BAHASA INGGRIS UNTUK BIOLOGI
TRISNA AMELIA
Perpustakaan Nasional: Katalog Dalam Terbitan
© Trisna Amelia, Nur Eka Kusuma Hindrasti, 2016
Bahasa Inggris untuk Biologi Trisna Amelia
Nur Eka Kusuma Hindrasti
Hak cipta dilindungi Undang-Undang. Dilarang mengutip sebagian atau seluruh isi buku ini dengan cara apa pun, termasuk dengan cara penggunaan mesin fotokopi, tanpa ijin sah dari penerbit
ISBN 978-602-6770-07-3
vii, 68 hlm, 17,6 cm X 25 cm Cetakan 1, Oktober 2016
Hak Penerbitan pada UMRAH Press, Tanjungpinang
Kantor:
Kampus Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji, Gedung Rektorat Lantai III Jl. Dompak, Tanjungpinang, Provinsi Kepulauan Riau 29111
Telp/Fax : (0771) 7001550 – (0771) 7038999, 4500091
PREFACE
Thank Allah SWT who has given His bless to the writer for finishing the Book entitled “Bahasa Inggris untuk Biologi”. The writer also wish to express his deep and sincere gratitude for those who have guided in completing this book.
This book contains concept of biology and the exercise in English language that can help the readers to improve their English skill in biology. There are eight main contents in this book, which are the chemistry of life, an introduction of metabolisms, biotechnology, mechanisms of evolution, classification of living things,reproduction in plant, thermoregulation, and ecology. Hopefully, this book can help the readers to expand their knowledge about English for Biology.
Tanjungpinang, September 2016
CONTENTS
Preface ………. i
Contents ………. ii
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ………. 1
Chapter 2 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE ………. 5
Chapter 3 AN INTRODUCTION OF METABOLISMS ………. 9
Chapter 4 BIOTECHNOLOGY ………. 14
Chapter 5 MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION ………. 18
Chapter 6 CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS ………. 22
Chapter 7 REPRODUCTION IN PLANT ………. 31
Chapter 8 THERMOREGULATION ………. 39
Chapter 9 ECOLOGY ………. 49
Bibliography ………. 61
Glossary ………. 62
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
1. Deskripsi Mata Kuliah
Mata kuliah bahasa inggris untuk biologi dirancang untuk memberi bekal
mahasiswa agar dapat menguasai bahasa Inggris dalam menunjang
pemahaman ilmu kimia dari literatur atau sumber informasi berbahasa Inggris. Materi perkuliahan mencakup peningkatan literasi dalam memahami
naskah saintifik berbahasa inggris. Latihan-latihan yang diberikan berorientasi
pada hakikat sains, terutama keterampilan proses sains. Adapun konten
materi yang terkandung, di antaranya the chemistry of life, an introduction of
metabolisms, biotechnology, mechanisms of evolution, classification of living
things,reproduction in plant, thermoregulation, dan ecology. Bahasa inggris
digunakan sebagai pengantar perkuliahan. Penilaian diambil dari partisipasi
dan keaktifan mahasiswa dalam perkuliahan.
2. Standar Kompetensi
Mahasiswa mampu menerapkan keterampilan proses sains untuk memahami
teks saintifik berbahasa inggris.
3. Kompetensi Dasar
a. Mahasiswa mampu memahami teks saintifik berbahasa inggris
b. Mahasiswa mampu menerapkan keterampilan proses sains dengan
SYLLABUS
Mata Kuliah Code SKS Semester Lecturers
Bahasa Inggris
English for Biology is English for Specific Purposes ( ESP), English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Professional Purposes (EPP) toilored to the needs of first and second semester undergraduate Biology Education Department at FKIP UMRAH. The aim of this course is to accomplish student with english ability and make then capable in science process skill. The course materials include reading comprehension, structure, speaking , and listening, from the chosen topics related biology and teaching biology.
Objrectives of the Course
1.
Answer the questions from the texts related to biologytopics.
2.
Use the biology terms in sentences.3.
Speak English in academic context.4.
Use classroom languages.2. To introduce one sefl in English
Syllabu
3. Explain the structural polysaccharides
4. Communicate the different of the
structure chitin and cellulose monomer through pictures and explanations
1. define the concept of metabolisms
2. Raise question about metabolisms
3. Explain respiration and photosyntesize
Module Chapte r 2
Wee
1. Ask question about photosyntesize
2. Design experiment about photosyntesize
3. Contruct a table of data
Module
2. Raising question about biotechnology
3. Define genetic engineering
4. Aski uestion about genetic engineering
Module
1. Construct hypotheses from the question
2. Design a investigation based on
hypotheses
3. Predict about genetic engineering
4. Communicate the results of the
2. Ask question about evolution
3. Define natural selection
4. Construct a graph based on the data
5. Construct hypotheses from the
phenomenon
classification system in living things;
Module
3. Define endothermy and ectothermy;
4.
2. Applying concept about
Wee
k Topic Objectives
Sourc e
Time
n In Plant 3. differentiate between vegetative, asexual and sexual reproduction;
4. explain the parts of a dicot flower and
their functions;
5. present the part of a dicot flower;
6. observe a dicot flower and determine
each part of the flower;
7. state the types of pollination.;
14 Ecology 1. define ecology and describe the major sub-disciplines: behavior, population ecology, community ecology;
2. identify factor that determine
geographic distribution;
3. identify biotic and abiotic factor;
Module Chapte r 8
2 x 50‟
15 Ecology 1. define ecosystem;
2. define primary producer, primary
consumer, secondary consumer, and omnivory and be able to accurately identify these in a food web;
3. read and interpret a food web diagram
with multiple trophic levels and how these interact using top-down and bottom-up terminology;
4. interpret food chains and food webs, and
be able to locate a food chain within a food web.
Chapter II
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to :
7. Explain the concept of the chemistry of life
8. Raising question about the chemistry of life
9. Explain the structural polysaccharides
10.Communicate the different of the structure chitin and cellulose monomer
through pictures and explanations
11. Apply the concept of structural polysaccharides to a operation in hospital
12.Predict a phenomenon
The flower above is from a magnolia, a tree of ancient lineage that is native to
Asian and American forests. The magnolia blossom is a sign of the plant's status as a
living organism, for flowers contain organs of sexual reproduction, and reproduction is
a key property, as you will learn later.
Like all organisms, the magnolia tree in second figure above is living in close
association with other organisms, though it is a lone specimen far from its ancestral
forest. For example, it depends on beetles to carry pollen from one flower to another,
and the beetles, in turn, eat from its flowers. The flowers are adapted to the beetles in
several ways: Their bowl shape allows easy access, and their multiple reproductive
organs and tough petals help ensure that some survive the voracious beetles. Such
discussed later in this chapter, evolution is the fundamental organizing principle of
biology and the main theme of this book.
Although biologists know a great deal about magnolias and other plants, many
mysteries remain. For instance, what exactly led to the origin of flowering plants?
Posing questions about the living world and seeking science-based answers scientific
inquiry are the central activities of biology, the scientific study of life. Biologists'
questions can be ambitious. They may ask how a single tiny cen becomes a tree or a dog, how the human mind works, or how the different forms of life in a forest interact.
Can you think ofsome questions about living organisms that interest you? When you
do, you are already starting to think like a biologist. More than anything else, biology is
a quest, an ongoing inquiry about the nature of life. Perhaps some of your questions
relate to health or to societal or environmental issues. Biology is woven into the fabric
of our culture more than ever before and can help answer many questions that affect our lives. Research breakthroughs in genetics and cell biology are transforming
medicine and agriculture. Neuroscience and evolutionary biology are reshaping
psychology and sociology. New models in ecology are helping societies evaluate
environmental issues, such as global warming. There has never been a more important
time to embark on a study of life.
Carbohydrates include both sugars and polymers of sugars. The simplest
carbohydrates are the monosaccharides, also known as simple sugars.
Monosaccharides (from the Greek monos, single, and sacchar, sugar) generally have
Glucose (C6HI20 6), the most common monosaccharide, is of central in the chemistry
of life. Sugar molecules are generally incorporated as monomers into disaccharides or
polysaccharides. There are two polysaccharides, storage polysaccharides and structural
polysaccharides
Organisms build strong materials from structural polysaccharides. For
example, the polysaccharide called cellulose is a major component of the tough walls
that enclose plant cells. On a global scale, plants produce almost 1014 kg (100 billion tons) of cellulose per year; it is the most abundant organic compound on Earth. Some
prokaryotes can digest cellulose, breaking it down into glucose monomers. A cow
harbors cellulose digesting prokaryotes in its rumen, the first compartment in its
stomach.
The prokaryotes hydrolyze the cellulose of hay and grass and convert the
glucose to other nutrients that nourish the cow. Similarly, a termite, which is unable to digest cellulose by itself, has prokaryotes living in its gut that can make a meal of
wood. Some fungi can also digest cellulose, thereby helping recycle chemical elements
within Earth's ecosystems
Another important structural polysaccharide is chitin, the carbohydrate used
by arthropods (insects, spiders, crustaceans, and related animals) to build their
exoskeletons. An exoskeleton is a hard case that surrounds the soft parts of an animal.
Pure chitin is leathery and flexible, but it becomes hardened when encrusted with calcium carbonate, a salt. Chitin is also found in many fungi, which use this
polysaccharide rather than cellulose as the building material for their cell walls. Chitin
is similar to cellulose, except that the glucose monomer of chitin has a nitrogen.
EXERCISE BCommunicate through pictures and explanations
As we know from the paragraph above, chitin is similar to cellulose, except that the
glucose monomer of chitin has a nitrogen. Know, please communicate to your friend
The structure of the chitin monomer.
The structure of the cellulose monomer.
EXERCISE CApply the concept
Have you ever get a operation in hospital? Usually you must be surgic for cover the
pain. Do you know surgical thread is made from? Know, looking for a knowledge what
surgical thread is made from and how is they work!
EXERCISE DPredict
Predict, What would happen if a cow were given antibiotics that killed all the
prokaryotes in its stomach?
Answer:
Chapter III
AN INTRODUCTION OF METABOLISMS
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to :
4. define the concept of metabolisms
5. Raise question about metabolisms
6. Explain respiration and photosyntesize
7. Ask question about photosyntesize
8. Design experiment about photosyntesize
9. Contruct a table of data
The living cell is a chemical factory in miniature, where thousands of reactions
occur within a microscopic space. Sugars can be converted to amino adds that are linked together into proteins when needed, and proteins are dismantled into amino
acids that can be converted to sugars when food is digested. Small molecules are
assembled into polymers, which may be hydrolyzed later as the needs of the cell
change. In multicellular organisms, many cells export chemical products that are used
in other parts of the organism. The process known as cellular respiration drives the
cellular economy by extracting the energy stored in sugars and other fuels. Cells apply
this energy to perform various types of work, such as the transport of solutes across the plasma membrane. In a more exotic example, cells of the fungus in figure above
convert the energy stored in certain organic molecules to light. a process called
bioluminescence. (The glow may attract insects that benefit the fungus by dispersing
its spores.) Bioluminescence and all other metabolic activities carried out by a cell are
precisely coordinated and controlled. In its complexity, its efficiency, its integration,
concepts of metabolism that you learn in this chapter will help you understand how
matter and energy flow during life's processes and how that flow is regulated.
.EXERCISE A. Raising Questioning
THE NEED FOR ENERGY AUTOTROPHS AND HETEROTROPHS
A chemical reaction either release energy (i.e. exothermic) or uses energy
(i.e. is endothermic). Almost all the chemical reactions that occur in living organisms are of the endothermic type, and this explains why organisms need a source
of energy if they are to function well and stay alive. In other words, energy is the
capacity to do work and the work that must be done in an organisms is to make
endothermic reactions take place. In fact, we find that all organisms, both plants and
animal, obtain the energy needed for endothermic reactions by oxidizing (or
„burning‟) substances such as sugars.this process is called respiration: A sugar + oxygen water+carbon dioxide+energy
We must now ask where an organism obtains substance like sugars
All green plants can synthesize organic subtances from carbon dioxide and
water, the presence of chlorophyll enabling them to utilize light energy for this
endothermic process, which is called photosynthesis:
Carbon dioxide + water + energy a sugar + oxygen
Green plants, then, are autotrophic, as also are certain blue-green algae which lack
chlorophyll. Such plants are chemosynthetic (or chemo-autotrophic) rather than photosynthetic (or photo-autotrophic), because they use energy that is released
from simple exothermic chemical reactions. Beggiatoa, for example, is able to oxidize
hydrogen sulphide and then use the energy that is released to synthesize sugars:
Step one: hydrogen sulphide + oxygen water + sulphur + energy
Chemosynthesis is, however, relatively rare, and most organisms that lack chlorophyll
are heterotrophic, obtaining the organic substance that they need from other
organisms.
Heterotrophs cannot synthesize complex organic substances from simple raw
materials like carbon dioxide and water. This explains why they are entirely dependent
upon other organisms. It is of course animals that we upon plants and those that feed
on other animals. However, we must also include among the heterotroph many bacteria,all the Fungi, and even some flowering plants that lack chlorophyll.
EXERCISE AChecking of understanding
Finding out baout the meaning of words
Read the passage again and find the words or phrases below. (The numbers in brackets
give the paragraphs in which the words can be found). Then try to decide which of the
three alternatives can replace the word or phrase without changing the meaning of the passage.
1 occur (1) 2 capacity (1)
(a) are important (a) size
(b)take place (b) ability
(c) need energy (c) need
(a) comparatively unknown (a) compeletely
(b) more typical (b) largely
(c) comparatively uncommon (c) mostly
Definitions nd naming statements
Complete these definitions and naming statements
1.
... is the process by means of which an organism release ...by oxidizing energy-rich compounds
2.
An ... is a reaction which results in the re;ease of energy.3.
... is called energy5.
Autotrophism is the process by means of which organisms ...6.
The use of chemical energy to ... is called chemosynthesis.7.
Heterotrophs are ...8.
Chemo-autotrophic organisms are organism which synthesize complex organicsubstance using ...
Checking facts and ideas
Try to decide whether you think these statements are true (T) or false (F).
1 most chemical reactions in organism are endothermic. ( T / F )
2 respiration takes place in all organisms. ( T / F ) 3 all autotrophs possess chlorophyll. ( T / F )
4 all blue-green algae are chemo-autotrophs. ( T / F )
5 Beggiatoa lacks chlorophyll
( T / F )
6 some heterotrophs feed upon other heterotrophs. ( T / F )
EXERCISE BAsking questioning
Look at the picture below! What do you think about the picture? Please make questions about the picture, which there are relation with photosynthesize!
EXERCISE CDesign Experiment
Design a experiment to know is un-green leaf occur photosynthesize?
Answer:
...
...
...
...
...
...
EXERCISE DConstructing a table of data
A. Please construct a table to tell the differents of respiration and photosynthesize
Chapter IV
BIOTECHNOLOGY
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to :
5. Define biotechnology
6. Raising question about biotechnology
7. Define genetic engineering
8. Aski uestion about genetic engineering
9. Construct hypotheses from the question
10. Design a investigation based on hypotheses
11. Predict about genetic engineering
12. Communicate the results of the investigation to the poster
In 1995, a major scientific milestone was announced: For the first time,
researchers had sequenced the entire genome of a free-living organism, the bacterium
Haemophilus influenzac. This news electrified the scientific community. Few among
them would have dared to dream that a mere 12 years later, genome sequencing would be under way for more than 2,000 species. By 2007, researchers had completely
sequenced hundreds of prokaryotic genomes and dozens of eukaryotic ones, including
all 3 billion base pairs ofthe human genome.
Ultimately, these achievements can be attributed to advances in DNA
technology-methods of working with and manipulating DNA-that had their roots in
the 1970s. A key accomplishment was the invention of techniques for making
different sources-often different speciesare combined in vitro (in a test tube). This
advance set the stage for further development of powerful techniques for analyzing
genes and gene expression. How scientists prepare recombinant DNA and use DNA
technology to answer fundamental biological questions are one focus of biotechnology.
Another focus of the chapter is how our lives are affected by biotechnology, the
manipulation of organisms or their compo· nents to make useful products.
Biotechnology has a long history that includes such early practices as selective breeding of farm animals and using microorganisms to make wine and cheese. Today,
biotechnology also encompasses genetic engineering, the direct manipulation ofgenes
for practical purposes. Genetic engineering has launched a revolution in
biotechnology, greatly expanding the scope of its potential applications. Tools from the
DNA toolbox are now applied in ways that were unthinkable only a decade ago,
affecting everything from agriculrure to criminal law to medical research. For instance, on the DNA micro array in figure above, the colored spots represent the relative level
of expression of 2,400 human genes. Using microarray analysis, researchers can
quickly compare gene expression in different samples, such as those obtained from
normal and cancerous tissues. The knowledge gained from such gene expression
studies is making a significant contribution to the study of cancer and other diseases.
EXERCISE A Asking questioning
Based to the text, raise a question about the biotechnology, next find what the answer is?
Question :
...
Answer :
...
EXERCISE B Checking for Understanding
List at least three different properties that have been acquired by crop plants via
genetic engineering!
...
...
For exerciseC until G, Look at the picture below!
EXERCISE C Raising questioning
Raise 3 questions based to the picture above!
1. What is the name of the fruist in picture above?
...
2. How can the fruits have unusual performing?
...
3. How make the fruits!
...
EXERCISE DConstructing hypotheses
Give your hypothesize to answer your questions!
...
...
...
...
... ...
EXERCISE E Designing the investigation
Design a investigation to prove, whether your answer correct or not!
...
...
EXERCISE F Predicting
Predict why the fruits difficult or hardly found, especially in Indonesia!
...
...
...
EXERCISE G Communicating
Chapter V
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to :
7. Define evolution
8. Ask question about evolution
9. Define natural selection
10. Construct a graph based on the data
11. Construct hypotheses from the phenomenon
12. Predict an explanation from the phenomenon
The Onymacris unguicularis beetle lives in the coastal Namib desert
ofsouthwestern Africa, a land where fog is common, but virtually no rain falls. To obtain the water it needs to survive, the beetle relies on “a pecullar uhead standing"
behavior Tilting head-downward, the beetle faces into the winds that blow fog across
the dunes. Droplets of moisture from the fog collect on the beetle's body and run down
into its mouth.
This headstander beetle shares many features with the more than 350,000
other beetle species on Earth, including six pairs oflegs, a hard outer surface, and two pairs of wings. But how did there come to be so many variations on the basic beetle
theme? The headstander beetle and its many close relatives illustrate three key
observations about life: the striking ways in which organisms are suited for life in their
environments; the many shared characteristics (unity) of life; and the rich diversity of
life. A century and a half ago, Charles Darwin was inspired to develop a scientific
The Origina Species, Darwin ushered in a scientific revolution-the era of evolutionary
biology.
For now, we will define evolution as descent with modification, a phrase
Darwin used in proposing that Earth's many species are descendants ofancestral
species that were different from the present day species. Evolution can also be defined
more narrowly as a change in the genetic composition of a population from generation
to generation. Whether it is defined broadly or narrowly, we can view evolution in two related but different ways: as a pattern and as a process. The pattern of evolutionary
change is re· vealed by data from a range of scientific disciplines, including biology,
geology, physics, and chemistry. These data are factsthey are observations about the
natural world. The process of evolution consists of the mechanisms that produce the
observed pattern ofchange. These mechanisms represent natural causes of the natural
phenomena we observe. Indeed, the power of evolution as a unifying theory is its ability to explain and connect a vast array of observations about the living world.
EXERCISE A Asking questioning
Based to the text, raise a question about the cell, next find what the answer is?
Question :
...
Answer :
...
NATURAL SELECTION (A Summary)
Natural selection is a process in which individuals that have certain heritable characteristics survive and reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals.
Over time, natural selection can increase the match between organisms and their environment
If an environment changes, or if inviduals move to a new environment, natural selection may result in adaptation to these new conditions, sometimes giving
rise to new species in the process
One subtle but important point is although natural selection occurs through
interaction between idividual organisms and their environment, individuals do not
A second key point is that natural selection can amplify or diminish only
heritable traits-traits that ape passed from organisms to their offspring. Though an
organism may become modified during its lifetime, and these acquired
characteristics may even help the organism in its environment, there is little
evidence that such acquired characteristics can be inherited by offspring.
Third, envirometal factors vary from place and over time, a trait that is
favorable in one place or time may be useless-or even detrimental- in oter places or times. Natural selection is always opertaig, but which traits are favored depends on
environmental.
EXERCISE BChecking of Understanding
1.
How does the concept of descent with modification explain both the unity anddivertsity of life?
... ...
2.
Describe how overreproduction and heritable variation relate to evolution by natural selection!...
EXERCISE C Constructing a graph
Mosquitoes resistant to the pesticide DDT first appeared in India in 1959, but now are found throughout the world.
Graph the data in the table below!
Month Percentage of Mosquitoes Resistant* to DDT
0 4% possible methods of inhibiting the evolution of resistance in mosquitoes,
Ecological Entomology 3:273-287(1978)
EXERCISE DConstructing hypotheses
Examining the graph, hypothesize why the percentage of mosquitoes resistant to DDT
rose rapidly!
...
...
...
... ...
EXERCISE EPredicting
Suggest an explanation for the global spread of DDT resistance!
...
... ...
...
...
...
Chapter VI
CASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
3. raise a question about the concept Classification of Living Things;
4. analyze the advantageous of classification system in living things;
5. define the system of classification of living things;
6. applying the concept about Classification of Living Things
Look closely at the organism in the figure. Although it resembles a snake, this
animal is actually an Australianlegless lizard known as the common scaly-foot
(Pygopus lepidopodus). Why isn't the scaly-foot considered a snake? More
generally, how do biologists distinguish and categorize the millions of species
on Earth? An understanding of evolutionary relationships suggests one way to
address these questions: We can decide in which „container‟ to place a species
by comparing its traits to those of potential dose relatives. For example, the
scaly-foot does not have a fused eyelid, a highly mobile jaw, or a short tail
posterior to the anus, three traits of snakes. These and other characteristics suggest that despite a superflcial resemblance, the scaly-foot is not a snake.
Furthermore, a survey of the lizards reveals that the scaly-foot is not alone; the
legless condition has evolved repeatedly in lizards. Most legless lizards are
burrowers or live in grasslands, and like snakes, these species lost their legs
over generations as they adapted to their environments. Snakes and lizards
great variety of species alive today. In this unit, we will survey this diversity
and de scribe hypotheses regarding how it evoh-ed. As we do so, our emphasis
will shift from the process of evolution to itspattem (observations of
evolution's products over time). A phylogeny of lizards and snakes, indicates
that both the scalyfoot and snakes evolved from lizards with legs-but they
evolved from different lineages of legged lizards. Thus, it appears that their
legless conditions evolved independently (Campbell, 2012).
EXERCISE A RaisingQuestion
Based to the text, raise a question about the concept of reproduction in plant, and
the find out what the answer is!
Question :
...
Answer :
...
Definition of Classification
Classification is the process of grouping things based on similarities.
Biologists use classification to organize living things into groups so that organisms are
easier to study. The scientific study of how living things are classified is called
taxonomy. Living things that are classified together have similar characteristics.
Taxonomy is helpful because scientists know a lot about an organism‟s structures and
relationships to other organisms. To help scientists classify organisms, they ask
themselves these four questions:
1. How many cells does the organism have?
2. Is a nucleus present?
3. How does the organism obtain its energy?
4. How does the organism reproduce?
There are four main characteristics that scientists use to classify organisms: 1) number of cells –unicellular or multicellular; 2) presence of nucleus –prokaryote or
eukaryote; 3) how energy is obtained – autotroph or heterotroph; 4) mode of
reproduction –sexual or asexual (ESCOPE, 2012).
Scientists are always looking for these characteristics or 'observable features'
which allow them to group different species together and see how they are related to
classify them further, dividing each of the kingdoms into smaller groups. To
understand the whole thing a bit more it is good to look at an example (Oxford
University Museum of Natural History, 2016). There are several scientist concerned in
classification of living things.
Aristotle
The Greek philosopher Aristotle was the first person known to classify living
things scientifically. He only classified things as plants or animals. This classification system lasted for about 2,000 years.
Carolus Linnaeus
The modern classification system was developed in the 1700s by a Swedish
scientist named Carolus Linnaeus. He observed many organisms and placed them in
groups based on their visible characteristics. Today, there are eight levels of
classification (ESCOPE, 2012).
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
1. Domains
Domain is the broadest category of classification is the Domain. There are three
Domains in which all organisms are classified; Eukarya, Archaea, Eubacteria.
2. Kingdoms
The second broadest category of classification is the Kingdom. There are six
Kingdoms in which all organisms are classified; Animals, Plants, Fungi, Protista,
Eubacteria, Archaebacteria (ESCOPE, 2012).
Each kingdom is further divided into smaller groups called phyla, based on a
few features that are shared by some organisms. For example, the arthropod phylum
contains all the animals without a backbone that also have jointed legs and a hard
covering over their body, such as insects, crustaceans and spiders. A phylum is then
subdivided into classes, orders, families, genera, and finally species. In this
Table 1 shows how this system can be used to classify a human being.
EXERCISE B Analyzing
1. Analyze what if there are no classification system in living things?! Answer:
...
...
2. What advantageous people can get from classification system in living things?
Answer:
...
...
1. Natural classification
The hierarchical classification system described above is based on a natural
classification system that uses common features shared by organisms. Natural
classification is based on two ideas, namely homologous structures and evolutionary
relationships
a. Homologous structures
Homologous structures are features of organisms that are similar in
structure but may look very different from each other and may be used for different
purposes. A horse‟s frontleg, the human arm and a bat‟s wing are all homologous
structures.They have the same number and arrangement of bones andthis means that
they probably evolved from a single type of structure that was present in a common
ancester millions of years ago.
A fly‟s wing is not homologous with a bat‟s wing. It may look similar and do the same job but it develops from a completely different origin. The fly‟s wing has no
bones and is not covered by feathers.A bat‟s wing and a fly‟s wing are termed
a Feel the bones in your own arm. Try to identify the bones shown on the diagram of
the human arm. Put one hand on your lower arm and turn your lower arm over and
back. You should be able to feel one bone twisting over the other.
b Each of the vertebrates shown has carpals, metacarpals and phalanges. Name three
other bones shared by all three vertebrates.
EXERCISE C Analyzing
3. Describe how the metacarpals of the horse differ from those of the human!
Answer:
...
...
4. How do the phalanges of the bat differ from those of the human?
Answer:
...
...
EXERCISE D Interpreting
Complete these sentences:
The human arm, the horse‟s front leg and the bat‟s wing are described as
____________________ structures. The wing of the bat and the wing of a fly are
described as _____________________ structures.
b. Evolutionary relationships
If you look at photographs of people who share a common ancestor, such as a
grandparent or great grandparent, you often see startling similarities in appearance.
The people in the photos are obviously related to each other and have inherited some
features from their grandparents. In a natural classification system, biologists
group together organisms which are structurally similar and share common ancestors.
Natural classification produces a branching set of relationships as shown in Figure. This shows how the plants are divided into major subgroups such as mosses, ferns,
conifers and flowering plants. Each of these subgroups can be divided further. In this
diagram only the two main groups of flowering plants have been shown. Where
organisms are divisions of the same subgroup, such as the monocotyledons and
dicotyledons, they are more closely related and may share more similar features than
with the mosses and ferns.
With artificial classification you can use any grouping you like. You could put
all the animals that fly in the same group. This group would then include birds, bats
and many insects. You could put all animals that live in water and have streamlined,
fish-like bodies in the same group. This group would then include fish and whales.
Artificial classification systems are also used as the basis for dichotomous
keys that biologists use to identify organisms.
EXERCISE E Applying
In this activity you will see how an artificial classification works on the basis of using
pairs of options; for example, yes/no has/has not in/out. If it is not one thing then it
must be the other!
Look at the figure, then try to determine what kind of living things it is by using this dichotomous keys!
1. Is it green or does it have green parts?
o Yes - go to 2
o No - go to 3
2. Could be a plant or a protist, or blue-green bacteria. Make sure that the
green is really part of the organism, though. An animal might have eaten
something green, for example.
o Single-celled? go to 6
o Multicellular? Plantae. Look for cell walls, internal structure. In the
3. Could be a moneran (bacteria), protist, fungus, or animal.
o Single-celled - go to 4
o Multicellular (Look for complex or branching structure, appendages) -
go to 5
4. Could be a moneran or a protist. Can you see any detail inside the cell?
o Yes - Protista. You should be able to see at least a nucleus and/or
contractile vacuole, and a definite shape. Movement should be present,
using cilia, flagella, or amoeboid motion. Cilia or flagella may be
difficult to see.
o No - Monera. Should be quite small. May be shaped like short dashes
(rods), small dots (cocci), or curved or spiral shaped. The largest them
that is commonly found in freshwater is called Spirillum volutans. It is
spiral shaped, and can be nearly a millimeter long. Except for
Spirillum, it is very difficult to see Monerans except in a compound
microscope with special lighting.
5. Animalia or Fungi. Is it moving?
o Yes - Animalia. Movement can be by cilia, flagella, or complex,
involving parts that contract. Structure should be complex. Feeding
activity may be obvious.
o No - Fungus. Should be branched, colorless filaments. May have some
kind of fruiting body (mushrooms are a fungus, don't forget). Usually
attached to some piece of decaying matter - may form a fuzzy coating
on or around an object. In water, some bacterial infections of fish and
other animals may be mistaken for a fungus.
6. Most likely Protista. If it consists of long, unbranched greenish filaments
with no apparent structure inside, it is blue-green bacteria (sometimes
mistakenly called blue-green algae), a Moneran. (David R. Caprette, 2012)
Answer:
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Binomial system of naming species
Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist who lived from 1707 to 1778, introduced the
gave each and every species a scientific name in Latin. The binomial system of naming
species means giving organisms two names in Latin (scientific names). The term
binomial literally means two names – „bi‟ means two and „nomial‟ means name.
Linnaeus derived scientific names from the genus and the species to which organisms
belong.
When writing a scientific name, the genus name is written firstand starts with a
capital letter, and the species name is written second and starts with a small letter. The scientific name ought to be printed in italics when typed and underlined separately
when handwritten. The tiger belongs to the genus called Panthera and the species
called tigris, therefore its scientific name will be typed as Panthera tigris, or
handwritten as Panthera tigris. Scientific names are universal because, for instance,
every biologist will understand that Felis catus means „house cat‟ without resorting to
the dictionary, no matter what language they speak (Kadhila). Can you think of the scientific names for some more organisms?
EXERCISE F Analyzing
Write two reasons why living organisms are classified into groups.
Answer:
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EXERCISE G Applying
Use your knowledge about classification system to classify a lion into kingdom,
phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
Answer:
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Chapter VII
REPRODUCTION IN PLANT
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
7. Raise a question about reproduction in plant;
8. define reproduction;
9. differentiate between vegetative, asexual and sexual reproduction;
10. explain the parts of a dicot flower and their functions;
11. present the part of a dicot flower;
12. observe a dicot flower and determine each part of the flower;
13. state the types of pollination.;
Male wasps of the species Campsoscolia ciliata often attempt to copulate with
the flowers ofthe Mediterranean orchid Ophrys speculum. During this
encounter, a sac of pollen becomes glued to the insect's body. Evenhlally
frustrated, the wasp flies off and deposits the pollen onto another Ophrys
flower that has become the object of his misplaced ardor. Ophrys flowers offer
no reward such as nectar to the male wasps, only sexual frustration. S0 what
makes the male wasps so enamored of this orchid? The traditional answer has
been that the shape of the orchid's largest petal and the frill of orange bristles
around it vaguely resemble the female wasp. These visual cues, however, are
only partofthe deception: Ophrys orchids also emit chemicals with a scent
similar to that produced by sexually receptive female wasps. This orchid and its wasp pollinators are one example of the amazing ways in which angiosperms
(flowering plants) reproduce sexually with spatially distant members of their
species also reproduce asexually, creating offspring that are genetically
identical to the parent (Campbell, 2012).
EXERCISE A RaisingQuestion
Based to the text, raise a question about the concept of reproduction in plant, and
the find out what the answer is!
Question : ...
Answer : ...
Reproduction is one of the most important characteristic of all living things. It is
necessary for the continuation of the species on earth and also to replace the dead
members of the species. The process by which living organisms produce their
offsprings for the continuity of the species is called reproduction. Plant reproduction is
the production of new individuals or offspring in plants, which can be accomplished by
sexual or asexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction produces offspring by the fusion of gametes, resulting in offspring genetically different from the parent or parents.
Asexual reproduction produces new individuals without the fusion of gametes, genetically identical to the parent plants and each other, except
when mutations occur. In seed plants, the offspring can be packaged in a
protective seed, which is used as an agent of dispersal.
In this chapter, we only study about sexual reproduction of plant. 1. FLOWER
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants centres around the flower. Within a
flower, there are usually structures that produce both male gametes and female
gametes. The flowering plants, also called the angiosperms, are seed plants that bear
flowers and fruits. Fruits come from flowers. Angiosperms, like all other land plants,
have an alternation of sporophyte (diploid) and gametophyte (haploid) generations,
but angiosperm gametophytes are very reduced (miniscule).The flower is a shoot with highly modified leafy structures borne at the enlarged tip, the receptacle.
Sterile parts
The non-reproductive structures of a flower are sepals and petals. The outermost
ring of parts is formed of sepals; all the sepals together are called the calyx. In lilies
and tulips there are three sepals. The sepals are often green and protect the flower in
however they can also be indistinguishable in some plants (including tulips and lilies).
The next inner ring of parts is comprised of petals. There are three petals in lilies and
tulips. All the petals together are called the corolla
Fertile parts
The reproductive structures include the stamen and the carpel. Next inwardly
are the stamens. Each stamen consists of an anther, made up of four pollen sacs
located at the tip, and a narrow stalk-like filament. Because the pollen grains ultimately produce sperm, stamens are associated with male reproductive function.
Remove a stamen from the flower. Cut open the anther with a razor or scalpel. When
pollen (the male gametophyte) is shed, it usually has two cells, one that divides to
produce two sperm, and one which directs the growth of the pollen tube. At the center
of the flower is the carpel.
Normally, the carpel has three regions: 1) the ovary, the ovulebearing basal section, 2) the style, the narrow midsection, and 3) the stigma, the sticky
pollen-collecting tip. The ovary contains one or more ovules that following pollination and
fertilization will form the seeds.
Receptacle: supports flower
Petal
The colorful, often bright part of the flower. They attract pollinators and are usually the reason why we buy and enjoy flowers.
Sepal
The parts that look like little green leaves that cover the outside of a flower bud to protect the flower before it opens.
Male Parts
Stamen
This is the male part of the flower. It is made up of the filament and anther, it is the pollen producing part of the plant. The number of stamen is usually the same as the number of petals.
Pollen: male gamete- contains half the genetic information for the production of anew plant.
Anther
This is the part of the stamen that produces and contains pollen. It is usually on top of a long stalk that looks like a fine hair.
Filament flower. It is made up of the stigma, style, and ovary. Each pistil is flowers, it is the part of the pistil of a flower which receives the pollen
The part of the plant, usually at the bottom of the flower, that has the seeds inside and turns into the fruit that we eat. The ovary contains ovules. After fetilisation, the ovary swells to produce fruit
Ovule
Floral variation
The flowering plants show great variation in floral structure. In particular there is variation in the number of sepals, petals, stamens, and
carpels. Their shape and color vary; sometimes one of the floral parts is
lacking; often floral parts are fused. Flowers also differ in their symmetry
and in production of nectar and scent.
Flowers that are radially symmetrical may be cut longitudinally in
many planes to form mirror-image halves. Bilaterally symmetrical flowers
may be cut longitudinally in only one plane to form mirror-image halves.
EXERCISE B Communicating
1. Based to the concept you have learned, label the following
structures in figure: receptacle, sepal, calyx, petal, corolla, stamen,
2. Identify a rose or hibiscus flower, and present to your partner each
particular part is missing from the flower mark the box as “not applicable” or “NA.” ovary, into the embryo sac. By the time the seed is mature, much of its food
will have been transported to a part of the embryo called the cotyledon.
If no pollination occurs, then plants will not be able to grow seeds,
and no other plants will be made. Flower pollen is produced and released
from an anther. Pollen is moved to another flower by the wind or animals.
Pollination takes place when pollen lands on the stigma of a plant. The
pollen travels down to the ovary and fertilizes ovules. Seeds will be formed. Mostly, plants rely on insects, such as bees, to take the pollen from
very important insect pollinators. Most of the time, both the bees, and
plants they visit, are benefited. The honey bee gets some food and the plant gets pollinated. When the bee visits the next flower, some of the pollen
brushes off onto the flower and if it sticks to the stigma of the flower,
pollination will take place. The bee does not make any effort to put the
pollen in the right place (Pollinator Book, 2008).
When a honey bee is collecting pollen from the anthers of a flower, it
puts the pollen in a special pollen basket on its hind legs. All that pollen
will be taken back to the hive. The honey bee is a messy gatherer of food, and some pollen gets stuck on the hairs of its body. Honey bees are very
important insect pollinators. Most of the time, both the bees, and plants
they visit, are benefited. The honey bee gets some food and the plant gets
pollinated. When the bee visits the next flower, some of the pollen brushes
off onto the flower and if it sticks to the stigma of the flower, pollination
will take place. The bee does not make any effort to put the pollen in the right place. When a honey bee is collecting pollen from the anthers of a
flower, it puts the pollen in a special pollen basket on its hind legs. All that
pollen will be taken back to the hive. The honey bee is a messy gatherer of
food, and some pollen gets stuck on the hairs of its body (Pollinator Book,
Pollen can also be transferred by vertebrates (animals with internal
skeletons), particularly by hummingbirds and other birds, and bats. But
also by monkeys, marsupials, lemurs, bears, rabbits, deer, rodents, lizards
and other animals. Bats are often the main pollinators of desert plants and
big trees in the tropics. They are also very important pollinators of many
fruit plants. Bat pollinated flowers are usually white or pale yellow in color
and open at night (Pollinator Book, 2008).
EXERCISE D Identifying
1. Flowers pollinated by _______________ usually have white or pale
colors. They open at night when they release a strong sweet smell.
Their petals are flat and bend back to give a hovering
___________enough room. Flowers pollinated by
_______________ usually are brightly colored and have no smell.
They often occur in clusters so that they form a landing platform. 2. Determine the example of plant that polen transferred by insect and
vertebrates!
Answer :
CHAPTER VIII
THERMOREGULATION
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
5. Raise a question about thermoregulation;
6. Define thermoregulation;
7. Define endothermy and ectothermy;
8. Interpret data about thermoregulation;
9. Applying concept about thermoregulation
The outer ears of the jackrabbit (Lepus alieni) are thin and remarkably large. They provide this hare with an acute sense of
hearing, a primary defense against predators. The ears also help
the jackrabbit shed excess heat. Blood flowing through each
ear's network of vessels transfers heat to the surrounding air. At
times, however, blood flow in the ear could be a liability. When
raising body temperature to dangerous levels. So how does a
big-eared jackrabbit survive in the midday desert heat? To answer this question, we need to look more closely at the
biological form, or anatomy, of the animal. Over the course of its
life, a jackrabbit faces the same fundamental challenges as any
other animal. All animals must obtain oxygen and nutrients,
fight off infection, and produce offspring. Given that they share
these basic requirements, why do species vary so enormously in
makeup, complexity, organization, and appearance? The answer is that natural selection favors, over many generations, the
variations appearing in a population that best meet the animal's
needs. The solutions to the challenges of survival vary among
environments and species, but for the jackrabbit and other
animals, they frequently result in a dose match of form to
function. Because form and function are correlated, examining anatomy often provides clues to physiology-biological function.
In the case ofthe jackrabbit, researchers noted that its large the rest of the body. When the air cools, blood flow resumes, and
the large ears again help release excess heat. Next, we will
discuss how animals regulate their internal environment, using
body temperature regulation to introduce and illustrate the
EXERCISE A RaisingQuestion
Based to the text, raise a question about the concept of ecology, and the find out what the answer is!
Question :
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Answer :
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Thermoregulation definition
Thermoregulation is the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range. Thermoregulation is critical
to survival because most biochemical and physiological processes are very
sensitive to changes in body temperature. For every lOoC decrease in
temperature, the rates of most enzyme-mediated reactions decrease two-
to three fold. Increases in temperatures speed up reactions but cause some
proteins to become less active. For instance, the oxygen carrier molecule hemoglobin becomes less effective at binding oxygen as temperature
increases. Membranes can also change properties, becoming increasingly
fluid or rigid as temperatures rise or fall, respectively. Each animal species
has an optimal temperature range. Thermoregulation helps keep body
temperature within that optimal range, enabling cells to function
effectively even as the external temperature fluctuates (Campbell, 2012).
Endothermy and Ectothermy
Internal metabolism and the external environment provide the
endothermic, meaning that they are warmed mostly by heat generated
by metabolism. A few nonavian reptiles, some fishes, and many insect
species arealso mainly endothermic. In contrast, amphibians, lizards,
snakes, turtles, many fishes, and most invertebrates are mainly
ectothermic, meaning that they gain most of their heat from external
sources (Campbell, 2012).
Animals that are mainly endothermic are known as endotherms;
those that are mainly ectothermic are known as ectotherms. Keep in
mind, though, that endothermy and ectothermy are not mutually exclusive modes of thermoregulation. For example, a bird is mainly endothermic,
but it may warm itself in the sun on a cold morning, much as an
ectothermic lizard does. Endothermic animals can maintain stable body
temperatures even in the face of large environmental temperature
fluctuations. For example, few ectotherms are active in the below-freezing
weather that prevails during winter over much of Earth's surface, but many endotherms function very well in these conditions. It is showed in figure
below (Campbell, 2012).
In a cold environment, an endotherm generates enough heat to keep
its body substantially warmer than its surroundings. In a hot environment, endothermic vertebrates have mechanisms for cooling the body, enabling
them to withstand heat loads that are intolerable for most ectotherms
(Campbell, 2012).
Because their heat source is largely environmental, ectotherms
generally need to consume much less food than endotherms of equivalent
size-an advantage if food supplies are limited. Ectotherms also usually
tolerate larger fluctuations in their internal temperatures. Although ectotherms do not generate enough heat for thermoregulation, many
adjust body temperature by behavioral means, such as seeking out shade
or basking in the sun (See figure below). Overall, ectothermy is an effective
and successful strategy in most environments, as shown by the abundance
and diversity of ectothermic animals (Campbell, 2012).
EXERCISE B Analyzing
1. What if there is no thermoregulation mechanism in animal being?
Answer :
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2. Human is one example of endothermic living things. Explain
this in how human get their heat and!
Answer :
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Variation in Body Temperature
Animals can have either a variable or a constant body temperature. An animal whose body temperature varies with its environment is called a
poikilotherm (from the Greek poikilos, varied). In contrast, a homeotherm
has a relatively constant body temperature. For example, the largemouth
bass is a poikilotherm, and the river otter isa homeotherm. From the
descriptions of ectotherms and endotherms, it might seem that all
ectotherms are poikilothermic and all endotherms are homeothermic
(Campbell, 2012).
Actually, there is no fixed relationship between the source of heat
and the stability of body temperature. For example, many ectothermic
temperatures that their body temperature varies less than that
ofendotherms such as humans and other mammals. Conversely, the body temperature of a few endotherms varies considerably. For example, bats
and hummingbirds may periodically enter an inactive state in which they
maintain a lower body temperature. It is a common misconception that
ectotherms are "coldblooded~ and endotherms are "warm-blooded:'
Ectotherms do not necessarily have low body temperatures. In fact, when
sitting in the sun, many ectothermic lizards have higher body temperatures
than mammals. Thus, the terms cold-blooded and warm-blooded are misleading and have been dropped from the scientific
vocabulary(Campbell, 2012).
EXERCISE C Analyzing
1. Give 1 example of poikilotherm animal, explain how the animal
adapt to its environtment?
Answer :
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2. Give 1 example of homeotherm animal, explain how the animal
adapt to its environtment?
Answer :
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EXERCISE D Interpreting data
Based to the concept about Variation in Body Temperature, interpret the
graph about The relationship between body and environmental
temperatures in an aquatic temperature regulator and an aquatic
temperature conformer!
Answer:
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Balancing Heat loss and Gain
Thermoregulation depends on an animal's ability to control the
exchange of heat with its environment. Any organism, like any object,
exchanges heat by four physical processes: conduction, convection,
Radiation is the emission of electrmagnetic waves by all object
warmer than absolute zero. Radiation can transfer heat between object that are not in direct contact.
Evaporation is the removal of heat from the surface of a liquid that is
losing some ot its molecules of gas. Convection is the transfer of heat by
the movement of air or liquid past a surface. Conduction is the direct
transfer of thermal motion (heat) between molecules of object in direct
contact with each other (Campbell, 2012).
Heat is always transferred from an object of higher temperature
to one oflower temperature. The essence of thermoregulation is
maintaining rates of heat gain that equal rates of heat loss. Animals do this
through mechanisms that either reduce heat exchange overall or that favor
heat exchange in a particular direction. In mammals, several of these
mechanisms involve the integumentary system, the outer covering of the
body, consisting of the skin, hair, and nails (claws or hooves in some species).
A key organ of this system is the skin, which consists ofthe
epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis is the outermost layer of skin and
is composed mostly ofdead epithelial cells that continually flake and fall
off. New cells pushing up from lower layers replace the cells that are lost.
The inner layer, the dermis, contains hair follicles, oil and sweat glands,
muscles, nerves, and blood vessels. Beneath the skin lies the hypodermis, a layer of adipose tissue that includes fat-storing cells as well as blood
EXERCISE E Applying
Apply the concept about exchange heat mechanism (conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation) to this figure. Which arrow belong
to each concept?
Answer:
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Chapter IX
ECOLOGY
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
10. define ecology and describe the major sub-disciplines: behavior,
population ecology, community ecology;
11. identify factor that determine geographic distribution;
12. identify biotic and abiotic factor;
13. define ecosystem;
14. define primary producer, primary consumer, secondary
consumer, and omnivory and be able to accurately identify these
in a food web;
15. read and interpret a food web diagram with multiple trophic
levels and how these interact using top-down and bottom-up
terminology;
16. interpret food chains and food webs, and be able to locate a food
chain within a food web.
whales (Eschrichtius robustus) swim side by side on a remarkable
8,000-km journey. They are headed to the Arctic Ocean to feed on the crustaceans,tube worms, and other creatures that thrive there
in summer. A century ago, whaling had reduced the population to
only a few hundred individuals. Today, after 70 years of protection
from whaling, more than 20,000 travel to the Arctic each year.
Environmental factors determine the geographic distribution of
gray whales, or variations in their food supply affect to the size of
the gray whale population, are such things the subject of ecology (from the Greek oikos, home, and logos, to study), the scientific
study of the interactions between organisms and the environment
environment. These interactions occur at a hierarchy of scales that
ecologists study, from organismal to global (Campbell, 2012).
EXERCISE A RaisingQuestion
Based to the text, raise a question about the concept of ecology, and the find out what the answer is!
Question :
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Answer :
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DEFINITION OFECOLOGY
Ecology is the science of the mutual interactions between organisms and their environments, and of interactions among organisms. These
interactions are enormously complex and the aspect of mutual
interdependence is highly important. Organisms don't just "make do" with
