings and divided them based on the topics by looking at the title of the writing. Second, the researcher read the writing one by one to confirm the topic and to make sure that the four topics were already complete. Third, the researcher made a list of the fixed writing and put codes. Then, the researcher went to the writing one by one to read and assess them using the rubric (see Appendix C). The rubric was adapted by the researcher from „analytical scale for rating composition
tasks‟ by Brown & Bailey (1984). Then, to clarify the points the researcher read
times to see and consult the result to the advisor. After that, referred to points achieved by each student, the researcher read again and started to mark errors in using past tense that found in the writing and took notes of it. After that, using the instruments presented below, the researcher starts to mark the error and then analyzed it. The theory that was used in this step is Dulay‟s on Surface Strategy Taxonomy (Dulay & Krashen, p. 146-192). The result of errors finding then was used to describe the writings of the students. Afterwards, the researcher interviewed the students and collected the answers as the data. The analysis was done using the theory of Brown (1980) on sources of errors in language learner.
In describing the writing, below is the instrument that has been made by the researcher. The table was used to sum up the error found in the writings. The aims is to present more complete description of errors in using past tense made by each student.
Table 3.1 Error analysis on each learner presented in frequency and precentage
Subject Number of errors made
Type of error made
Frequency Precentage (%)
Dominant type of error P1
TOTAL 100
F. Research Procedure
1. Selecting Topic
First the researcher met the advisor to consult and discuss on the possible issues related to the researcher‟s interest. After some discussion sessions with the
advisor, the researcher looked for possible sources of data and references of theories briefly. As the supporting possibilities collected, the researcher pointed specific topic to be studied through the research.
2. Finding Research Questions/Problems
After having the topic, the researcher set some questions to help the research constructing the meaning of the research itself. However, the researcher also had asked for advices and had some personal consultation with the advisor to construct it.
3. Reviewing Related Literatures
The researcher searched and referred to related literature that support the questions, methods, and findings in the research. The way to provide those supporting ideas is by reviewing it. Researcher tried to read as many book as possible to collect various references that are relevant to the topic. In the practice, some related literatures were found when all the data have been collected and started to be discussed. This was because the researcher found possibility of improving and developing ideas during the process of conducting this study. 4. Collecting Data
The date and the time were also different one another due to each interviewee‟s
difference of available time. The interviews were conducted using open-ended questions. Therefore, the questions forms are not the same one another. They were asked based on the answers of each interviewee. However, the researcher still used the same guideline in forming the question due to keep the allure of the interview itself consistantly on the track.
5. Analyzing Data
After all the data have been collected, then the researcher analyzed the data using the related literatures and theories to support. Sometimes, the researcher consulted the progress of analysis to the advisor. On the process of analysing the data, the researcher also did some rearrangement and revision due to mistakes or errors, especially in elaborating the data and its discussion.
6. Making Conclusion
32 CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter contains of two major parts namely research result and discussion. In the part of research result there are description of the writings and personal narratives of the writers related to their experience of learning past tense in English presented. While in the part of discussion, the points as the result of discussing on the findings supported by related theories are provided.
A. Research Results
1. Description of the Writings
There are ten sets of written reflections which serve as the data here in this study. Those reflections were written under four different topics by ten different students in the class. The first topic is ‗experience of being forgiven‘. Under this topic, the students were asked to retell their experiences in forgiving and being forgiven. In their written reflections, these students shared their stories and reflected it with their opinion. They were allowed to put themselves as a candidate of priest in writing reflection under this first topic.
The second topic was ‗learning strategies‘. Under this topic, the students
to suggest and recommend tips and reflected the DOs and DON‟Ts in learning based on what they have experienced so far.
The third topic was ‗reflection on children story‘. In this topic, the students were shown children stories in forms of videos in class. After that, the lecturer opened discussion in general regarding to those stories. As the assignment, the students were asked to choose any children story to be used in their reflection. They wrote about that particular story they have chosen and related it to their own experiences. As the result, in their writings under this third topic these students deliver the messages and values of the stories which have been related to their own opinion.
The fourth topic was ‗homily based on the Bible‘. This last topic is closely
related to their future profession. The lecturer asked them to choose any reading for Holy Bible and arrange a reflection in forms of written homily. Under this topic, these students worked freely based on how they interpret the readings, retell their related experiences and reflected them altogether.
On all four topics, these students worked with the primary structure of a writing which at least contains of an opening, the main body and closing. Ellis (2005) states that the goal of a research in Second Language is the description and explanation of L2 learners‘ competence. Therefore using the rubric for writing
As the result of the assessment on those writings, here is the big picture that the researcher found as can be seen in the following figure.
Figure 4.1 Average Point Achieved by the Students in Each Category
In terms of organization, the researcher focuses on how these students arranging ideas. The average point in terms of organization as can be seen in the figure above represents the presence of adequate title and introduction in those writings. It works the same with the conclusion drawn there. However, these students apparently provided lack of evidence that can support the content. Generally, these students present minimally recognizable introduction. They also are sometimes not clear in stating the opening which gives impact to severe problems in ordering ideas. Some of them also provide limited supporting evidence to form more solid conclusion and logic of their reflection.
While in terms of diction, these students perform fairly low average point. The researcher found that these students still misused the vocabularies. Some registers are not suitable used in expressing their ideas. For example as what is produced by P5 in one of his writing as follows:
This example is very easy, but turns to be difficult when I am not
consistency.
This student is misused the word consistency which is a noun while in his sentence, it should be a adjective.
The detail performance of each student is presented in this following figure. It is the smallest scope that the researcher in trying to provide in order to describe these students‘ written reflections.
Figure 4.2 Average Point of Each Student
The individual point presented in the chart has been accumulated from the points of the four writings. The researcher summed up all the four and divided them by 4 so ended up with an average point. The average point in that way represents the performance of the writer. In terms of content based on the result of assessment, all ten students achieve the average point between 50 and 70. Most of them even reach above 60. While in organization there is less than four who reach 50 and above. In term of diction, all of them achieve the average point between 44 and 71. Then for accuracy, among ten students, there is only one who achieves more than 70. Other three are in between 50 to 59 and the other six are below 50. One out of the six even is below 40.
2. Error Analysis on the Writings
made in using of past tense. This analysis would further give more detail data and explanation of the description of these writings.
According to Ellis (2005), teachers need to know that their students have not yet mastered certain forms but are capable of self-correcting them. In this research, the researcher analysed the errors made by the students in using past tense to map their mastery of past tense itself. Later, in the next sub chapter, the researcher would also discuss whether these students also able to do self-correcting towards what they have produced using the personal narratives that clarify it.
The following points are elaborated as referred to what Corder (1979) proposes about the steps on error analysis. The report and discussion are presented in the way those steps were done.
1). Sample of learner language
when an error is found in the first writing, the researcher considers it as an error if it is found also in another writing (written by the same person) or in other word it is repeatedly appeared. That is why, four would be enough to make sure whether the writter made an error or only a mistake. In differentiating mistakes from errors, we may take a look as what experts say.
Brown describes mistakes as what refers to a performance error either random guess, fatigue, inattention or a slip of tongue (Brown, 1994 p.209). While error as noted by Norrish (1978, 7-8) related to language teaching and learning, are caused by learners on the processing of knowledge in the second language rule systems. This happens because the learners still have lack of competence in the rule systems of the language they are learning. Therefore, they would not be ready to correct their errors. In this case, when the same errors are found in more than one writing (written by the same person) or even in all four writings, the researcher may be sure of the existence of errors.
lives. As the forth writing, the lecturer asks students to pick certain reading from Gospel and write a homily based on their own interpretation and further reflection. Generally, these students write about a half page as the minimum and one and a half pages as the maximum. Those writings are typed and collected via email. The lecturer gave these topics to write to the students in every couple weeks. There were no written feedbacks between the period of assigning and the time when this report is done.
b). Identification of Errors.
From the sample, the researcher identified the errors using the concept of error types based on surface taxonomy described by Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982: 150). The error types found in the writings are omission, addition (double marking), archi-form (misformation), regularization (misformation), alternating form (misformation), and misordering.
Omission errors made by five writers. Generally, they omitted grammatical morphemes, in this case in past form. The example of omission errors made by P3 is:
I (was) very scared to tell it to the others, ...
He omitted was as the to be in past form. The writer might understand that past form already marked by the presence of scared. The word scared, which is an adjective in this context might be understood as a past form (the presence of – ed). Therefore, the writer might think that this sentence needs no other past forms. The same form of omission error occurs twice in P2‘s writing. The figure below is
Figure 4.3 Sample of Errors Identified in the Writings
Addition errors also found in some writings, especially in form of double marking. The writers double the past form or marks in certain sentences. For example the one that is made by P2:
I used to woke up late every day.
P2 understands that past form is used to every event or action that happenned and done in the past. Yet, he doubled the mark of past form itself without consider other rule of forming a habitual past sentence. This is clarified by his personal interview as follows:
Pemahaman mengenai penggunaan past tense itu yang tahu adalah bahwa sesudah berlalu, walaupun sedetik yang lalu, itu menggunakan past tense. Dan kalau ada –ed berarti itu waktunya sudah lewat. Jadi indikasinya ya itu. Pokonya asal ada tanda bentuk past, nah bagi saya itu sudah benar.
Six out of ten made the same error (double marking). This clarifies that generally, these learners might have same concept of what P2 has. As they understand that past is applied in event or action happened and done in the past, other rules are not
taken into account.
Archi-form (misformation) is significantly found in these writings. All the learners produced this type of error. For example the one that done by P9:
When the words were saying, I should think about the meaning.
Vaguely, the sentence above is grammatically correct. But, in the context of the writing, P9 misformed the phrase were saying. From the previous paragraph we know that he is telling about his difficulties of understanding a new vocabulary in English (topic: Learning Strategy). He is trying to say that when a new word is saying, he needs to think first to find the meaning. Yet, he ends up with producing the sentence above in past form. Although the fact that he is talking about is still happening until now. That is why his phrase above considered as an error in misformation. Other archi-form error also done by P1 as follows:
Have you ever find yourself in front of a strong block and it seemed you are going to give up?
This sentence is considered as an imparralel because the writer misformed the first clause. He should mark both clauses with same tense (past tense).
Regularization errors found also in some of these writings. Yet, the intensity of its occurance is much less than archi-form errors that found. As an example, regularization errors found in P2‘s writing. He wrote,
