UrbanCorinth:AnIntroduction
G.D.R.Sanders
T
HEG
EOGRAPHY
OFC
ORINTHCorinthislocated80kmwestofAthensonthesouthsideoftheIsthmus ofCorinth,anarrowneckoflandconnectingthePeloponnesetomainland Greece(fig.1.1).TheisthmusseparatestheCorinthianGulffromtheSaronic Gulf,andthustheIonianSeafromtheAegean.Thelocalgeologyisdominated bymarineandlacustrinesedimentslaidhorizontallyinbandsofporoussandy andpebblylimestoneinterbeddedwithimperviousmarlclays.OlderJurassic limestoneentities,suchasAcrocorinth,extrudethroughthelaterdepositsto heightsofover570m.Localupliftofthelandrelativetotheseahascreated aseriesofbroadterracesterminatinginraisedbeachesmarkedbyvertical clifffaces.Thecityissituatedontwooftheterraces—oneabout60m,the otherabout90mabovesealevel—atthefootofAcrocorinth,about3km fromthecoastoftheGulfofCorinth.1Attheexposureoftheinterfacesof
thelimestoneandunderlyingmarlattheedgesoftheterracesareseveral naturalspringsofabundantfreshwater.2Thesespringsarenotablyabsent
fromtheregionoftheisthmustotheeast,whichtothepresenthasalways beensparselypopulatedandcultivated.Bycontrast,thelandintheplainto
1ChrisL.Hayward,“GeologyofCorinth:theStudyofaBasicResource,”inCorinth,
theCentenary,1896–1996(ed.CharlesK.WilliamsIIandNancyBookidis;CorinthXX;
theCentenary,1896–1996 theCentenary,1896–1996
Princeton,N.J.:ASCS,2003)15–42.
2MarkE.Landon,“BeyondPeirene:TowardaBroaderViewofCorinthianWaterSupply,”
thewestisfertileandwellwateredbyspringsandtheseasonalriversthat descendfromtheAyiosVasiliosvalleyandMountZiriatothesouth.
NotonlydidgeologydeterminewhyCorinthislocatedwhereitis,but thegeologicalmakeupoftheCorinthiaalsoprovidedthebasicmaterialsfor thecity’sconstruction.Theooliticlimestonesofthemarinesandbarsextend fromKenchreaiontheSaronicGulftoSikyonandhavebeenextensively quarriedforstone.3QuarriescanbeseentotheeastandwestoftheTemple
ofApollo.Thefreshlyexposedportionofthisrockissosoftthatitcanbe cutwithwoodworkingtools;indeed,thereisevidencethatearlybuilders usedcarpentrytechniquesinstoneconstructiononthesite.4Onexposure
toair,thestonegraduallyformsahardbutbrittlesurface.Sogoodwasthis stone, with its rich reddish-yellowish color, that it was exported in bulk atgreatexpensetoDelphiandEpidaurosanddoubtlesselsewhereforthe constructionoftemples.
Certainofthemarlbedsarearichsourceofmortarandceramics.The calcarious marl is easily dug and reduced to a fine powder.A little heat appliedforashortdurationisallthatisrequiredtocalcinethispowderto calciumoxide.Theadditionofwaterreducestheoxidetohydroxide,andthe resultisawhitelimecement.Thesemarlswerealsoexcavated,powdered, slakedwithwater,anddriedtoamalleableclayeyconsistency.Theclaywas formedintolightweightvessels,painted,firedinakiln,andthenprobably dousedinwater.Whetherthesevesselsshouldbecalledceramicorcement isstillbeinginvestigated.5Incertainperiods,theywereexportedwidelyin
theEasternMediterraneanandasfarasSpaintothewest.
Finally,thetectonicfragmentationoftheregionhasensuredtheperennial threatofearthquakes.Someofthemoresevereoftheseearthquakeshave destroyedmajorstructuresandhaveevendisruptedtheflowoflocalsprings. ScholarshavespicedupthewrittenhistoryofCorinthwithaliberalgarnish ofrealandimaginaryseismicevents;thesehaveservedtoexplaindisruptions inthearchaeologicalrecord.OngoingresearchbyNicholasAmbraseys,a leadingauthorityinseismicengineering,hasshown,however,thatwenow needtoreconsidereveryseismiceventthathasbeeninvokedtoexplainthe
3ChrisL.Hayward,“High-ResolutionProvenanceDeterminationofConstruction-Stone:
APreliminaryStudyofCorinthianOoliticLimestoneQuarriesatExamilia,”Geoarchaeology
11(1996)215–34.
4Robin F. Rhodes, “The Earliest Greek Architecture in Corinth and the 7th-Century
TempleonTempleHill,”inCorinth,theCentenary,1896–1996theCentenary,1896–1996theCentenary,1896–1996(ed.CharlesK.WilliamsII andNancyBookidis;CorinthXX;Princeton,N.J.:ASCS,2003)85–94.
destructionofvariousphasesofthecity.Hisfindings,whichhavebeengener-allyacceptedbygeologistsandseismologistsalike,arethatearthquakesin Greecerarelyexceededamagnitudeof6.5andneverexceeded7.0onthe logarithmicRichterscale.AccordingtoAmbraseysandJ.A.Jackson,the natureoffaultsinGreeceissuchthattherangeofdamagewroughtbyan earthquakeofsuchamagnitudeislimitedtoafewtensofkilometersfromthe epicentre.Thus,anearthquakesuchasthe551/52C.E.earthquakerecordedby ProcopiusatChaironeiaincentralGreececlearlydidnothavethecatastrophic effectonCorinththatthreegenerationsofscholarshaveclaimed.6
Corinthpossessedfourharbors.SchoenusandPoseidonawerepresumably fairlysimpledockingfacilitiesthatservedeitherendoftheDiolkos.7
TheDi-olkoswasapavedportageroadbuiltacrossthe6-kmwidthoftheisthmus,with anaveragegradientofabout1.5%.Itwasprobablyconstructedbythetyrant PerianderinthesixthcenturyB.C.E.,andisscoredbythewheelsoftransport vehicleswhosewheelbaseaveraged1.5macross.Oneithersideofthepaved portionwereearthenroads.Historicalsourcesmentionsixattempts—fivesuc-cessfulandoneunsuccessful—toportagewarshipsovertheisthmusbetween 428 and 30B.C.E. Niketas Oryphas, revealing his familiarity with ancient literature,effectedasixthsuccessfulcrossingin881C.E.
MostcommentatorsinsistthattheDiolkoswasusedprincipallyformilitary purposes,butfromthevulgarhumouroftheThesmophoriazousae ofAristo-phanes,onegetsaverydifferentimpression.8Mnesilochos,aninterloperamong
womenandhimselfdisguisedasawoman,hideshismasculinitybypushing hishugestageproppenisbackbetweenhislegs.WhenKleisthenesattemptsto finditfrombehind,Mnesilochuspushesittothefront.Thisactionisrepeated severaltimes.Finally,Kleisthenescriesinexasperation,“Youhaveasortof isthmus,bro’,haulingyourprowtoandfromoreoftenthantheCorinthians [haulshipsacrosstheDiolkos].”WecansurmisethattheDiolkoswasactively andregularlyusedformerchantships,orelsetherewouldbenohumorin Kleisthenes’quip.ThetriremesthatcrossedtheDiolkoswerecomparablein sizeandcapacitytotheKyreniaship(14mlongx4.2mwide,ladenweight ca.39tons).Mr.Sarris,theshipbuilderoftheKyreniareplica,assuresme that,properlysupportedbythekeelsom,ashipofthosedimensionscouldbe
6N.N.AmbraseysandA.Jackson,“SeismicityandAssociatedStrainofCentralGreece
between1890and1988,”GeophysicsJournalInternationalGeophysicsJournalInternationalGeophysicsJournalInternational101(1990)663–708.
7G. Raepsaet, “Le Diolkos de l’isthme à Corinthe: son trace, son fonctionnement,”
BCH117(1993)233–56.
BCH BCH
8Aristophanes,Thesmophoriazousae(ed.BenjaminBickleyRogers;LCL;Cambridge,
movedconsiderabledistances—evenwithitsfullcargoaboard—withoutthe slightestdamage.9
Suchtrafficmusthavekeptasocietyofwagonersandtheirteamsofoxen fullyoccupied.Theportageprovedsovaluablethateffortsweremadeto replaceitwithacanal.TheemperorNeroactuallybeganworkonthecanal bypersonallydumpingthefirstshovelfulofearthintoagoldenbucket,using agoldenshovel.Hediedbeforemuchprogresscouldbemade,butnotbefore hisimageasthegodHerakleshadbeeninscribedinonewallofthecutting. UnderVespasian,about800yardsofcanalwereexcavatedtoadepthof90 feet,using6,000JewishslavescapturedinthesackofJerusalem,beforethe projectwasfinallyabandoned.10
HerodesAtticus,theAthenianteacherofphi-losophyandwealthypatronofextravagantmonuments,brieflycontemplated thecompletionofNero’sandVespasian’sworkbutdemurredonthegrounds thatitwashubristictosucceedwhereemperorshadfailed.Bythetimethe canalwasfinallycompletedin1893,theLevanttradehadwaned.
Kenchreai on the Saronic Gulf and Lechaion on the Corinthian Gulf were altogether different kinds of harbors. Kenchreai was excavated by theAmerican School of Classical Studies in the 1960s.11 It consists of a
settlementonthesouthslopesofapromontorywithapairofharbormoles encirclingaroundbasinfacingsoutheast.Architecture,pottery,andcoins derivefrommanycenturiesofoccupationandincludeshrinesofthegods (oneperhapsdedicatedtoIsis)andasmallearlyChristianbasilicaofthe sixthcentury.Lechaionmustbeconsideredtheprincipalharbor.Locatedon thecoastnorthofthecity,theharborconsistsofaseriesoflandlockedbasins accessiblefromtheseabyanarrowchannel.Theouterworksoftheharbor includedthreelongmoles,twoforasquarebasinandthethirdtoprotectthe entrancetotheinnerharbor.Sporadicexcavationsintheareaindicatethat theassociatedsettlementwasextensive.Themostconcentratedcampaign ofarchaeologicalwork,thatoftheAmericanSchoolinthe1960s,revealed anenormousearlyChristianbasilicabetweentheinnerharborandthesea.12
9M.L.Katzef,“TheKyreniaShip,”inAHistoryofSeafaring(ed.G.F.Bass;London,
1982)50–52;andidemandS.W.Katzef,“BuildingaReplicaofanAncientGreekMerchant-man,”inProceedingsofthe1stInternationalSymposiumonShipConstructioninAntiquity
(ed.H.E.Tzalas;Athens:n.p.,1989)163–75.
10Onthispoint,seetheessaybyDavidGilmanRomanointhisvolume(pp.xxx–xxx,
esp.xxx).
11RobertL.Scranton,JospehW.Shaw,andLeilaIbrahim,TopographyandArchitecture,
vol.1ofKenchreai,EasternPortofCorinth(Leiden:Brill,1978).
12D.I.Pallas,“Korinth,”ReallexikonzurByzantinischenKunst(Stuttgart:Hiersemann,
TogetherthesefourharborsattestthesheervolumeofCorinth’scommercial interestsatvarioustimes.
Trafficmovingnorthandsouthacrosstheisthmuswaschanneledinto narrowcorridorsalongtheKakiaSkalaoroverMountGeraneion.Atoneend ofthecorridor,routesfannedouttoAthensandtoThebesandbeyond.Atthe otherend,theroutesledalongthecoastwesttowardsPatras,easttoEpidauros, andthroughpassesoneithersideofAcrocorinthintothePeloponnese,to theArgolidandArcadia.Thehistoricalcommunicationsnetworkofsouthern Greecehasrecentlybeentreatedpurelyasaproblemingraphtheory.This isanapplicationmostusefultoeconomicgeographersandperhapsfamiliar tomostofusastheparticulartalentofthetitlecharacterinthefilmGood WillHunting.Corinthwasunsurprisinglyfoundtobeatthemathematical andgeographicalcenteroftheRomanprovinceofAchaia.13
Asinmoderncommerce,whetherbuildingacementfactoryoropening adowntownbar,locationhasalwaysbeenimportanttocommercialsuccess. ThismuchmayhaveoccurredtotheapostlePaulwhenhechoseCorinth forhisministry.InthemiddleofthefirstcenturyC.E.,Corinthwasaperfect placeforthedisseminationofgoodsandideas—amultilingual,polytheistic, cosmopolitancommunityvisitedbytravelers,merchants,andseamenfromall overtheMediterranean.Itisnotdifficulttoimaginewhythemoralcondition ofcommerce-orientedCorinth,itsinhabitants,andvisitorsstillconcerned PauldeeplysometwohundredyearsaftertheinfamouscultofAphroditeon Acrocorinthhadcloseditsdoors.14
Well-watered,overlookedbyanimposingacropolis,flankedbyalarge fertileplaintothenorthandnorthwest,andlocatedbetweentwoseas,Corinth commandedtheprincipalnodalpointinthelandandseacommunicationsof southernGreece.Itsstrategicandcommercialpositionwassupplementedby valuablenaturalresourcesforexport,includingbuildingmaterials,excellent claysforceramicsandmortars,wood,andagriculturalproduce.Itwasnotso muchCorinth’sownrichesthatwerebeingmoved,however.Theimportance ofCorinthwasasanentrepôtthroughwhichtheproduceofotherregions wasshipped.
13G.D.R.SandersandI.K.Whitbread,
CentralPlacesandMajorRoadsinthePelopon-nese,BSA85(1990)333–61.
14OnCorinthianAphrodite,seetheessaysbyJohnR.Lanci(pp.xxx–xxx)andCharlesK.
H
ISTORY
OF
THEC
ORINTHE
XCAVATIONSTheAmericanSchoolofClassicalStudiesatAthenshasbeenexcavating atCorinthsince1896.Overthecourseofthetwentiethcentury,scholarly interestshavechangedconsiderably.Theearliestexcavatorswerelargely concernedwithancienttopographyandplannedtorevealasmuchofthe centerofthepre-Romancityastheycould.Whiletheyrevealedlargeportions ofthecenterofCorinth,theirtaskwasmademoredifficultbyMummius’s sackin146B.C.E.andbythefoundationofaRomancolonyin44B.C.E., whenthecityplanwasre-engineeredandsettlerscoveredoreventoreout thecoreoftheClassicalcity.
Theyearsbetween1925and1940sawcontinuedbutrathermoresystem-aticclearanceofthetheaterandforumareas.Interestshiftedfromtopographic totaxonomicandchronologicalconcerns.Atthetime,however,itwasstill generallythepracticetoexcavatewithlargeteamsofnonspecialistlaborers underlimitedsupervision.Theydugfromtopsoiltoforumlevel,adepthof 3–4m,inasingleseason,andalthoughtherecoveryofdatawasfarsupe-riortotheearliercampaigns,itwasnotwhatonewouldnowdemand.The excavatorsgeneratedalargenumberofbooksandarticlesonurbanhistory, buildings,inscriptions,sculpture,ceramics,andminorobjects.Thislitera-turehasshapedpresentpopularconceptionsofCorinthandsetmanyofthe standardsonwhicharchaeologistsintheEasternMediterraneanstillrely.
Coinshavebeensupplantedbypotteryasthecurrencyofchronology. Coinsarecommonandsurvivewell,andtheyproviderefreshinglyspecific informationabouttheirdateofissue—buttherightcoinisrarelyfoundin therightplace.Untilcomparativelyrecently,ceramicsspecialiststendedto concentrateonfinewaresbecausetheacceptedbiaswasthatcoarsewares werenotworthstudyingbecausetheywerenotdiagnostic.Coarsewares, however,comprisethelargemajorityoffindsfromanycontext.Someperiods wereneglectedsimplybecausetheywereunfashionable,andLateRoman potteryassemblagesareacaseinpoint.ThestudyofLateRomanCorinth wasdrivenbycoinsanddisastersuntilthepublicationofaLateRomanfine potterysurveybyJohnHayesin1972.15Unfortunately,theheroicefforts
ofDemetriosPallasinthebasilicasandJamesWisemanatthegymnasium cametooearlytobenefitfromHayes’svolume.16
Potteryisubiquitousinarchaeologicalcontextsandcanbeusedtodate phasesofactivitywithafairdegreeofprecision.KathleenSlane’svolume on the Demeter sanctuary and her specialist articles have given us some ideaofwhatCorinthianpotterylookedlikethroughtheRomanperiod.17It
wasonlywiththeexcavationseastofthetheaterinthe1980sthatsufficient quantitiesofwell-excavateddeposits,manyretainedintheirentirety,enabled Slane to undertake a thorough diachronic survey of Roman pottery from thefoundationofthecolonytothebeginningoftheseventhcentury.18This
studyisbasedonstatisticalanalysesofnumberandweightbytypeandon stratigraphicrelations.19Thefinalpublication,whichiseagerlyanticipated,
willbethefirstcompleteoverviewofRomanpotterytypologyforaGreek site. It will show how the proportions of different pottery types changed overtime;also,analysisofimportswillallowresearcherstoidentifyshifts ineconomiccontacts.Thistoolwillenablescholarstoreassessoldcontexts and redraft our history of the city. Its impact should be felt well beyond CorinthandevenGreece.
15J.W.Hayes,LateRomanPottery(London:BritishSchoolatRome,1972).
16Pallas,“Korinth”;andJamesWiseman,“ExcavationsintheGymnasiumArea.1969–
1970,”Hesperia41(1972)1–42.
17Slane,KathleenW.TheSanctuaryofDemeterandKore:TheRomanPotteryandLamps
(CorinthXVIII.2;Princeton,N.J.:ASCS,1990).
18CharlesK.WilliamsIIandOrestesH.Zervos,“Corinth,1988:EastoftheTheater,”
Hesperia58(1989)1–50;forbibliography,seetheessaybyCharlesK.WilliamsIIinthis volume(pp.xxx–xxx).
19KathleenW.Slane,“Corinth’sRomanPottery:QuantificationandMeaning,”inCorinth,
theCentenary,1896–1996(ed.CharlesK.WilliamsIIandNancyBookidis;CorinthXX;
theCentenary,1896–1996 theCentenary,1896–1996
ThewayinwhichwelookatdeadCorinthianshasalsochanged.Charles Williams’sexcavationssouthoftheMuseumencounteredapackedcemetery datingtotheFrankishperiod.20Tocopewiththeexcavationandanalysis
ofthiscomplicatedmassofevidence,anthropologistsArtRohnandEthne Barneswereinvitedtoexcavateandstudytheburials.21Rohnhasnotonly
trainedourspecialistpickmentoarticulateburialsandthenremovethem;he hasalsobeguntoexaminechangesinburialpracticethroughtime.Barnes isabletodiscerninbonesrepetitivestresspatternsthatbetrayregularheavy exerciseofdifferentkinds.Shecanalsorecognizetheeffectsofgenetics, illness, malnutrition, and violence.Although they started with Medieval andcontinuedwithpost-Medievalburials,RohnandBarnesnowinclude Romanandearliermaterialintheirresearch.Corinthnowhassucharange offascinatingpathologiesthataspecialfacilitywasrecentlyopenedtohouse acomparativecollectionforstudy.
DespitetheexcavationofmanyhundredsofRomantombs,onlyindividual tombshaveoccasionallybeenpublished.Inthe1960s,HenryRobinsonwas invitedtoexcavateinadvanceoftheconstructionofadrainagechannelalong theedgeofthenorthterraceofCorinth,wherehefoundseveralsignificant gravesdatingfromthefirstthroughfifthcenturiesC.E.MaryWalbankand KathleenSlaneareinthefinalstagesofproducingabook-lengthpublication ofthesediscoveries.22
ThetopographyoftheCorinthiahasreceivedratherpatchycoverage,but acomprehensivepictureisgraduallyemerging.JamesWiseman’simportant extensivesurveyoftheregionputmanysitesonthemap.23Otherinvestigators
addedtopoitothisbasicwork;twonewdoctoralthesesandathirdnearing completionhaveexaminedthebordersofCorinthwithEpidaurus,Sikyon, andArgos.24TherecentlycompletedEasternCorinthiaarchaeologicalsurvey
wasanintensivesurveyofamuchsmallerterritorythatwilladdanewdimen-siontoourunderstandingofthehistoricalgeography.MaryWalbankwas
20CharlesK.WilliamsII,L.M.Snyder,EthneBarnes,andOrestesH.Zervos,“Frankish
Corinth,1997,”Hesperia67(1998)223–81.
21EthneBarnes,“TheDeaddoTellTales,”inCorinth,theCentenary,1896–1996theCentenary,1896–1996theCentenary,1896–1996(ed.
Charles K. Williams II and Nancy Bookidis; Corinth XX; Princeton, N.J.:ASCS, 2003) 435–43.
22SeetheessaybyMaryE.HoskinsWalbankinthisvolume(pp.xxx–xxx).
23JamesWiseman,TheLandoftheAncientCorinthians(SIMA50;Göteborg:P.Åström,
1978).
24Y.A.Lolos,“TheHadrianicAqueductofCorinth,”Hesperia66(1997)271–314;and
thefirsttodiscussRomanlanddivisioninCorinthia.25DavidRomanoand
PanosDoukellishavesinceindependentlyextrapolateddifferentschemes ofmensurationonthebasisofcropmarks,fieldboundaries,androads.26In
thepastcoupleofyears,resistivitysurveyhasaddedmuchoftopographical interesttothepicturepresentedbytheexcavatedremains.27
TheAmericanSchoolhasalsobeenactiveinexcavationoutsideofthecity butwithinitsterritory.ElizabethGebhardandhercolleagueshavecontinued theexcavationsandpublicationprogramstartedbyOscarBroneeratthe majorCorinthiansanctuarydedicatedtoPoseidonandPalaimonatIsthmia.28
TimothyGregoryandhiscolleagueshavecontinuedPaulClement’sworkin theLateRomanfortressandRomanbaths,alsoatIsthmia.29RobertScranton
excavatedaboveandbelowthewaterlineatKenchreai.30Inadditiontothe
Americanwork,theBritishSchoolexcavatedandpublishedthesanctuary ofHeraatPerachoraunderHumfryPayneandlaterRichardTomlinson.31
Manyofthesediversethreadsofmorerecentresearchhavealreadyappeared asbooks,asarticlesinHesperia,andelsewhere.Themostimportantnew synopsisisthevolumeoriginatinginthe1996centenaryconference.32It
containstwenty-sevenpapersbyactivestudentsofCorinth’sarchaeology
25MaryE.HoskinsWalbank,“TheFoundationandPlanningofEarlyRomanCorinth,”
JRA10(1997)95–130.
26DavidG.Romano,“CityPlanning,Centuriation,andLandDivisioninRomanCorinth:
ColoniaLausIuliaCorinthiensisandColoniaIuliaFlaviaAugustaCorinthiensis,”inCorinth,
theCentenary,1896–1996(ed.CharlesK.WilliamsIIandNancyBookidis;CorinthXX;
theCentenary,1896–1996 theCentenary,1896–1996
Princeton,N.J.:ASCS,2003)279–301;PanagiotisN.Doukellis,“Leterritoiredelacolonie romainedeCorinthe,”inStructuresruralesetsociétésantiques:actesducolloquedeCorfou, 14–16mai1992(ed.PanagiotisN.DoukellisandLinaG.Mendoni;Paris:Lesbelleslettres, 1994) 359–90; and Mary E. Hoskins Walbank, “What’s in a Name? Corinth Under the Flavians,”ZPEZPEZPE139(2002)251–64.
27TheresultsofthisongoingsurveywillbepublishedinHesperiabyG.D.R.Sanders
andM.Boyd.
28Forbibliography,seetheessaybyElizabethR.Gebhardinthisvolume(pp.xxx–xxx).
29Timothy E. Gregory,The Hexamilion and the Fortress (Isthmia V; Princeton, N.J.:
PrincetonUniversityPress,1993);andTheCorinthiaintheRomanPeriod:IncludingthePapers GivenataSymposiumHeldatTheOhioStateUniversityon7–9March1991(ed.Timothy E.Gregory;JRASup8;AnnArbor,Mich.:JournalofRomanArchaeology,1993).
30Scranton,Shaw,andIbrahim,TopographyandArchitecture.
31R. Tomlinson, “Perachora,” inLe Sanctuaire Grec (ed. Albert Schachter and Jean
Bingen;Entretienssurl’Antiquitéclassique37;Geneva:FondationHardt,1992)321–51. ForamorerecentappraisalofthetempleandcultseeB.Menadier,“TheSixthCenturyBC TempleandtheSanctuaryandCultofHeraAkraia,Perachora”(Ph.D.diss.,Universityof Cincinnati,1995).
32CharlesK.WilliamsIIandNancyBookidis,eds.,Corinth,theCentenary,1896–1996
statingtheircurrentideasandfeaturesacompletebibliographyofCorinth fromtheNeolithictoLateMedievalperiods.
Inhisearlyyearsasdirector,Williamsconcentratedonthereinterpretation ofsomeseventyyearsofscholarshipbyrestudyingtheearlierexcavation recordsandbyundertakingnewexcavationsinandaroundtheforum.Over thecourseoffifteenyearshewasabletodocumenthowthecitydeveloped overtime,andabriefoverviewofhissynthesisfollowsbelow.33
D
EVELOPMENT
OF
THEU
RBANA
REATheareaofthesiteopenedtodateconcentrateslargelyontheRomanforum anditssurrounds.Thiszoneisthetransition,markedbyasteepslope(10–20% gradeover15m)betweenthetwoterracesonwhichCorinthwasbuilt.Here thenaturaldrainagepatternandspringlinehascreatedafairlybroadvalley andarelativelyeasytransitionforwheeledandpedestriantrafficbetween theterraces.Theuppervalleyisoccupiedbytheforumandthelowervalley bytheLechaionRoad.
ThereisampleevidenceforprehistoricsettlementdatingfromtheNeo-lithic to sub-Mycenean periods. Corinth is reckoned to have synoecized, thatis,emergedasapolity,intheeighthcenturyB.C.E.,sendingouttrading coloniestoSyracuseandCorfu.ArchaeologicallyatCorinththereislittle evidencefortheformandextentofthecity.TheearliestGeometricperiod isrepresentedbydomesticdebrisinthevalleyfloor,graves,andawell.In thesecondhalfoftheeighthcentury,however,burialwaskeptseparatefrom theresidentialarea.Atthesametime,thefirststonearchitecturebecomes evidentandthewatercoursesofthespringsareartificiallychannelled.Evi-denceofroadssurvives.Theseroadsdirecttrafficfromthesouthandfrom thesouthwesttowardsthenorthatthemouthofthevalley.
IntheseventhcenturyB.C.E.,thefirsttemplewasbuiltontherisetothe northoftheforum. 34Thestreetplandevelopedwiththeadditionofroads
parallel to the Geometric streets; these roads also channeled traffic from thesouthandwesttowardsthenorth.TheSacredSpringwaselaborated andperhapsatthispointfirsthadcultassociatedwithit.Inthemid-seventh
33Afullbibliographycanbefoundinibid.,whichalsoincludesplansillustratingchanges
intheforumareaovertime.Formoredetail,seeWilliams’spublicationsinHesperia.
34ForasurveyofCorinth’ssanctuarieswithpertinentbibliographyseeNancyBookidis,
century,asmallhousewithawellwasconstructedtothesouthofthespring. IntheLechaionRoadvalley,theCyclopeanfountainwasconstructedand housesnowfacedtheroadtowardsAcrocorinth.Inthesixthandearlyfifth centuries,theearlytemplewasdestroyed(ca.580C.E.)tobereplacedabout fortyyearslaterbytheArchaictemplethatstillstandsonthesitetoday.The formalapproachwasfromthenortheast,butaccesswassupplementedbya monumentalrampleadingupfromthestreetthatranpasttheSacredSpring tothesoutheast.Totheeastofthetemple,atthebaseofthecliffseparat-ingitfromthevalley,asmallstoawasbuilt.Aclusterofproto-Geometric gravesreceivedatemenos,andasmallundergroundshrinewasestablished alongsideanewroadtoAcrocorinth.
Thelaterfifthandearlyfourthcenturiessawarapidorganizedandfor-malizeddevelopmentthatgivestheimpressionofathoroughlyurbanspace. ThePeireneFountainreceiveddrawbasins,TempleAwasconstructedtothe north,andtheSacredSpringwasfurtherdevelopedwithatriglyphandmetope wallandacuriousapsidaltemple.Aracecoursemoreorlessfollowedthe southernmostArchaicroad,andthehousesthatflankeditwerereplacedby largercomplexes.Tothewest,thehouseofamerchantdealinginimported fishfilletswasconstructedandsubsequentlyremoved,andfinallyabath complexwasestablished.Themainchangesinthefollowingperiodwerea realignmentoftheracetrackandtheconstructionoftheSouthStoa.
withatorchraceontheracetrack;hersisterKotyto,honoredperhapsin theSacredSpring;ArtemisKorinthos;andPeirene;butalsoPoseidonand Aphrodite,andperhapsDionysos,Hermes,andthenymphs.Cultsofheroes includeZeuxippusandvariousunknowndeadancestors.
In 146B.C.E., after defeating theAchaian League led by the Corinthi-ansatLefkopetrosontheIsthmus,theRomangeneralMummiussacked Corinth.Hekilledthemalepopulationandsoldthewomenandchildren intoslavery.ThereafterCorinthwasnolongerapoliticalentitybutatbest analmost-desertedghosttownoccupiedbyasmallnon-Corinthianpopula-tionengagedincultivationoftheagriculturalland.Findsidentifiedfrom this interim period amount to forty-two knidian amphorae stamps, some Megarianbowls,andoverninetycoins.Theprestigeandincomefromthe IsthmiangamesdevolvedtoCorinth’snorthwestneighbor,Sikyon,andthe richagriculturallandwasauctionedoffasagerpublicuseverytwoyearsin Rome.Thecitywasrefoundedin44B.C.E.byJuliusCaesarasacolonyfor 16,000colonists.Itsterritorywasmeasuredoutintoportionsforthecolonists andthecitywasredevelopedonanorthogonalplan.Thereislittlereasonto believethatmanyofCorinth’sreligioustraditionssurvived.NancyBookidis hasdealtbrieflywiththreeofthecultsthatwereresurrected:thoseofApollo, Asklepius,andDemeter.35
IntheearlyRomanperiod,theforumwasahugeopenspacemeasuring about200meast-westand100mnorth-south,andtakingitsorientation fromthesurvivingSouthStoa,whichdefineditssouthernedge.TheSouth Stoawasmodified,someofitssmallerspacesbeingconvertedintolarger rooms,butitretaineditscolonnade.Dominatingtheskylinetothenorth, theArchaicTempleofApolloonTempleHillwasflankedbycolonnadesto thenorthandsouth.Thecolonistshadrotateditsorientationby180degrees tofaceanapproachfromtheroadoutoftheforumtothewest.Itsinterior colonnadewasremovedandre-erectedinalinerunningnorthfromthewest endoftheSouthStoaalongtheroadtoAcrocorinth.Alsotothenorthwasa longbasilicaflankingtheLechaionRoadononesideandthecliffofTemple Hillontheother.TheLechaionRoad,enteringtheforumfromthenorth, ascendedabroadstairwaythroughathree-bayedmonumentalarch.Eastof theLechaionRoad,PeireneFountainhadbeenrefurbishedandextended. Theformersimplefaçadeofthedrawbasinswaswalledoffwithaseries ofarches.Arectangulartwo-storycourtenclosingarectangularpoolwas addedtothenorth.
OntheeastsideoftheforumstoodtheJulianBasilica.Atforumlevel thiswasacryptoporticusbasement.Thefirststory,approachedbyastair-caseoffourteenstepsleadinguptoaporch,wasanopenrectangularspace measuring38x24m,withCorinthiancolumnssupportingaclerestoryand a marble dado. Inside were sculptures of the imperial family, including AugustusinPentelicmarble,dressedinatogawithafolddrapedoverhis head,andportrayedengagedinsacrifice.Hewasflankedbyhisadoptedsons CaiusandLuciusCaesar,eachportrayedinheroicnuditywithachlamys overtheshoulder,perhapsastheDioscuroi.Clearlythisbuildinghadsome highcivicfunction.
TothewestoftheforumstoodTempleE,a6x11–columnperipteral templeonalowbasewithlongstoasflankingittothenorthandsouth.The identificationofthetemplehasbeenhotlydebated.Somethinkthatitwas dedicatedtoJoveorZeusbasedonitssizeandlocation,whileothersre-garditasthetempleofOctavia.Infrontofthetemplewasarangeofmore typicallyRomantemplesandmonuments.Twoprostyletemples,FandG, were dedicated toVenus and to ClarionApollo respectively. Built in the Romanstyle,theystoodonhighmarble-cladpodiaofconcreteandrubble thatwereapproachedfromtheeastbyastair.Tothenorthwasafountain housededicatedtoPoseidon,decoratedwithastatueofthegodanddolphins, andacircularmonumentdecoratedintheCorinthianorderanddedicated byGnaiusCorneliusBabbius.Southofcenterintheforumwastherostra, consideredbymanytobethebemainfrontofwhichPaulwasbroughtby theeldersoftheJewishcommunity(Acts18:12).Asecondtoposforthose followingthetravelsofPaulinGreececanbefoundeastofthetheater,also remodeledtosuitRomantaste.Aninscriptionfoundtherereads:ERASTUS PROAEDILIT[AT]ES(ua)P(ecunia)STRAVIT(“Erastus,inreturnforhis aedileship,laidthepavementathisownexpense”).Sincetheofficeofaedile canbeprettymuchequatedwiththatofoikonomos,itisthoughtthatthis couldbetheoikonomosErastuswhosegreetingsPaulforwardsinhisletter totheRomans(16:23).36
Ahundredyearslater,theplanoftheforumremainedmuchthesame, receivingadditionssuchastheodeion,anothertempleatthewestendof theforum,shopstothewestoftherostra,andanewbasilicasouthofthe SouthStoa.
36
Finally,intheLateRomanperiodCorinthseemstohavebeenradically transformed.EarthquakesinthelatefourthcenturyC.E.andasocialcallby AlaricandhisGothsseemtohavereducedthecity.Thegreatsanctuariesof theHellenicdeitiesDemeterandAsklepios,alreadyunderlegislativepressure toclose,apparentlydidnotsurvive.Effortsweremadetorefurbishthearea oftheforum,however—mostnotablybyreappointingPeireneFountain37
andthewestshops,andbyconvertingthecentralshopsintothebroadest stairwayintheRomanworld.Intheearlyfifthcentury,acitywallwaslaid out,encompassingtheheartofthecity.Remote-sensingsurveysuggeststhat thiswallenclosedonlyabout25%oftheareahithertoenvisioned,andas-sertionsabouttherelationshipsofcemeteriesandchurchestothecitycenter willclearlyhavetoberevised.Thesixthcenturysawtheconstructionof thefirstbuildingstobededicatedtoChristianworship.38Ahugechurch,the
lengthoftwofootballfields,wasbuiltatLechaion,andsmallerbasilicas wereerectedatKraneion,Skoutela,andintheplainjustnorthofthecity.At whatshouldhavebeenanauspicioustime,ChristianCorinthfellvictimfirst tobubonicplagueanditshighmortalitylevels,andsubsequentlytoadeep economicdepressionthatlasted,asthearchaeologyofthesitewitnesses, forfivehundredyears.
37SeetheessaybyBetseyA.Robinsoninthisvolume(pp.xxx–xxx).