vii ABSTRACT
Rusik, F. N. (2015). The English Sound Changes among Lamaholot English Learners. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
Pronunciation is one of the important aspects in speaking. It determines the success of speaking. The wrong pronunciation causes poor intelligibility. Besides, it may disturb the communication. The unclear and incorrect pronunciation may result in a new meaning or no meaning at all to a certain word or sentence. Considering the important role of the pronunciation in speaking, it is necessary to pay attention more to the English learners' pronunciation. One of the reason is to clarify the development of the English learners' language acquisition especially their speaking ability.
This study is conducted to identify the English sound changes that occurred in the Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation. There are two research problems addressed in this study, namely, 1) what are the types of the English sound changes among the Lamaholot English learners?, 2) what are the distributions of the English sound changes features among the Lamaholot English learners?
This study used the qualitative research method. The participants of this research were the English learners who had Lamaholot as their first language. The researcher used the direct observation method in collecting the data by recording an audio of the Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation.
Based on the data analysis, the researcher found out that, first, there were seven of the nine types of the English sound changes classified by Crowley (1992) occurred in the Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation. They were lenition and fortition, sound addition, fusion, unpacking, vowel breaking, assimilation, and abnormal sound changes. Therefore, there were two types of the English sound changes which were classified by Crowley (1992) did not occur in the Lamaholot
English learners‟ pronunciation. They were metathesis and dissimilation. Second, lenition and fortition were the most often types of the English sound changes that occurred in the Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation. Meanwhile, vowel breaking was the most rare type of the English sound changes that occurred in the
Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation.
Finally, based on the conclusions, the researcher also gives the recommendations for the English teachers who teach the Lamaholot students, the Lamaholot English learners, and other researchers who would like to conduct a similar study.
viii ABSTRAK
Rusik, F. N. (2015). The English Sound Changes among Lamaholot English Learners. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Pengucapan adalah salah satu aspek penting dalam berbicara. Hal ini menentukan keberhasilan dalam berbicara. Pengucapan yang salah akan menyebabkan ketidakjelasan. Selain itu, pengucapan yang salah dapat mengganggu komunikasi. Ketidakjelasan pengucapan dapat menyebabkan timbulnya makna baru atau kehilangan arti dari kata atau kalimat tertentu. Mengingat peran penting dari pengucapan, maka perlu ada usaha untuk memberikan perhatian pada kemampuan pengucapan para pelajar bahasa Inggris. Salah satu alasannya adalah untuk mengetahui perkembangan kemampuan bahasa Inggris mereka terutama yang berkaitan dengan kemampuan berbicara.
Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mengidentifikasi perubahan suara yang terjadi dalam pengucapan para pelajar bahasa Inggris yang berasal dari Lamaholot. Terdapat dua permasalahan yang dibahas dalam penelitian ini, yaitu, 1) apa saja jenis perubahan suara bahasa Inggris yang terjadi dalam pengucapan para pelajar Lamaholot?, 2) bagaimana pendistribusian jenis perubahan suara bahasa Inggris yang terjadi dalam pengucapan para pelajar Lamaholot?
Penelitian ini menggunakan metode kualitatif. Peserta penelitian ini adalah para pelajar bahasa Inggris yang bahasa pertamanya adalah Lamaholot. Peneliti menggunakan metode observasi langsung dalam mengumpulkan data dengan merekam pengucapan bahasa Inggris para peserta.
Berdasarkan analisa dari data yang diperoleh, peneliti menemukan bahwa, pertama, terdapat tujuh dari sembilan jenis perubahan suara bahasa Inggris yang diklasifikasikan oleh Crowley (1992), terjadi dalam pengucapan bahasa Inggris para peserta. Jenis-jenis perubahan suara itu adalah lenition dan fortition, sound addition, fusion, unpacking, vowel breaking, assimilation, dan abnormal sound changes. Dengan demikian, terdapat dua jenis perubahan suara yang tidak terjadi dalam pengucapan bahasa Inggris para peserta. Jenis perubahan suara itu adalah metathesis dan dissimilation. Kedua, lenition dan fortition adalah jenis perubahan suara yang paling sering terjadi dalam pengucapan para peserta. Sementara itu, vowel breaking merupakan jenis perubahan suara yang paling jarang terjadi dalam pengucapan para peserta.
Akhirnya, berdasarkan kesimpulan, peneliti juga memberikan rekomendasi untuk para guru yang mengajarkan bahasa Inggris kepada para pelajar Lamaholot, para pelajar bahasa Inggris dari Lamaholot, dan peneliti lain yang ingin melakukan penelitian serupa.
i
THE ENGLISH SOUND CHANGES AMONG LAMAHOLOT
ENGLISH LEARNERS
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Filianus Nasu Rusik Student Number: 111214001
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
iv
“Don’t tell your God how big yo
ur difficulty is,
tell your difficulty how big your God is”
I DEDICATE THIS THESIS TO
MY BELOVED KONGREGASI BRUDER MARIA TAK BERNODA (MTB) AND FAMILY
v
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, 31 July 2015 Writer
vi
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIK
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Filianus Nasu Rusik
Nomor Mahasiswa : 111214001
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
THE ENGLISH SOUND CHANGES AMONG LAMAHOLOT ENGLISH LEARNERS
Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin ataupun memberikan royality kepada saya selama tetap mencatumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal: 31 July 2015
Yang menyatakan
vii ABSTRACT
Rusik, F. N. (2015). The English Sound Changes among Lamaholot English Learners. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
Pronunciation is one of the important aspects in speaking. It determines the success of speaking. The wrong pronunciation causes poor intelligibility. Besides, it may disturb the communication. The unclear and incorrect pronunciation may result in a new meaning or no meaning at all to a certain word or sentence. Considering the important role of the pronunciation in speaking, it is necessary to pay attention more to the English learners' pronunciation. One of the reason is to clarify the development of the English learners' language acquisition especially their speaking ability.
This study is conducted to identify the English sound changes that occurred in the Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation. There are two research problems addressed in this study, namely, 1) what are the types of the English sound changes among the Lamaholot English learners?, 2) what are the distributions of the English sound changes features among the Lamaholot English learners?
This study used the qualitative research method. The participants of this research were the English learners who had Lamaholot as their first language. The researcher used the direct observation method in collecting the data by recording an audio of the Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation.
Based on the data analysis, the researcher found out that, first, there were seven of the nine types of the English sound changes classified by Crowley (1992) occurred in the Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation. They were lenition and fortition, sound addition, fusion, unpacking, vowel breaking, assimilation, and abnormal sound changes. Therefore, there were two types of the English sound changes which were classified by Crowley (1992) did not occur in the Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation. They were metathesis and dissimilation. Second, lenition and fortition were the most often types of the English sound changes that occurred in the Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation. Meanwhile, vowel breaking was the most rare type of the English sound changes that occurred in the Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation.
Finally, based on the conclusions, the researcher also gives the recommendations for the English teachers who teach the Lamaholot students, the Lamaholot English learners, and other researchers who would like to conduct a similar study.
viii ABSTRAK
Rusik, F. N. (2015). The English Sound Changes among Lamaholot English Learners. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Pengucapan adalah salah satu aspek penting dalam berbicara. Hal ini menentukan keberhasilan dalam berbicara. Pengucapan yang salah akan menyebabkan ketidakjelasan. Selain itu, pengucapan yang salah dapat mengganggu komunikasi. Ketidakjelasan pengucapan dapat menyebabkan timbulnya makna baru atau kehilangan arti dari kata atau kalimat tertentu. Mengingat peran penting dari pengucapan, maka perlu ada usaha untuk memberikan perhatian pada kemampuan pengucapan para pelajar bahasa Inggris. Salah satu alasannya adalah untuk mengetahui perkembangan kemampuan bahasa Inggris mereka terutama yang berkaitan dengan kemampuan berbicara.
Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mengidentifikasi perubahan suara yang terjadi dalam pengucapan para pelajar bahasa Inggris yang berasal dari Lamaholot. Terdapat dua permasalahan yang dibahas dalam penelitian ini, yaitu, 1) apa saja jenis perubahan suara bahasa Inggris yang terjadi dalam pengucapan para pelajar Lamaholot?, 2) bagaimana pendistribusian jenis perubahan suara bahasa Inggris yang terjadi dalam pengucapan para pelajar Lamaholot?
Penelitian ini menggunakan metode kualitatif. Peserta penelitian ini adalah para pelajar bahasa Inggris yang bahasa pertamanya adalah Lamaholot. Peneliti menggunakan metode observasi langsung dalam mengumpulkan data dengan merekam pengucapan bahasa Inggris para peserta.
Berdasarkan analisa dari data yang diperoleh, peneliti menemukan bahwa, pertama, terdapat tujuh dari sembilan jenis perubahan suara bahasa Inggris yang diklasifikasikan oleh Crowley (1992), terjadi dalam pengucapan bahasa Inggris para peserta. Jenis-jenis perubahan suara itu adalah lenition dan fortition, sound addition, fusion, unpacking, vowel breaking, assimilation, dan abnormal sound changes. Dengan demikian, terdapat dua jenis perubahan suara yang tidak terjadi dalam pengucapan bahasa Inggris para peserta. Jenis perubahan suara itu adalah metathesis dan dissimilation. Kedua, lenition dan fortition adalah jenis perubahan suara yang paling sering terjadi dalam pengucapan para peserta. Sementara itu, vowel breaking merupakan jenis perubahan suara yang paling jarang terjadi dalam pengucapan para peserta.
Akhirnya, berdasarkan kesimpulan, peneliti juga memberikan rekomendasi untuk para guru yang mengajarkan bahasa Inggris kepada para pelajar Lamaholot, para pelajar bahasa Inggris dari Lamaholot, dan peneliti lain yang ingin melakukan penelitian serupa.
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, I would like to express my greatest praise to Jesus Christ for His amazing grace, spirit, guidance, and blessing given to me during the completion of my thesis. I do believe that I could not finish this thesis without His incredible help.
Second, I would like to express my highest gratitude to my major sponsor F. X. Ouda Teda Ena, M.Pd., Ed.D. for his kindness, patience, and suggestions in helping me to finish this thesis. My appreciation also goes to Christina Lhaksmita Anandari, Ed.M. and all the lecturers who have helped me to get the great knowledge, experience and value during my study time at the English Language Education Study Program (ELESP) of Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta, the secretariat staff and all the librarians in Sanata Dharma University.
Third, my deepest gratitude also goes to all of my brothers in Kongregasi Bruder Maria Tak Bernoda (MTB) and my family. I would like to thank them for their endless prayers, support, sacrifices and love given to me. I also would like to say thanks to Br. Gabriel Tukan, MTB., Br. Yanuarius, MTB., Br. Patrisius, MTB and Br. F. Nerri, MTB., for their undying love, care and support. They helped me to finish my study.
x
Fifth, I would also like to thank all of my best friends, especially Br. Titus, OFM., Sr. Yolanda, SFD., and Yohanna Tania, my PPL group at SMA Santa Maria Yogyakarta, my KKN group in Plempoh, my “The Cheese Robber” Play Performance group, my “PUPA” Service Program Design group, my seniors, my juniors, and all of my colleagues in Sanata Dharma University of Yogyakarta. I thank them for their support and advice in finishing my thesis.
At last, many thanks are addressed to those, whom I cannot mention one by one, who support me in the completion of my thesis. I believe that God always blesses them all. Amen.
xi
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ...v
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... vi
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Theoretical Description ...7
D. Research Instruments and Data Gathering Technique ...35
E. Data Analysis Technique ...38
F. Research Procedure ...40
CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION A. The Type of the English Sound Changes among the Lamaholot English Learners ...42
1. Lenition and Fortition ...42
2. Sound Addition ...53
xii
4. Unpacking ...58
5. Vowel Breaking ...60
6. Assimilation ...61
7. Abnormal Sound Changes ...63
B. The Distributions of Sound Changes Features among the Lamaholot English Learners ...64
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS A. Conclusions ...67
B. Recommendations ...68
REFERENCES ...70
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1 The English Consonant Articulation ...15
2.2 The English Vowel Sounds ...24
3.1 The Phonetic Transcription of the Participant‟s Pronunciation ...37
3.2 The Comparison of the Phonetic Transcriptions ...38
3.3 The Types of the English Sound Changes by Crowley (1992) ...39
3.4. The Distributions of the English Sound Changes Features ...39
4.1 The Sound Changes that were Classified as Lenition ...43
4.2 The Sound Changes that were Classified as Fortition ...49
4.3 The Sound Changes that were Classified as Sound Addition ...54
4.4 The Sound Changes that were Classified as Fusion ...55
4.5 The Sound Changes that were Classified as Unpacking ...58
4.6 The Sound Changes that were Classified as Vowel Breaking ...60
4.7 The Sound Changes that were Classified as Assimilation ...61
xiv
LIST OF FIGURE
xv
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Page APPENDIX A PERMISSION LETTER ...73 APPENDIX B PASSAGES ...75 APPENDIX C THE PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION OF THE
PARTICIPANTS‟ PRONUNCIATION ...80
APPENDIX D THE COMPARISON OF PHONETIC
1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the introduction of the research. This chapter is divided into six sections i.e. the research background, the research problem, the problem limitation, the research objectives, the research benefits, and the definition of terms.
A. Research Background
Learning to speak a foreign language always demands a serious attention to the sound system of the language. As Fries (1970) noted that in learning a new language, then, the chief problem is not of learning vocabulary items. It is the mastery of the sound system in which the learners have to understand the stream of speech, to hear the distinctive sounds features and to approximate their pronunciation (p. 3). Based on this statement, pronunciation that involves the process of hearing and producing the sounds plays an important role in teaching learning to speak English as a foreign language. Pronunciation is one important thing of the English language elements which is used as a means of mastery the sounds in speaking. It determines the success of speaking. It can be said that the wrong pronunciation causes poor intelligibility. Besides, mispronouncing the sound may disturb the communication. The unclear and incorrect pronunciation may increase a new meaning or no meaning at all to a certain word or sentence.
is to clarify the development of the English learners' language acquisition especially their speaking ability.
Since the researcher taught an English class for some Putri Reinha Rosari sisters at Susteran PRR Wisma Magnificat Yogyakarta, the researcher detected that there were some sisters whose first language was Lamaholot found difficulties in learning the English pronunciation. The researcher found that the sisters whose first language was Lamaholot often mispronounced some English words. This mispronunciation happened because of their simplicity to substitute the English sounds with other sounds which were easier for them to pronounce.
According to Crystal (1991), the substitution refers to the process or the result of replacing one item by another at a particular place (p. 335). In this research, the substitution is related to the replacement of one sound with other sounds in a word which are easier for someone to pronounce the sound, for example, the [ð] sound which is represented by the initial letters [th] is substituted to the sound [d], as in the English word they [ðeɪ ]. They found that it is easier to pronounce it as [dei]. In addition, they often pronounced the English words such as this [ðɪ s] and that [ðæt] as [dis] and [det].
B. Research Problems
Based on the research background above, this research is conducted to identify the English sound changes that occurred in the pronunciation of the Lamaholot English learners. The researcher would make it more specific by formulating the problem as follows:
1. What are the types of the English sound changes among the Lamaholot English learners?
2. What are the distributions of the English sound changes features among the Lamaholot English learners?
C. Problem Limitation
This research is limited on the English sound changes in the pronunciation of the Lamaholot English learners. It is not going to discuss the correct or incorrect of their pronunciation. The researcher intends to identify the phenomena of the English sound changes that occurred in the Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation. The English phonemic system which is used in this research is limited to the English phonemic system used in Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (2008) and Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (1995). Meanwhile, the discussion in this research is limited only on the nine types of English sound changes which are classified by Crowley (1992). They are lenition and fortition, sound addition, metathesis, fusion, unpacking, vowel breaking, assimilation, dissimilation, and abnormal sound changes (Crowley, 1992, p. 39-59).
words are pronounced differently by each individual participant are not analysed by the researcher.
D. Research Objectives
The objectives of this research are presented as follows:
1. To find out the types of the English sound changes among the Lamaholot English learners.
2. To find out the distributions of the English sound changes features among the Lamaholot English learners.
E. Research Benefits
This research is expected to give a meaningful contribution to the English Language Teaching field, especially for, first, the English teachers who teach pronunciation for the Lamaholot English learners. This research discusses the English sound changes that occurred in the pronunciation of the Lamaholot English learners. The researcher presumes that having this knowledge is important for the English teachers who teach the English pronunciation for the Lamaholot English learners. It can help the teachers to find out the types of the English sound changes of the Lamaholot English learners and then they can find out an appropriate method in teaching. Therefore, the Lamaholot students are able to pronounce the English words correctly.
students can find out appropriate activities that work effectively for them. They can apply the activities by themselves so that they are able to increase their ability in pronouncing English words.
The third benefit is for the researcher himself. Knowing the information about the types of the English sound changes is necessary for the researcher as the teacher candidate. It can facilitate the researcher to find out the method in teaching the English pronunciation, especially for the Lamaholot English learners.
The fourth benefit is for the next researchers. This research is expected to provide several new significant ideas which can be investigated further.
F. Definition of Terms
To avoid misunderstanding, some terms related to this study are defined as follows:
1. Sound Change
Crystal (1991) defines the sound change as a change in the sound system of a language (p. 321). Meanwhile, Saussure (1992) gives more specific information that the sound change is a part of the language process that occurs in the sound production in a certain condition determined by environment, stress, etc. (p. 144). According to O‟Grady and Dobrovolsky (1989), the sound change is
2. Pronunciation
Lado (1964) notes that pronunciation is the use of a sound system in speaking and listening (p. 70). Meanwhile, Richards, Platt, and Weber (1985) define the pronunciation as a way a certain sound is produced (p. 232). In addition, Kenworthy (1997) states that learning pronunciation, therefore, means learning the following aspects i.e. the sounds (consonants and vowels), the combination of sounds, the linkage of sounds, the word stress, the rhythm, the weak form, the sentence stress, and the intonation (p. 9-11). In this research, the pronunciation will deal with the learners‟ ability in pronouncing the words which influences their speaking skill.
3. Lamaholot
7
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, the researcher presents some theories that related to the research problems. This chapter is divided into two sections. The first section is the theoretical description and the second section is the theoretical framework.
A. Theoretical Description
In this section, the researcher describes the basic theories of the language change, the English sound changes and the English sound productions.
1. Language Change
a. Morphological Change
The morphological change refers to any change in the morphophonemic system (the morphemes and their phonemic representation) of a language (Fasold & Linton, 2006, p. 283), for example, in English, the verb “to dream” used to be irregular, however a regular form is now acceptable for use in the past tense becomes “dreamed”.
b. Syntactic Change
The syntactic change refers to change in the grammatical system of a language (Fasold & Linton, 2006, p. 284). These changes take place over a long time, for example as in the old English to the middle/modern English. The old English has a much more irregular syntactic structure (the verb phrase for example could appear in several places in the sentence), but the middle English is more like the modern English with a designated place for the verb phrase, for example:
The old English : ϸæt he na siϸ ϸan geboren ne wurde That he never after born not would-be The middle/the modern English : That he should never be born after that
c. Semantic Change
The semantic change is mainly concerned with change in the meanings of words (Fasold & Linton, 2006, p. 284), for example, originally, the English word “window” is ordinarily used only as a noun. Recently, in common and often put
“tomorrow we have to window the upper story”. The word “to window” here is a verb means “put window frames in a house under construction”.
d. Phonological Change
The phonological change refers to any change in the sound system (Fasold & Linton, 2006, p. 281). The phonological change can affect the way a single word is pronounced. A change in pronunciation might initially take place only in one particular geographic location and remain local or it may over time spread nationally and thus affect all varieties of a language, for example, the English words such as “bath”, “grass”, “laugh” and “dance” have changed in some parts
of the country. This gradual shift in pronunciation demonstrates perfectly a number of aspects of phonological change across geographical space and along social boundaries.
Moreover Fasold and Linton (2006) also mention that there are three main mechanisms creating the language change, namely, the sound change, the borrowing, and the analogical creation (p. 285). In this research, the researcher focuses on the sound change which belongs to the phonological change.
2. English Sound Changes
sounds which are produced by the English learners as the speech community. The following part will explain the causes and the types of the English sound changes.
a. The Causes of the English Sound Change
O'Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Ress-Miller (2005) describe the four causes of the sound changes, namely, the articulatory simplification, the spelling pronunciation, the analogy and the reanalysis, and the language contact.
1) Articulatory Simplification
The articulatory simplification refers to the idea of ease of the articulation (O'Grady, Archibald, Aronoff & Ress-Miller, 2005, p. 247). If there is a sound in a language which is difficult to pronounce, it is likely to be simplified. The articulatory simplification always occurs on the everyday speech as in the deletion of consonant in the cluster and the insertion of a vowel in the cluster, for example, in the deletion of consonant [ө] in the word fifth [fifө] becomes [fif].
2) Spelling Pronunciation
3) Analogy and Reanalysis
O'Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Ress-Miller (2005) explain that the term of analogy here reflects the preference of speaker for regular patterns over irregular ones. Meanwhile, the term of reanalysis refers to a particularly common term in morphological change. The morphological analysis refers more to the attribute (p. 248), for example, on the basis of its phonological similarity of a verb such as sting/stung, swing/swung, in some dialects bring has developed a form to be brung.
4) Language Contact
The language contact occurs when speakers of a language frequently interact with the speakers of another language or dialect. As consequence, the borrowing of language can occur where there are the significant numbers of bilinguals and multilingual (O'Grady, Archibald, Aronoff & Ress-Miller, 2005: p. 248), for example, the English language has borrowed many French words such as parent, cousin, animal and major.
b. Types of English Sound Change
1) Lenition and Fortition
Lenition refers to the weakening of sound such as devoicing and changes from stronger sounds to the weaker ones. Lenition includes aphaeresis or the loss of initial consonant, apocope or the loss of final vowels, and syncope, which is the loss of medial vowels. It also includes cluster reduction, which refers to deletion of one or more consonants, and haplology or the loss of an entire syllable in a word. On the contrary, fortition refers to sound changes from weaker to stronger sounds, such as semi-vowels into consonants (Crowley, 1992, pp. 39-43).
2) Sound Addition
Sound addition includes excrescence, ephenthesis, and prothesis. Excrescence refers to the process by which a consonant is added between two other consonants in a word. Meanwhile, ephenthesis and prothesis refer to the addition of vowel in the middle of a word to break two consonants and the addition of sound at the beginning of a word respectively (Crowley, 1992, pp. 43-45).
3) Metathesis
4) Fusion
Fusion refers to the blending of two separate sounds to become a single sound (Crowley, 1992, p. 46), for example, the French word “bᴐ n”. It is pronounced as [bõ] (means “good”). It is because in French sound system, if there
is a vowel located before a nasal consonant e.g “ᴐ n” as in “bᴐ n”, both of them
will be pronounced as a nasalized vowel [õ].
5) Unpacking
Unpacking is the opposite of the phonetic fusion. It refers to a separation of a single original sound into two sounds (Crowley, 1992, p. 48), for example, the word “truck”. In French, it is “camion”. It is pronounced as [kamiõ]. In Bismala
(the variety of Melanesian Pidgin spoken in Vanuatu), this word will undergo a change in pronunciation. In Bismala, a French nasal vowel will be changed to vowel and it will be pronounced with adding a nasal consonant [kamioŋ].
6) Vowel Breaking
Vowel breaking refers to the change of a single vowel to become a diphthong, with the original vowel remaining the same, but with a glide of some kind being added either before or after it (Crowley, 1992, p. 49), for example, the English word “bad” [bæd] will be pronounced by some Americans as [bæəd]. The original vowel [æ] remains but the neutral schwa vowel [ə] is added after it.
7) Assimilation
This instance is identified when a vowel is nasalized due to the existence of adjacent nasal consonant, such as in the word “band”.
8) Dissimilation
Dissimilation refers to the opposite change of the assimilation where the result is the two sounds end up becoming less similar (Crowley, 1992, p. 56). The phenomenon is apparent in the pronunciation of the sequence of two fricatives [f ө] in diphthong with [p ө] by many English speakers.
9) Abnormal Sound Changes
Abnormal sound changes are the sound changes that would appear, at first glance, to be abnormal – in the sense that they do not obviously fit into any of the categories that have mentioned above (Crowley, 1992, p. 57), for example, the word English [‟ɪ ŋglɪ ʃ ] which may be pronounced as [„ɪ ŋglɪ s] by Indonesian English learners. The sounds of [ʃ ] and [s] are voiceless continuant consonant sounds. The [ʃ ] sound is changed to [s] sound but it is not included in other eight types of sound changes that have already been classified by Crowley (1992) because they have the same features.
3. English Sound Productions
a. Consonant
Crystal (1991) explains that a consonant is one of the general categories used for the classification of both of the phonetics and the phonology. Phonetically, it is a sound made by a blocked, or so restricted that audible friction is produced (p. 74). Moreover, Collins and Mess (2003) state that consonant is a speech sound which typically occurs at the margins of the syllable. It exists before or after a vowel or a diphthong to form a syllable (p. 72). According to Indriani (2005), there are twenty-four consonants in English, namely, [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], [f], [v], [s], [z], [ ʃ ], [ʒ ], [tʃ ], [dʒ ], [ө], [ð], [m], [n], [ŋ], [h], [l], [r], [w], [j] (p. 8). Table 2.1 shows the articulation of the English consonant sounds.
Table 2.1 The English Consonant Articulation (Indriani, 2005, p. 11)
In the following part, the consonant sounds would be discussed based on the place of articulation and the manner of articulation. Here are the details of the English consonant sounds.
1) Bilabial Plosives
The bilabial plosive sounds include [p] and [b] sounds. According to Fromkin, Blair, and Collins (2000), based on the place of the articulation, [p] and [b] sounds are articulated by bringing both of the lips together which is called bilabials (p. 215). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation, the sound [p] and [b] are called plosives or nonnasal or oral stops because when we produce these sounds, the air that is blocked in the mouth explodes in which the closure is released (Fromkin, Blair & Collins, 2000, p. 221), for example, pig [pɪ g] and book [bʊk].
2) Alveolar Plosives
3) Velar Plosives
The velar plosive sounds include [k] and [g] sounds. Fromkin, Blair, and Collins (2000) mention that based on the place of the articulation, these sounds are called velar in which these sounds are produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate or velum (p. 216). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation, [k] and [g] sounds are called plosives because these sounds are produced by blocking the air in the mouth and exploding when the closure is released (Fromkin, Blair & Collins, 2000, p. 221), for example, come [kʌm], close [kloʊz], go [goʊ], and good [gʊd].
4) Palato-alveolar Affricates
5) Labio-dental Fricatives
The labio-dental fricative sounds include [f] and [v] sounds. According to Fromkin, Blair, and Collins (2000), [f] and [v] sounds are called labiodentals in which to produce these sounds, we have to use our lips by touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth. Labio refers to lips and dental refers to teeth (p. 215). In addition, he states that based on the manner of the articulation, these sounds are also called fricatives because to produce these sounds, the airstream is not completely stopped but it obstructed from flowing freely (Fromkin, Blair, and Collins, 2000, p. 221), for example, fine [faɪ n], after [ :ftə], love [lʌv], and above [əbʌv].
6) Dental Fricatives
The dental fricative sounds include [ө] and [ð] sounds. According to Fromkin, Blair, and Collins (2000), [ө] and [ð] sounds are called interdental
7) Alveolar Fricatives
The alveolar fricative sounds include [s] and [z] sounds. According to Fromkin, Blair, and Collins (2000), based on the place of the articulation, alveolar sound such as [s] and [z] are articulated by raising the front part of the tongue to the alveolar ridge (p. 215). In addition, based on the manner of the articulation, these sounds are included as fricatives sounds because to produce these sounds, the airstream is not completely stopped but it obstructed from flowing freely (Fromkin, Blair & Collins, 2000, p. 221), for example, sing [sɪ ŋ], ask [ :sk], and does [dʌz].
8) Palato-alveolar Fricative
9) Glottal Fricatives
The glottal fricative sound is [h] sound. Based on the place of the articulation, the [h] sound includes as glottal sound which is produced when the glottal is open and no other modification of the air stream mechanisms occurs in the mouth (Fromkin, Blair & Collins, 2000, p. 216). In addition Fromkin, Blair, and Collins (2000) state that the [h] sound includes as a fricative sound because to produce this sound, the airstream is not completely stopped but it obstructed from flowing freely (Fromkin, Blair & Collins, 2000, p. 221), for example, house [haʊs], who [hu:], and hair [heə].
10) Bilabial Nasal
The bilabial nasal sound is [m] sound. Fromkin, Blair, and Collins (2000) explain that [m] sound is one of the bilabial sounds because this sound is produced by bringing both lips together (p. 215). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation [m] sound includes as a nasal sound. It is because when this sound is produced the velum is not in its raised position, the air escapes through the nose and the mouth (Fromkin, Blair & Collins, 2000, p. 219), for example, miss [mɪ s], maybe [meɪ bi], and simple [sɪ mpl].
11) Alveolar Nasal
includes as a nasal sound because when this sound is produced the velum is not in its raised position, the air escapes through the nose and the mouth (Fromkin, Blair & Collins, 2000, p. 219), for example, no [nəʊ], month [mʌnө], coin [kᴐ ɪ n], none [nʌn].
12) Velar Nasal
The velar nasal sound is [ŋ] sound. Fromkin, Blair, and Collins (2000) state that based on the place of the articulation, the [ŋ] sound is a velar sound in which
this sound is produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate or velum (p. 216). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation, [ŋ] sound is a nasal
sound in which when this sound is produced the velum is not in its raised position, the air escapes through the nose and the mouth (Fromkin, Blair & Collins, 2000, p. 219), for example, uncle [ʌŋkl], thing [өɪ ŋ], link [lɪ ŋk], single [sɪ ŋgl].
13) Alveolar Lateral
14) Post- alveolar Roll
The post-alveolar roll is [r] sound. Based on the place of the articulation, Indriani (2005) classifies the [r] sound as a post-alveolar sound which is produced when the tip (and rims) of the tongue articulate with the rear part of the alveolar ridge (p. 9). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation, the [r] sound includes as a roll sound in which in pronouncing this sound, there is a series of rapid intermittent closures or taps made by a flexible organ on a firmer surface, or the tongue tip taps against the alveolar ridge (Indriani, 2005, p. 10), for example, read [ri:d], sorry [s ri], and library [laɪ brəri].
15) Palatal Semi-vowel
The palatal semi-vowel is [j] sound. Based on the place of the articulation, Fromkin, Blair, and Collins (2000) state the [j] sound is a palatal sound in which it is produced by raising the blade of the tongue toward the hard palatal just behind the alveolar ridge (p. 216). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation, the [j] sound is also a semi-vowel or glide sound in which it is produced with little or no obstruction of the airstream in the mouth (Fromkin, Blair & Collins, 2000, p. 223), for example, yesterday [jestədeɪ ], university [junɪ vɜ :sɪ ti], year [jɪ ə], new [nju:].
16) Bilabial Semi-vowel
the manner of the articulation, the [w] sound is also a semi-vowel or glide sound in which it is produced with little or no obstruction of the airstream in the mouth (Fromkin, Blair & Collins, 2000, p. 223), for example, which [wɪ tʃ ], twelve [twelv], water [wᴐ :tə], and away [əweɪ ].
Moreover, the English sound system allows some clusters of consonants or known as the consonant cluster. According to Collins and Mees (2003), the consonant cluster is a sequence of consonant at the margin of a syllable (p. 72). It means that in one syllable can consist of two up to five consonants. The clusters may occur in the beginning, the middle and the final position of a word. In the beginning of a word as in words draw [drᴐ :] CC V C with two consonants or scream [skri:m] CCC V C with three consonants. In the middle of a word as in words lifting [lɪ ftɪ ŋ] C V CC V CC with two consonants or complete [kəmpli:t] C V CCC V C V with three consonants. In the final of a word as in words desks [desks] C V CCC with three consonants or self [self] C V CC with two consonants.
b. Vowel
vowel sounds; they are [i:], [ɪ ], [u:], [ʊ ], [e], [ɜ :], [ə], [ᴐ :], [æ], [ʌ], [ ], [ :] (p. 57). Table 2.2 shows the English vowel sounds.
Table 2.2 The English Vowel Sounds (Campbell, 2004: xxi)
Fromkin, Blair, and Collins (2000) describe that the term of the front, the central, and the back refer to the parts of the tongue raised. Then, the term of the high, the mid and the low refer to the difference in the tongue height (pp. 228-229). In addition, the lips‟ position in unrounded vowels is in a neutral position or
they are spread out to press against the face. Meanwhile, the rounded vowels have lips pulled close together and pushed out from the face (Fromkin, Blair & Collins, 2000, p. 229). In the following part, the researcher will present the articulatory description of each vowel.
Unrounded Rounded
Front Central Back
High [i:] = peat
[ɪ ] = pit
[u:] = boot
[ʊ] = put Mid [e] = pet [ɜ:] = pert
[ə] = ago
[ᴐ:] = port
1) High Front Unrounded Vowels
The high front unrounded vowels are [i:] and [ɪ ] sounds. The [i:] sound is produced when the front of the tongue is raised to a height slightly below and behind the close front position; the lips are spread; the tongue is tense, with the side rims making a firm contact with the upper molars (Indriani, 2005, p. 57), for example, keen [ki:n], seed [si:d], and tree [tri:]. Meanwhile, the [ɪ ] sound is pronounced with a part of the tongue nearer to centre than to front raised just above the half-close position; the lips are loosely spread; the tongue is lax with the side rims making a light contact with the upper molars (Indriani, 2005, p. 59), for example, sit [sɪ t], rich [rɪ tʃ ], and pit [pɪ t].
2) Mid Front Unrounded Vowel
The mid front unrounded vowel is [e] sound. This sound is produced when the front of the tongue is raised between the half-open and half-close positions; the lips are loosely spread and are slightly wider apart than for [ɪ ] sound, the tongue may have more tension than in the case of [ɪ ] sound, the side rims making a light contact with the upper molars (Indriani, 2005, p. 60), for example, set [set], went [went] and hen [hen].
3) Low Front Unrounded Vowel
contact with the back upper molars; the lips are neutrally open (Indriani, 2005, p. 62), for example, sat [sæt], hand [hænd], and lamp [læmp].
4) Mid Central Unrounded Vowels
The mid central unrounded vowels are [ɜ :] and [ə] sounds. The [ɜ :] sound is articulated with the centre of the tongue raised between close and half-open, no firm contact being made between the tongue and the upper molars; the lips are neutrally spread (Indriani, 2005, p. 73), for example, first [fɜ :st], girl [gɜ :l], and bird [bɜ :d]. Meanwhile, the [ə] sound has a very high frequency of occurnce in unaccented syllables. Its quality is that of a central vowel with neutral lip position, having in non-final positions a tongue-raising between half-open and half-close (Indriani, 2005, p. 74), for example, ago [əgəʊ], permit [pəmɪ t], and adore [ədᴐ :].
5) Low Central Unrounded Vowel
The low central unrounded vowel is [ʌ] sound. This sound is articulated with a considerable separation of the jaws and with the lips neutrally open; the centre of the tongue is raised just above the fully open position, no contact being made between the tongue and the upper molars (Indriani, 2005, p. 63), for example, sun [sʌn], cut [kʌt], and hut [hʌt].
6) High Back Rounded Vowels
though no firm contact is made between the tongue and the upper molars; the lips tend to be closely rounded (Indriani, 2005, p. 71), for example, food [fu:d], soon [su:n], and moon [mu:n]. Meanwhile, the [ʊ] sound is produced with a part of the tongue nearer to centre than to back raised just above the half-close position; the tongue is laxly held, no firm contact being made between the tongue and the upper molars (Indriani, 2005, p. 69), for example, put [pʊt], full [fʊl], and sugar [ʃ ʊgə].
7) Mid Back Rounded Vowel
The mid back rounded vowel is [ᴐ :] sound. This sound is articulated with medium lip-rounding; the back of the tongue is raised between the half-open and half-close positions, no contact being made between the tongue and the upper molars (Indriani, 2005, p. 68), for example, cord [kᴐ :d], horse [hᴐ :s], and corn [kᴐ :n].
8) Low Back Rounded Vowels
the rims of the tongue and the upper molars (Indriani, 2005, p. 65), for example, pass [pa:s], after [a:ftə], and bath [ba:ө].
c. Diphthong
The diphthong is a sequence of two sounds, vowel and glide (Fromkin, Blair & Collins, 2000, p. 255). The diphthong is represented phonetically by sequences of two letters, the first [ɪ , e, a, ə, ʊ] showing the starting point and the second [ɪ , ʊ, ə] indicating the direction of which the glide is made (Indriani, 2005, p. 76). Furthermore, Indriani (2005) notes that there are eight of English dipthongs; they are [eɪ ], [aɪ ], [ᴐ ɪ ], [əʊ], [aʊ], [ɪ ə], [ɛ ə], [ʊə] (p. 77). Figure 2.1 shows the English diphthong sounds which consist of eight sounds.
Figure 2.1 The English Diphthong Sounds (Indriani, 2005:77)
their second element [ɪ ,ʊ,ə]; these elements may be treated as separate phonemic entities (p. 76). Collin and Mees (2003) state that there are two diphthongs in English, first is the centring diphthongs which are produced by the movement of the tongue from peripheral to central position, and second is the closing diphthongs which are produced by the position of the tongue from mid or low to high position (p. 98). Furthermore, Collin and Mees (2003) explain that the closing diphthongs can be divided into two, namely, the fronting and the backing diphthong (p. 98). The fronting diphthong is produced by the movement towards a close front vowel. The characteristic of the fronting diphthong is end with the sound [ɪ ]. There are three sounds which are placed in the fronting diphthong. They are the sounds [eɪ ] as in the word aim [eɪ m], the sound [aɪ ] as in the word ice [aɪ s], and the sound [ᴐ ɪ ] in the word oil [ᴐ ɪ l]. Meanwhile, the backing diphthong, end with the sound [ʊ], is produced with the movement towards a close back vowel. There are only two sounds which are placed in the backing diphthong. They are the sound [əʊ] as in the word phone [fəʊn] and the sound [aʊ ] as in the word sound [saʊnd] (Collins & Mess, 2003, p. 99). In the following part, it will be presented the description of each diphthong.
1) Centring Diphthongs
slight movement from spread to open (p. 84), for example, fear [fɪ ə], near [nɪ ə], and era [ɪ ərə]. Furthermore, when the [ɛ ə] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins in the half-open front position, i.e. approximately [ɛ ], and moves in the direction of the more open variety of [ə]. Where the [ɛ ə] occurs in a syllable closed by a consonant the [ə] element tends to be a mind [ə] type. The lips are neutrally open through-out (Indriani, 2005, p. 86), for example, care [kɛ ə], share [ʃ ɛ ə], and dare [dɛ ə]. Meanwhile, when the [ʊə] sound is produced, the tongue glides from a tongue position similar to that used for [ʊ] sound towards the more open type of [ə] sound which forms the end-point of all three centring diphthongs with, again, a somewhat closer variety of [ə] sound when the diphthong occurs in a closed syllable. The lips are weakly rounded at the beginning of the glide, becoming neutrally spread as the glide progresses (Indriani, 2005, p. 87), for example, poor [pʊə], pure [pjʊə], and sure [ʃ ʊə].
2) Closing Fronting Diphthongs
[baɪ t]. Meanwhile, when [ᴐ ɪ ] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins at a point between the back half-open positions and moves in the direction of [ɪ ] sound; the lips are open rounded for the first element, changing to the neutral for the second element (Indriani, 2005, p. 80), for example, oil [ᴐ ɪ l], join [dʒ ᴐ ɪ n], and coin [kᴐ ɪ n].
3) Closing Backing Diphthongs
The closing backing diphthongs are [eʊ] and [aʊ] sounds. According to Indriani (2005), when [eʊ] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins at a central position, between half-close and half-open, and moves in the direction of [ʊ] sound, there being a slight closing movement of the lower jaw; the lips are neutral for the first element, but have a tendency to round on the second element (p. 81), for example, old [əʊld], home [həʊm], and both [bəʊө]. Meanwhile, when the [aʊ] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins at a point between the back and front open positions, slightly more fronted than the position for [a:], and moves in the direction of [ʊ] sound, though the tongue may not be raised higher than the half-close level. The lips change from a neutrally open to a weakly rounded position (Indriani, 2005, p. 82), for example, house [haʊs], sound [saʊnd], and cow [kaʊ].
B. Theoretical Framework
language. This interference includes the difficulties in learning the sound, the word or the sentence construction of English. The researcher finds that the Lamaholot English learners face this problem in learning English. They have difficulty of mastering English sounds in a word. The researcher also identifies that they experience the process of the English sound change in learning English pronunciation. Therefore, in this research, the researcher intends to discuss out the phenomena of the English sound change that occurred in the pronunciation of English words by the Lamaholot English learners.
The first problem formulation is to find out the types of the English sound changes of the Lamaholot English learners. To answer the first research problem, the researcher uses the English sound changes theory by Crowley (1992). Crowley (1992) classifies the types of the English sound changes into nine categories. They are lenition and fortition, sound addition, metathesis, fusion, unpacking, vowel breaking, assimilation, dissimilation, and abnormal sound changes.
The second problem formulation is to find out the distribution of the English sound changes that occur in the pronunciation of the Lamaholot English learners. After analysing the types of the English sound changes which occure in the Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation, the researcher makes a list of the
33
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the method of this study. The explanation of the detailed methodology in this study will be presented in six parts. They are the research method, the research setting, the research participants, the instruments and the data gathering technique, the data analysis technique, and the research procedure.
A. Research Method
In addition, Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, and Razavieh (2010) state that there are many different types of the qualitative research including the basic interpretative studies, the case studies, the document or the content analysis, the ethnography, the grounded theory, the historical studies, the narrative inquiry, and the phenomenological studies (p. 29). In this research, the researcher used the basic interpretive studies. The basic interpretative study is a type of the qualitative research which provides the descriptive accounts targeted to understanding a phenomenon using data that might be collected in a variety of ways such as the interviews, the observations, and the document review (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen & Razavieh, 2010, p. 29). The researcher used this type of the qualitative research because this type aimed to describe and to observe the English sound changes in the Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation.
B. Research Setting
The researcher conducted this study in 2014/2015 academic year in Putri Reinha Rosari sisters‟ monastery at Wisma Magnificat, Jl. Gedong Kuning, No. 22, Gang Pring Mayang, Pringgolayan Yogyakarta. There were ten sisters included in this research. All of them had Lamaholot as their first language.
C. Research Participants
English class for Putri Reinha Rosari sisters at Wisma Magnificat and the researcher detected that some sisters, especially those whose first language was Lamaholot, experienced the English sound changes in their pronunciation. The numbers of the participants in this research were nine sisters whose first language was Lamaholot. The reasons for taking this group as the participants of this research were:
1. They were sisters who had Lamaholot as their mother-tongue or first language.
2. The researcher assumed that they had enough knowledge about English, since they had studied English for six years or more.
D. Research Instruments and Data Gathering Technique
According to Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, and Razavieh (2010), the primary instrument used for data collection in the qualitative research is the researcher himself, often collecting data through the direct observation or the interview (p. 422). In this research, the researcher himself, as the primary research instrument, used the direct observation method in collecting the data. The direct observation was the basic method for obtaining data in the qualitative research.
In this research, the researcher collected the data by recording an audio of Lamaholot English learners‟ pronunciation. The researcher prepared four sheets of
paper which contained some texts. The researcher chose these texts because there were some words in these texts were the words which were often pronounced incorrectly by many speakers who speak English as a foreign language. As Ur (1996) states that there are some pronunciation errors common to the speech of many speakers of English as a foreign language, namely, the difficulties in pronouncing the th sounds /ө/ and /ð/, the difficulties in pronouncing the neutral
schwa vowel /ə/, the tendency to give uniform stress to syllables that should be lighter or heavier, and the tendency to shorten diphthongs and make them into monophthongs (p. 58).
In addition, the researcher considered also the previous research which compared the English and the Indonesian sound system. It was because the Lamaholot English learners were Indonesian. Yulia and Ena (2004) state that one of the source of pronunciation errors is L1 sound system is different from that of L2 (p. 202). In comparing the English and the Indonesian sound system, there are some consonant sounds do not exist in both system, such as [ph], [th], [kh], [ʒ ], [ө], [ð] and [v]. Some other consonants exist in both of the systems but have
without changing the meaning. Conversely, in English these sounds are two distinct phonemes. The English vowels are also different from the Indonesian vowels. Some Indonesian vowels end to be shorter such as [i], [u], and [ᴐ ] compared to [i:], [u:], and [ᴐ :]. Some diphthongs do not exist in the Indonesian sound system such as [ei], [eu], [ie], [ea], and [uo]. Meanwhile, the Indonesian sound [o] as in “toko” and [e] as in “beda” are absent in the English sound system (Yulia & Ena, 2004, pp. 202-203)
After preparing the texts, the participants were asked to read it and then the researcher recorded their pronunciation. After recording their pronunciation, the researcher transcribed the result of their pronunciation into the phonetic transcription. The results were written in the table which could be seen below.
Table 3.1 The Phonetic Transcription of Participant’s Pronunciation
Words The Phonetic Transcription of Participant’s
E. Data Analysis Technique
After gaining the data from the recording, the researcher provided three steps in analysing the data. First, after transcribing the recording of the participants‟ pronunciation, the researcher compared the phonetic transcription of
their pronunciation with the correct phonetic transcription based on Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (2008) and Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (1995). The researcher used the table below.
Table 3.2 The Comparison of the Phonetic Transcriptions
Second, to answer the first research problem, the researcher analysed the English sound change phenomena that occurred by using the theory of English sound changes from Crowley (1992). The researcher used the table 3.3.
Words Phonetic Transcription
Participants’ Pronunciation
Longman Pronunciation
Dictionary (2008)
Oxford Advanced
Learner's Dictionary
Table 3.3 The Types of the English Sound Changes by Crowley (1992)
Afterwards, to answer the second research problems, the researcher made a list of the distributions of sound change that occurred in the participants‟ pronunciation by using the table 3.4.
Table 3.4 The Distributions of the English Sound Changes Features that Occurred in the Participants’ Pronunciation
The type of sound changes The number of
cases
Types of sound changes Words Participants’
F. Research Procedure
In this research, the researcher began the research by selecting the topic which was related to the educational field, especially dealing with the linguistics. After finding the topic, the researcher consulted it to the lecturer. It aimed to choose and decide the appropriate topic, the problem formulation, and the research instrument used in this research. Then, the researcher conducted the research based on the topic and the problem formulation.
The next step was identifying the participants. The researcher chose Putri Reinha Rosari sisters at Wisma Magnificat Yogyakarta, especially those whose first language was Lamaholot as the participants. The researcher selected the participants related to the goals and the topic of this research. Afterwards, the researcher conducted an observation of the participants‟ pronunciation. The researcher prepared some texts which would be read by the participants. Then, the researcher gathered the data by recording the participants‟ pronunciation and
transcribing it into the phonetic transcription.
41
CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
In this chapter, the researcher presents the result of the findings and the discussion. To present this part, the researcher had acquired the data and the information by recording an audio of the nine participants‟pronunciation. After recording their pronunciation, the researcher transcribed the result of their pronunciation into the phonetic transcription and compared the result with the correct phonetic transcription used on Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (2008) and Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (1995). Afterwards, the researcher analysed the English sound changes phenomena that occurred in their pronunciation by using the theory of the English sound changes from Crowley (1992). The words which analyzed in this research were the words which pronounced by five or more participants in the same way. Therefore, the words which pronounced differently by each individual participant were not analyzed by the researcher.
A. The Types of the English Sound Changes among the Lamaholot English Learners
In this part, the researcher presents and discusses the findings about the English sound changes that occur in the participants' pronunciation based on the theory of the English sound changes by Crowley (1992). The result of the research analysis showed that there were seven of the nine types of the English sound changes classified by Crowley (1992) occurred in participants' pronunciation. They were lenition and fortition, sound addition, fusion, unpacking, vowel breaking, assimilation, and abnormal sound changes. In detail, the researcher describes each of them as below.
1. Lenition and Fortition
Lenition refers to the weakening of the sound such as devoicing and changes from the stronger sounds to the weaker ones. Lenition includes aphaeresis or the loss of initial consonant, apocope or the loss of final vowel, and syncope or the loss of medial vowel. It also includes cluster reduction which refers to the deletion of one or more consonants, and haplology or the loss of an entire syllable in a word. On the contrary, fortition refers to the change of the sounds from the weaker to the stronger, such as semi-vowels into consonants (Crowley, 1992, pp. 39-43).
and back vowels rank higher than central vowels (p. 39). Based on the statement above, the researcher found that there were seven of the English sounds underwent lenition or the weakening of the sounds in the participants' pronunciation.
The first lenition was voiced [v] to voiceless [f] as in the words conversation [k nvə‟seɪ ʃ ən] [konfer‟seʃ ən], and governing [‟gʌvənɪ ŋ] [‟gofərnɪ ŋ]. According to Yulia and Ena (2004), voiced [v] is one of the English
consonant sounds that does not exist in the Indonesian sound system. Therefore, Indonesian English learners almost always replace [v] to [f] because they do not perceive it as a distinct sound that makes different to meaning. It is because [v] and [f] sounds are allophonic in the Indonesian sound system.
The second lenition was voiced [z] to voiceless [s] as in the words sometimes [‟sʌmtaɪ mz] [‟səmtaɪ ms], cause [kᴐ :z] [kaos], because [bɪ ‟k z] [bɪ ‟kous], these [ði:z] [dɪ s], physical [‟fɪ zɪ kəl] [‟pɪ sɪ kal], physically [‟fɪ zɪ kəli] [‟pɪ sɪ keli], those [ðəʊz] [dos], and
example [ɪ g‟z :mpəl] [ek‟se:mpəl]. These two sounds also caused problem for the Indonesian English learners because the [s] and [z] sounds were also allophonic in the Indonesian sound system. Conversely, in English these sounds were two distinct phonemes. As Ur (1995) argues that mispronunciation may derive from the various sources. One of them is the sounds exist in the mother tongue, but not as a separate phoneme (p. 52).
in the Indonesian English learners pronunciation are attributed to inappropriate analogy. Here, the participants pronounce the word example as [ek‟se:mpəl] as the result of drawing an analogy from the word ex [eks].
The fourth lenition was voiced stop [dʒ ] to voiceless continuant [s] as in the word language [læŋgwɪ dʒ ] [leŋuɪ s]. Paulston and Bruder (1976) state that a problem happens in the speech of many speaker of English as a foreign language when there are phonemes have different distributions in the two languages. Based on the previous research from Yulia and Ena (2004), the affricate sound ending [dʒ ] never appears finally in the Indonesian words. Therefore, the Indonesian English learners tend to substitute [dʒ ] sound with the nearest equivalence sound which they know.
The next lenition was voiced [d] to voiceless [t] as in the word afraid [ə‟freɪ d] [ə‟freɪ t]. In Indonesian sound system, [d] and [t] sounds were also allophonic as in the word jumad which might be pronounced either [jumat] or [jumad] without changing the meaning. Paulston and Bruder (1976) state that one of the segmental differences that may interfere with pronunciation is when there are two sounds which are allophone in the native language but the distinct phonemes in the target language.
some English sounds with the nearest equivalence sounds which they know, such as [ʒ ] to [s].
The last lenition was front vowel [e] in diphtong [eɪ ] to central vowel [ə] as in the words communication [kə,mju:nə‟keɪ ʃ ən] [ko,mu:nɪ ‟kəʃ ən], and combination [,k mbə‟neɪ ʃ ən] [kombɪ ‟nəsən]. Based on the previous research from Yulia and Ena (2004), the Indonesian English learners tend to shorten the diphthongs and make them into the monophthongs inevitably results in error as [eɪ ] to [ə] in the word communication [kə,mju:nə‟keɪ ʃ ən] [ko,mu:nɪ ‟kəʃ ən].
Furthermore, the researcher discovered that there were sixteen words which underwent the process of syncope or the loss of vowels in the middle of a word. They were conversation [k nvə‟seɪ ʃ ən] [konfer‟seʃ ən], communication [kə,mju:nə‟keɪ ʃ ən] [ko,mu:nɪ ‟kəʃ ən], native [‟neɪ tɪ v] [‟natɪ v], combination [,k mbə‟neɪ ʃ ən] [kombɪ ‟nəsən], information [ɪ nfə‟meɪ ʃ ən] [ɪ nfor‟mesən], make [meɪ k] [mek], rainbow [‟reɪ nbəʊ]
[‟renboʊ], shape [ʃ eɪ p] [sep], appreciate [ə‟pri:ʃ ieɪ t] [a‟presɪ et],
