2. THEORITICAL FRAME WORK
2.1 A Brief Description of Conjunction
Hancock (2005:6) says, “Grammar is the natural, inherent, meaning-making system of the language, a system that governs the way words come together to form meanings; grammar is also the study of that system, the various theories or perspectives that attempt to understand and describes it.” It means that grammar is a system of language. It is the natural system, not created by human.”
In grammar, a conjunction is a part of speech that connects two words, phrases, clauses, or sentences together. Hancock (2005:139) says, “A conjunction is a word with primarily grammatical function, that of linking together two (or more) structures and establishing a relationship between (or among) them.” It means that conjunction is the one of grammar member. Without conjunction, we cannot link two or more structure which in a sentence.”
A discourse connective is a conjunction joining sentences. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what contitutes a “conjunction” must be defined for each language. In general, a conjunction is an invariable grammatical particle, and it may or may not stand between the items it conjoins. The definition may also be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit with the same function as a single-word conjunction (as well as, provided that, etc.).
joint.” It means that the main function of conjunction is joining words. From the quote we know that the meaning of conjunction word is same as the function.” Wren and Martin (1990:151) says, ”Conjunction is a word which merely joins together sentences, and sometimes words.” It means that conjunction uses to join sentences and words with the pattern and punctuation.”
2.2 Kinds of Conjunction
there are four kinds of conjunction: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs.
2.2.1 Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions or coordinators are conjunctions that join items of equal graamatical importance. Co- means with or jointly, and the Latin root ordo means order; thus coordinate means to order with or to order together. These conjunctions join equal sentence parts. These conjunctions also used to join subjects and predicates, and to join whole sentences together. They are actually used to join any parallel elements of the sentences.
There are seven coordinate conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, for, so, and, yet. (Wishon/Burks, 1980, 135)
For example :
• Kennedy and his brother are a students. ( two subjects)
• She is beautiful and smart girl. ( two
• Did you look in the dictionary or the encyclopedia? ( two objects of a
prepositions)
• The victorious party sang and danced in the streets. ( two predicates)
There are four kinds of coordinating conjunctions, they are :
1) Cumulative or copulative which merely add one statement to another, for example :
1) We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone.
2) It was cold outside, and the icy chill pressed up against him through the glass.
2) Adversative which express opposition or contrast between two statements, for example :
1) He is slow, but he is sure. 2) I was annoyed, still I kept quiet. 3) I would come ; only that I am engaged. 4) He was all right ; only he was fatigued.
3) Disjunctive or Alternative which express a choice between two alternatives, for example :
1) She must weep, or she will die.
2) She have to take a rest, or she will sick. 4) Illative which express an inference, for example :
1) Something certainly fell in ; for I heard a splash.
2.2.2 Correlative Conjunctions
These conjunctions, as seen in the case of compound subjects and predicates, are used in pairs. They may be used to join two basic sentence patterns or two parallel elements of any kinds. (Wishon/Burks, 1980, 136)
The most important thing to remember when using correlative conjunctions is that the words, phrases, or clauses that are put together must be the same type. That means that nouns must be put together withother nouns, verbs with other verbs, adjectives with other adjectives, and so on. This point will be more fully explained following the list of frequently used correlative conjunctions. (Laurie Rozakis, Ph.D, 2003, 7)
The correlative conjunctions are Either ... or, Neither ... nor, Both ... and, Not only ... but also, as ... as, whether ... or.
Either ... or and Neither ... nor are used to connect two negative statements when the meanings of their predicates are the same. For example :
1) I think she is not either Russian or Polish. 2) Either he could not come or he did not want to. 3) Their house is neither big nor small.
• We can express emphatically a combination of two things ( nouns, verbs,
adjectives, etc) by using both .... and. For example :
2) She both built and endowed the hospital. 3) It was both cold and wet.
• We express two alternative emphatically by either ... or for the affirmative or
interrogative, for example :
1) We can have either tripe or liver. 2) Can you eat either tripe or liver?
And by using Either ... or + a negative verb or Neither ... nor + an affirmative verb for the negative, for example :
1) I can not eat either tripe or liver. = i can eat neither tripe nor liver. 2) She does not read either magazine or newspaper. = she reads neither
magazine nor newspaper.
• When a negative verb is repeated with a new subject, either may be placed at
the end of the sentence, for example :
1) He didn’t go and she didn’t go either. 2) He doesn’t eat and she doesn’t eat either.
But this can be more neatly expressed by using neither/nor + auxiliary verb (affirmative) + subject, for example :
1) He didn’t go and neither did she.
The homicide detectives checked for not only blood spatters but also tissue flecks.
Do you see how much more emphatic the blood and tissue become once they are linkes by the correlatives? The correlatives emphasize the paralelism of the compound objects:
Not only blood spatters The homicide detectives checked for
But also tissue flecks.
2.2.3 Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordination is connecting two unequal but related clauses with a subordinating conjunction to form a complex sentence. Coordination shows the relationship among equal independent clauses; subordination, in contrast, shows the relationship between ideas of unequal rank.
Subordination help to develop the ideas, trace relationships among ideas, and emphasize one idea over the other.
These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions
After in order (that) Unless
Although insofar as Until
As in that When
as soon as no matter how Where
as if now that Wherever
as though Once Whether
Because provided (that) While
Before Since Why
even if so that
even though supposing (that)
How Than
If That
inasmuch as Though
in case (that) Till
The subordinating conjunctions also include what traditional grammarians call the relative pronouns: who,whom,what, that, which. These pronoun-conjunctions introduce a particular kind of clause, a relative or adjective clause. They are called relative pronouns because they clearly relate the clause to the noun with which it patterns; the relationship between the noun and its relative pronoun (and relative clause) is clear. Here are a few sentences illustrating subordinators:
1) Although we were young, we knew what we wanted.
2) No one cashed the lottery ticket because it had been washed and dried in the laundry.
2.2.4 Conjunctive Adverbs
These adverbs, like coordinate and correlative conjunctions, are used to connect, basic sentence patterns and make compound sentences. However unlike the coordinate conjunctions, they are grammatically a part of the sentences they introduce and could be moved to an internal position in the sentence.
Conjunctive adverbs are :
2.3The Use of Conjunction
To use conjunction need the rule that we have to follow. These the way of use conjunction consist of the punctuation and form.
2.3.1 Coordinating Conjunction
Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses. For examples :
2) The squid eyeball stew is so thick that you can eat it with a fork or spoon.
3) Rocky, my orange tomcat, loves having his head scratched but hates getting his claws trimmed.
The Punctuation of Coordinating Conjunctions
Three patterns in writing use coordinating conjunctions. Add commas when required.
Pattern 1 — Connecting two main clauses
When you connect tw comma. The pattern looks like this:
main clause + , + coordinating conjunction + main clause
Here are some examples :
1) While I am at work, my dog Floyd sleeps on the bed, and my cat Buster naps in the bathtub.
Pattern 2 — Connecting two items
You can also use a coordinating conjunction to connect any two items. These items can be any grammatical unit except main clauses. The pattern looks like this:
item + Ø + coordinating conjunction + item
Here are some examples:
1) My dog Floyd has too many fleas and too much hair.
2) My cat Buster has beautiful blue eyes but a destructive personality.
Pattern 3 — Connecting three or more items in a series
When you have three or more before the coordinating conjunction. Some handbooks and style guides will tell you that this comma is optional, but my advice is to put it in. The pattern looks like this:
item + , + item + , + coordinating conjunction + item
Here are some examples :
2.3.2 Correlative Conjunction
Use correlative conjunctions to link equivalent items in pairs. Such conjunctions might include phrases such as "both ... and," "either ... or," "neither ... nor" or "whether ... or" and should be placed next to the words they connect. For examples :
1) Either we meet the budget or downsizing will be the alternative. 2) She is respected by neither her clients nor her colleagues.
3) They not only finished the project on time but also came in below budget.
When you use correlative conjunctions, be careful about verb agreement.
If you connect tw must agree with the
1) Every single evening either the horned owl or the squabbling cats wake Samantha with their racket.
2) Every single evening either the squabbling cats or the horned owl wakes Samantha with its racket.
When you use correlative conjunctions, be careful about pronoun agreement.
1) Neither Yolanda nor the cousins expressed their disappointment when blind Aunt Sophie set down the plate of burnt hamburgers. 2) Neither the cousins norYolanda expressed her disappointment when
blind Aunt Sophie set down the plate of burnt hamburgers.
When you use correlative conjunctions, be careful about parallel structure.
Either ... or, neither ... nor, and not only ... but also require special attention when you are proofreading for grammatical units after both parts of the conjunction.
You can have tw
Not onlydid Michael grill a steak for Tiffany, buthealsoprepared a hotdog for Rocket, her dog.
Or you can shorten the sentence with tw
Michael grilled meat not onlyfor Tiffanybut alsofor Rocket, her dog.
Or you can have tw
2.3.3 Subordinating Conjunction
Subordinating Conjunctions are used when one idea in a sentence is dependent upon another idea. The subordinate conjunction is used to connect the dependent with the main thought.
Some sentences are complex. Such sentences have two clauses, one independent] and onedependent]. These are the patterns for a complex sentence:
Subordinate clause + , + main clause
main clause + Ø + subordinate clause
When the dependent clause is placed first in a sentence, use a comma between the two clauses.
Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together, but in doing so, they make one clause dependent (or "subordinate") upon the other.
A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between clauses than a coordinating conjunctions does.
Loose: It is raining, so we have an umbrella. Tight: Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.
2.3.4 Conjunctive Adverb
A conjunctive adverb can join tw conjunctive adverb behaves like a complete ideas. Notice, however, that you need a connect the two clauses:
main clause + ; + conjunctive adverb + , + main clause
For examples:
1) The dark skies and distant thunder dissuaded Clarice from her afternoon run; moreover, she had thirty calculus problems to solve for her morning class.
2) Leon's apartment complex does not allow dogs over thirty pounds; otherwise, he would have bought the gangly Great Dane puppy playing in the pet store window.
A conjunctive adverb will also introduce, interrupt, or conclude a single main clause. In this situation, you will often need commas to separate the conjunctive adverb from the rest of the sentence.
For examples:
1) At 10 a.m., Paul was supposed to be taking his biology midterm. Instead, he was flirting with the pretty waitress at the coffee house. 2) Maria declined Jeff's third invitation to go out. This young man is
determined, nevertheless, to take her to dinner one night soon.
3) After mowing the yard in the hot sun, Pedro was too hungry to shower. He did wash his dusty hands, however.
If the break is weak, do not use comma(s).
1) Anna called to say her car would not start. Rafael will therefore have to walk to school.
2) The long noodles splashed tomato sauce all over the front of Brenda's shirt. Ordering fettuccine was a mistake indeed.
2.4 The Functions of Conjunction
2.4.1 Coordinating Conjunction
There are some functions of coordinating conjunction and, but, or, nor, so, and for. And these the lists of the function of each coordinating conjunction.
As the coordinating conjunction, and has many functions. There are some functions of and, they are :
a. To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another: "Tashonda sent in her applications and waited by the phone for a response."
b. To suggest that one idea is the result of another: "Willie heard the weather report and promptly boarded up his house."
c. To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another (frequently replaced by but in this usage): "Juanita is brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasant personality.
d. To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this usage): "Hartford is a rich city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight."
e. To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally w(usually the first clause is an imperative): "Use your credit cards frequently and you'll soon find yourself deep in debt."
As the coordinating conjunction, but has many functions. There are some functions of but, they are :
a. To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: "Joey lost a fortune in the stock market, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably."
b. To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative way (sometimes replaced by on the contrary): "The club never invested foolishly, but used the services of a sage investment counselor."
c. To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of" (and then the second word takes over as subject): "Everybody but Goldenbreath is trying out for the team."
As the coordinating conjunction, orhas many functions. There are some functions of or, they are :
a. To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other: "You can study hard for this exam or you can fail."
b. To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives: "We can broil chicken on the grill tonight, or we can just eat leftovers.
d. To suggest a restatement or "correction" of the first part of the sentence: "There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tells us."
e. To suggest a negative condition: "The New Hampshire state motto is the rather grim "Live free or die."
f. To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative (see use of andabove): "They must approve his political style or they wouldn't keep electing him mayor."
Nor is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as the other
conjunctions, so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or writing. Its most common use is as the little brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor :
• He is neither sane nor brilliant.
• That is neither what I said nor what I meant.
It can be used with other negative expressions:
• That is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my
statement as an admission of guilt.
It is possible to use nor without a preceding negative element, but it is unusual and, to an extent, rather stuffy:
• George's handshake is as good as any written contract, nor has he
The functions of yetsometimes as an adverb and has several meanings: in addition ("yet another cause of trouble" or "a simple yet noble woman"), even ("yet more expensive"), still ("he is yet a novice"), eventually ("they may yet win"), and so soon as now ("he's not here yet"). It also functions as a coordinating conjunction meaning something like "nevertheless" or "but." The word yet seems to carry an element of distinctiveness that but can seldom register.
• John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton.
• The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to play
golf every day.
In sentences such as the second one, above, the pronoun subject of the second clause ("they," in this case) is often left out. When that happens, the comma preceding the conjunction might also disappear: "The visitors complained loudly yet continued to play golf every day."
Yet is sometimes combined with other conjunctions, but or and. It would not be unusual to see and yet in sentences like the ones above. This usage is acceptable.
For is most often used as a preposition, of course, but it does serve, on
is, say, with because or since. Its function is to introduce the reason for the preceding clause:
• John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the
company's board of trustees.
• Most of the visitors were happy just sitting around in the shade, for it had
been a long, dusty journey on the train.
As the conjunction, so have some functions. But be careful of the conjunction so. Sometimes it can connect two independent clauses along with a comma, but sometimes it can't. For instance, in this sentence,
• Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother,
sister, and his Uncle Chet.
where the word so means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers would use a semicolon between the two independent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is acting like a minor-league "therefore," the conjunction and the comma are adequate to the task:
• Soto has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise
that he avoids crowds of his adoring fans.
• So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of
his parents.
2.4.2 Correlative Conjunction
Correlative conjunctions are more similar to coordinating conjunctions than to subordinating conjunctions in that the sentence fragments they connect are fairly equal. Subordinating conjunctions connect independent and dependent clauses, which have totally different functions. Coordinating conjunctions and correlative conjunctions, on the other hand, connect words and phrases that carry equal weight in the sentence.
For example, “both/and” connects either two subjects or two objects:
• Both Jon and Lauren enjoyed the movie. (subjects) • Jon enjoyed both the movie and the popcorn. (objects)
“As/as” compares nouns using an adjective or an adverb:
• Peter is as tall as Jeff.
• A lion can’t run as fast as a cheetah.
“Not only/but also” can connect nouns or entire
• I’m going not only to the concert, but also backstage!
2.4.3 Subordinating Conjunction
Some of the most important subordinating conjunctions fall into two groups: contrast, and cause and effect.
Conjunction Function Example
although
Although she's small, she's very strong.
John is short, whereas Mary is tall.
Because they are akin to adverbs, conjunctive adverbs can indeed function as simple adverbs. In such a situation, they merely modify a verb, adjective, or another adverb. When they behave this way, they do not need any special
punctuation. They are simply functioning as adverbs. For example, consider these two sentences:
• However ugly the gargoyle may be, I will go on a blind date
with him.
Here, accordingly and however are simple adverbs. All accordingly does is modify the verb interested. All however does is modify the adjective ugly.
On the other hand, as Kolln and Funk note, conjunctive adverbs can also appear at the start of a sentence or clause to indicate result, concession, apposition, addition, time, contrast, summary, or reinforcement.
Result : therefore, consequently, of course
Concession : nevertheless, yet, still, after all, of course
Apposition : for example, for instance, that is, namely, in other words
Addition : moreover, furthermore, also, in addition, likewise, further
Time : meanwhile, in the meantime
Contrast : however, instead, on the contrary, on the other hand, in contrast, rather
Summary : thus, in conclusion, then
Reinforcement : further, in particular, indeed, above all, in fact
comma after it because it is a phrase appearing before an independent clause. Note the commas in the following sentences.
1) Therefore, I will eat eggs! 2) Still, it sounds like a good idea.
3) In other words, grammar is a useful skill.
4) Likewise, all students should embrace the sad little conjunctive adverbs.
5) Meanwhile, the conjunctive adverbs sat pouting in the corner. 6) However, we should not mock conjunctive adverbs.
7) Thus, the conjunctive adverbs will bow before their masters, the cruel semicolons.
Above all, we must realize conjunctive adverbs are an important part of the grammatical ecosystem.
Finally, sometimes conjunctive adverbs try to pretend they are full conjunctions and hook two independent clauses together. This pretension is indeed a sad travesty! They are not really full conjunctions, and they can't do that job by themselves. Typically, they lurk just behind a semicolon in this situation, and it is the semicolon that does the real job of joining the two independent clauses. A comma should always follow the conjunctive adverb in such instances.
2) The bank robber dodged the bullet; however, Joey was shot seventeen times in the tibia.
3) Susan appreciated the flowers; nevertheless, a Corvette would be a finer gift.
4) Dr. Wheeler is a grammar tyrant; thus, he requires correct punctuation. 5) She will go on a blind date with George; however, he is a really ugly
fellow.
6) The tyranosaurs were migrating south; meanwhile, the apatosaurs breathed a sigh of relief.
