A SET OF CONTENT-BASED ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR JUNIOR LEVEL OF BRIGHT EDUCATION CENTER YOGYAKARTA
A Thesis
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Joh. Baptis Satrio Nugroho Student Number: 031214011
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
A SET OF CONTENT-BASED ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR JUNIOR LEVEL OF BRIGHT EDUCATION CENTER YOGYAKARTA
A Thesis
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Joh. Baptis Satrio Nugroho Student Number: 031214011
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
Helen Keller (1880 - 1968)
I dedicate this work to:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Most of all, I would like to give my praise and greatest gratitude to Jesus Christ, who always stays awake and accompanies me during my study at Sanata Dharma University, both in my ups and my downs. My gratefulness is worth
giving to Mother Mary, to whom I go whenever I feel burdened.
My sincere gratitude also goes to my beloved father and mother, Agustinus Sahid and Lucia Marwati, who have given me financial support, love, encouragement, and prayer. Also, I would like to express my appreciation to my
sisters, mbak Vera, her husband, mas Susilo, my younger sister Monic and Putri for all their support, love; kindness and warmth. My greatest thank goes to my
sweetheart, Laurensia Andina Atika Wardani, who always encourages and helps me to accomplish my thesis. Her love, care, and smile mean a lot for me.
I am greatly indebted to Pius Nurwidasa my former sponsor, for giving me attention, suggestions, guidance, and motivation during the constructing process
of my thesis. I owe much to Christina Kristiyani my present sponsor, who gave valuable feedback, support, and guidance. My sincere gratitude also goes to all
PBI lecturers, who have given me so many things during my study, especially
J.B. Gunawan and Gregorius Punto Aji for their willingness to evaluate the materials.
Mr. Purwanto and Miss Agatha. Their willingness and support encourage me so much to the accomplishment of my thesis. I owe a debt of gratitude to all the junior level students of BEC for spending time to give me precious data.
My gratefulness goes to my Ex-Seminari friends, especially Wiwid, Ardi, Dani Winantoro, Bangun, Febri, Andri, Toni, Lukas, Jempol, Yuli, Kebo, Jampes, my friends of PBI ’03, especially Dame, Ipad, Ozzie, Nina, Lukas, Iyas, Mirta, Bayu, Bagong, Q-yer, Gabo, Ratri, Puntet, Neti, Melanie, Timur, Nita, Fifi, Ayu, Yessi, Emil, Titin, Suki for friendship, discussion, joy, and support we have ever had.
God bless them all.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL PAGES ... ii
DEDICATION PAGE ... iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix
LIST OF TABLES ... xiii
LIST OF FIGURES ... xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xv
ABSTRACT ... xvi
ABSTRAK ... xvii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study ... 1
B. Problem Formulation ... 3
C. Problem Limitation ... 3
D. Objectives of the Study ... 4
E. Benefits of the Study ... 4
F. Definition of Terms... 5
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Theoretical Description ... 8
b. Yalden’s Model ... 13
2. School-Based Curriculum 2006... 17
a. The Nature of English Language Based on School-Based Curriculum . 17 b. The Goals of English Subject for Elementary Level Based on School-Based Curriculum... 18
c. The Scopes of English Subject for Elementary Level Based on School-Based Curriculum... 18
d. Standard Competencies and Basic Competencies for Elementary Level of School-Based Curriculum ... 19
3. Theory of Children’s Cognitive Development ... 20
a. Sensorimotor Stage... 21
b. Preoperational Thinking Stage ... 21
c. Concrete Operation Stage ... 21
d. Formal Operation Stage ... 22
4. Content-Based Instruction ... 24
a. Definition and Rationale of CBI ... 24
b. Principles of CBI ... 26
c. Theory of Language of CBI ... 27
d. Theory of Learning of CBI ... 27
e. Types of Teaching Learning Activities in CBI ... 29
f. The Roles of Learner in CBI ... 30
g. The Roles of Teacher in CBI ... 30
h. The Roles of Materials in CBI ... 32
5. Models of CBI ... 33
a. Immersion Education ... 33
c. Theme-Based Model ... 34
d. Sheltered Model ... 34
e. Adjunct Model ... 34
6. Theme-Based Model ... 35
a. Definition and Features of Theme-Based Model ... 35
b. Implication for Theme-Based Model ... 36
7. English Skills ... 36
a. Listening Skill ... 37
b. Speaking Skill ... 40
c. Reading Skill ... 43
d. Writing Skill ... 46
B. Theoretical Framework ... 47
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Method ... 53
B. Participants of the Study ... 55
C. Setting ... 56
D. Research Instruments ... 56
E. Data Gathering Techniques ... 59
F. Data Analysis Techniques... 60
G. Research Procedure ... 62
CHAPTER IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. The Steps in Designing CBI English Materials for Junior Level of BEC Yogyakarta ... 64
1. Conducting Needs Survey ... 65
3. Formulating Objectives ... 71
4. Selecting and Organizing Contents ... 73
5. Selecting Teaching Learning Activities and Resources ... 74
6. Designing Materials ... 74
7. Materials Evaluation ... 75
8. Revision ... 77
B. The Presentation of the Final Design ... 77
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions ... 83
B. Suggestions ... 86
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 SBC Standard and Basic Competencies of Elementary Level ... 19
Table 2.2 Capabilities of Young Language Learner in Age 10-12 Years Old ... 23
Table 2.3 Teachers’ Roles in CBI ... 31
Table 3.1 Participants of the Post-Design Survey Study ... 56
Table 4.1 The Results of the Questionnaire for Students ... 65
Table 4.2 The Result of Document Analysis ... 70
Table 4.3 Description of Goals, Themes, and General Purposes ... 71
Table 4.4 The Objectives of the Course ... 72
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Instructional Design Model ... 13 Figure 2.2 Language Program Development of Yalden ... 16 Figure 2.3 Content Based Language Teaching: A Continuum of
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A : Surat Permohonan Ijin Penelitian ... 90
Appendix B : Surat Keterangan... 91
Appendix C : Questionnaire for Students ... 92
Appendix D : Interview Transcription ... 94
Appendix E : Document Analysis Checklist ... 99
Appendix F : Evaluation Questionnaire ... 101
Appendix G : The Syllabus ... 103
ABSTRACT
Nugroho, Joh. Baptis Satrio (2008). A Set of Content-Based English Instructional Material for Junior Level of Bright Education Center Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Sanata Dharma University.
The Content-Based Instruction (CBI) approach has grown into the current world trend in English teaching-learning activities because of its benefits. Some of the benefits are raising students’ motivation, exposing students to authentic language and content discussion, improving interpersonal interaction, and growing all English skills simultaneously. It enables the English teaching-learning activity to have twofold values, not only learning the language itself, but also developing the students’ knowledge on the subject matter discussed.
This study attempted to design the integrated-skills instructional material, which is the Content-Based Approach applied to Junior level students of Bright Education Center (BEC). There were two problems addressed: 1) how a set of Content-Based English instructional materials for the junior level students of the Bright Education Center is designed, and 2) what the set of Content-Based English instructional materials for the junior level students of the Bright Education Center looks like.
The writer employed Research and Development Method (R & D Method) which consisted of ten steps. In the study, the writer only employed the first five steps of R & D Method. Those steps were (1) research and information collecting, (2) planning, (3) develop preliminary form of product, (4) preliminary field-testing, and (5) main product revision.
ABSTRAK
Nugroho, Joh. Baptis Satrio (2008). A Set of Content-Based English Instructional Material for Junior Level of Bright Education Center Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pengetahuan, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Pendekatan Content-Based Instruction (CBI) dalam kegiatan belajar-mengajar bahasa Inggris menjadi trend yang berkembang belakangan ini karena manfaat-manfaatnya. Pembelajaran semacam ini membawa manfaat seperti menumbuhkan motivasi belajar siswa, membuka wacana bahasa dan isi yang otentik kepada siswa, mengembangkan interaksi antar individu di kelas, dan mengembangkan semua ketrampilan dalam berbahasa, khususnya bahasa Inggris secara bersama-sama. Hal ini membuat pembelajaran bahasa Inggris mempunyai nilai ganda, tidak hanya mempelajari bahasa itu sendiri, namun juga mengembangkan pengetahuan siswa mengenai isi yang dibicarakan.
Studi ini ingin menerapkan pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris yang terintegrasi, yaitu pembelajaran bahasa Inggris menggunakan pendekatan Content-Based yang diaplikasikan kepada siswa level Junior di Lembaga Pendidikan Bright Education Center (BEC). Ada dua masalah pokok yang dirumuskan sebagai berikut: 1) bagaimana mendesain satu set materi intruksional pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris dengan menggunakan pendekatan Content-Based untuk siswa level Junor di BEC, dan 2) seperti apakah bentuk dari satu set materi instruksional pembelajaran bahasa Inggris dengan menggunakan pendekatan Content-Based untuk siswa level Junior di BEC.
Penulis mengimplementasikan Research and Development Method (R & D Method) yang terdiri dari sepuluh langkah. Namun dalam penelitian ini, penulis hanya mengimplementasikan lima langkah pertama dari R&D Method. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah (1) research and information collecting, (2) planning, (3) develop preliminary form of product, (4) preliminary field-testing, and (5) main product revision.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the background of the study, problem formulation,
problem limitation, objectives of the study, and benefits of the study. Definition of
terms is provided to avoid misconception.
A. Background of the Study
The world-trend of English learning follows the rise of
integrated-approach. It means that the combination of reading, writing, speaking, listening,
and viewing are taught together as students pursue interesting problems or topics
(Grisham, 1995 cited in Gavelek, Biondo, Raphael, & Wang, 2000). This
approach believes that the success of English learning is determined by the
mastery of all skills together (Oxford, 1996 cited in Oxford, 2001). It is implied
that no every single skill is regarded to be more important than another. All skills
support each other. It denotes that the approach makes chances to enhance the
development of various language aspects i.e. exposing to authentic language and
providing a challenge to interact to somewhat naturally, gauging a true picture of
language, allowing the multiple skills growing together, promoting the real
content, and motivating students in all ages and backgrounds.
In formal education institutions or schools in Indonesia, the incorporation
of integrated-approach is obvious from the recent curriculum, School-Based
in the coverage of desirable competency for junior high school students, that is
competency to comprehend and/or produce written and oral texts in four language
skills; listening, speaking, reading, and writing integratively to achieve functional
literacy level (SBC, 2006). The literacy level covers performative, functional,
informational and epistemic. At the performative level, people can read, write,
listen and speak with the symbols used. At the functional level, people can use
language to fulfill their daily needs such as reading newspaper, manual or
instruction. At the informational level, people can access knowledge with
language skills, while at the epistemic level; people can express knowledge in the
target language (Wells, 1987 cited in SBC, 2006).
Bright Education Center or BEC is one of the non-formal education
institutions, growing in Yogyakarta, which provides English-learning service in
accordance to the government movement. This institution commits to provide
attractive, applicable, integrative, and meaningful English-learning services for
children, teenagers, and adults. Some efforts to do so have existed, such as
designing desired, interesting, and up-to-date materials, applying various
techniques and strategies, using visual, audio, and audiovisual media, and other
related ones.
However, the effort of creating those kinds of English-learning services is
not smooth. One of the problems is the availability of desired materials to prepare
students in elementary school to enter the upper level, junior high school. As
explained above, junior high school materials and learning models are integrative
learn with the materials and learning models which are similar to the materials in
junior high school. Furthermore, it is necessary for them to be accustomed to the
materials and learning models so they, somewhat, are not shocked at the junior
high school materials and learning models which they will get. BEC views that it
would be a great chance to introduce and to make students in elementary grade
familiar with the material and learning model in junior high schools, which are
integrative, in order to prepare them entering junior high school. For this reason, it
is necessary to conduct a study to design the integrated-skill approach for Junior
level, which functions as a preparation level for junior high school, in BEC.
B. Problem Formulation
In this study, the problems are formulated as follows.
1) How is a set of Content-Based English instructional materials for the Junior
level of the Bright Education Center designed?
2) What does the set of Content-Based English instructional materials for the
Junior level of the Bright Education Center look like?
C. Problem Limitation
This study merely focuses on designing English instructional materials by
applying the integrated-skill approach in Bright Education Center. More
specifically, the materials are designed by applying Content-Based Instruction
(CBI) principles. This study, thereby, put emphasis on the elaboration of a
Junior level, which seeks to prepare the elementary school students to enter junior
high school, in Bright Education Center. Besides, it offers the designed materials
applying CBI principles for the Junior level students in Bright Education Center.
D. Objectives of the Study
This study is undertaken to achieve two objectives, which are:
1) to find out how a set of content-based English instructional materials for the
Junior level students of the Bright Education Center is designed.
2) to present a set of content-based English instructional materials for the Junior
level students of the Bright Education Center.
E. Benefits of the Study
Hopefully, this research gives advantages for teachers, students, and future
researchers. The clearer explanation is as follows.
1. Teachers
This integrated-skill approach is expected to preview a new approach for
teachers. Furthermore, they can bring and develop this approach contextualized in
their local setting.
2. Students
This study is expected to help students to improve their language
proficiencies in an integrative way in order to achieve their optimum proficiency.
This thesis may serve as a base of conducting further research of
Integrated-skill language teaching and learning. Hopefully, the research results
can provide helpful information and give a stimulus for the further researchers.
Hence, better and more various activities through Content-Based Instructional
design will be found.
F. Definition of Terms
To avoid misconception of further discussion, some terms are clarified as
follows.
1. Instructional Design
Instructional design is the systematic development of instructional
specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of
instruction (Applied Research Laboratory, 1996). It is the entire process of
analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to
meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities;
and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities.
2. Integrated-Skill Approach
Integrated-skill approach or integrated instruction means the encouraging
of the teaching of all four skills (reading, listening, speaking and writing) within
the general framework of using language for learning as well as for
communication. In this study, integrated-skill approach refers to the involvement
3. Content-Based Instruction
Content-Based Instruction (CBI) refers to the teaching of language through
exposure to content that is interesting and relevant to learners (Nunan, 2003).
While Brinton (1989) define content-based instruction as the integration of
content learning with language teaching aims. More specifically, CBI refers to an
approach to second language teaching, emphasizing the concurrent study of
language and subject matter, rather than the form and sequence of language
presentation. In this study, CBI is an approach to foreign language teaching that
makes use of subject matter to language teaching purpose.
4. Theme- Based Instruction
Brinton (1989) defines the Theme-Based Instruction as one type of
Content-Based teaching models in which the language class is structured around
topics or themes, with the topics forming the backbone of the course curriculum.
In this study, Theme-Based Instruction refers to the involvement theme or topics
organization to provide the content that can be extracted to language learning
activities to put greater emphasis on language skill practice.
5. Bright Education Center
Bright Education Center or BEC is one of the informal education
institutions, growing in Yogyakarta, which provides English-learning service for
children to adults. Based on the vision of this institution, BEC is an institution
which has active role in educating people in educating and training fields to
6. Junior Level
Junior Level is one level in BEC which consists of students in fifth and
sixth grade of Elementary School who have the same proficiency of English. This
level employs School-Based Curriculum 2006 for Elementary Level. In this
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, the writer discusses some theoretical concepts that are
relevant to the major concern of this study, i.e. how to design Content-Based
English Instructional materials for Junior level of Bright Education Center. This
chapter is divided into two major parts. In the first part, the writer discusses the
theoretical description and in the second part, the writer explains the theoretical
framework.
A. Theoretical Description
This section mainly involves theories related to the study. The major areas
are instructional design model, theory of young children’s cognitive development,
content-based instruction, theme-based instruction, and English skills.
1. Instructional Design Model
Regarding the problem formulations, namely how a set of Content-Based
English instructional material for the Junior level of Bright Education Center is
designed and what the designed materials look like, the first discussion appears to
be the instructional design model. In the study, there are two instructional design
models that will be used, namely Kemp’s model and Yalden’s model.
a. Kemp’s Model
There are eight parts on processing an instructional design (Kemp,
1) Defining Goals, Topics, and General Purposes
Kemp (1977:14) states that goals derive from three sources: society,
students, and subject areas. After establishing the goals, the planner should list the
major topics related to the content area. In order to signify what the teacher wants
to accomplish in the topic, the teacher uses initial expressions. Those expressions
usually express the planner’s own aims for the topic or unit. According to Kemp
(1977: 16), the planner clarifies the statements of purpose with the teacher and
also helps the teacher to translate them into details. Then, from the details the
teacher can plan learning experiences. Furthermore, the teacher can also derive
objectives from general purposes.
2) Finding Out Learner Characteristics
In teaching-learning process, the students are regarded as individuals and
groups. In order to serve both individuals and groups, we must obtain information
about the learners’ characteristics. According to Kemp (1977:19), there are two
factors that should be considered in finding out the learners characteristics; those
are academic and social factors. Academic factors include academic background,
level of intelligence, number of students, reading level, study habit, grade-point
average, scores on standardized achievement and aptitude tests, ability to work
alone, motivation for studying the subject, background in the subject or topic,
expectations of the course, vocational and cultural aspirations. Social factors
include age, maturity, attention span, special talents, physical and emotional
handicaps, relations among students and socioeconomic situation. Other factors,
designing process. According to Kemp (1977: 19), learning conditions refer to
“groups of factors that can affect a person’s ability to concentrate, absorb, and
retain information.”
3) Specifying Learning Objectives
Learning objectives must be stated in terms of activities that will best
promote learning. The objective states what to teach and determine later whether
the objectives are accomplished or not.
Kemp (1977: 24) states the three categories of learning objectives; those
are cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. However, cognitive domain is mostly
used in educational program. Cognitive domain includes objectives concerning
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In
planning process, the planner should consider the action verb that will be used in
specifying the learning objectives because each verb relates to certain level of
objectives.
4) Organizing Subject Content
According to Kemp (1977: 44), subject content is “the selection and
organizing of the specific knowledge (facts and information), skills (step-by-step
procedures, conditions, and requirements), and attitudinal factors of any topics.”
A student’s learning experiences must involve subject content. The content, in
turn, must closely relate to the objectives and to the students’ needs. Instead of
using textbook, the planner should consider other learning sources, such as
articles, pamphlets, films, or their own experiences as other sources of subject
5) Developing Pre-assessment
Pre-assessment is used to check the students’ readiness to study the topic
and their competence level of the stated objectives (Kemp, 1977: 50).
Pre-Assessment will answer these questions: (1) is the student prepared to study the
topic or unit? And (2) is the student competent in some of the stated objectives?
There are two kinds of tests, namely prerequisite testing and pretesting.
Prerequisite testing aims to gain information whether the students have
appropriate preparation for the topic. The results of prerequisite testing will let the
teacher know who are ready to learn the topic, who needs the remedial or even
who are not ready yet and should start from the beginner level. Pretesting is
usually used to find out the objectives that have already been achieved by the
students.
6) Planning the Teaching/Learning Activities and Resources
The teacher must determine the most efficient and effective methods and
then select materials to provide learning experiences that will utilize the content
associated with each objective.
There are several commonly used methods, namely presentation, individual
learning, and teacher-students interaction. The planner should also select the
media to support teaching-learning activity. According to Kemp (1977: 74), there
are three reasons why selecting media is complicated. First, there are many
audiovisual resources from which to choose. Second, there are no clear-cut
guidelines for making a selection. Third, few educators have had broad enough
appropriate medium or combination of media for communicating content or
providing student experiences, in terms of an objective within the chosen
teaching/learning pattern.
7) Support Services
The support services include funds, facilities, equipment, and personnel
whose time should be scheduled for participation in instructional plan. Budget or
funds can be divided into two sections. Those are budget during development,
which covers all budgets that the planner needed during the preparation of the
program, and budget during implementation which covers all budgets needed
when the planner implements the program.
8) Evaluation
In evaluation step, the teacher should determine standards of achievement.
The measurement can be in the form of evaluation. There are two kinds of
evaluation, namely formative and summative evaluation. Formative evaluation
takes place during development and tryouts, while summative evaluation takes
place at the end of the course. Evaluation also refers to the evaluation of the
program. It aims to know how well the program serves the objectives. According
to Kemp (1977: 98), there are several ways to evaluate the developed program,
namely (1) test results, (2) reactions from students, (3) observations of students at
work, (4) suggestions from colleagues. The stages of Kemp’s model are presented
Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Instructional Design Model (Kemp, 1977: 9)
Kemp has given important information in constructing the instructional
materials. However, the researcher will not stick to one kind of instructional
materials model. The next model of instructional materials is Yalden’s model.
b. Yalden’s Model
Yalden’s model (Yalden,1987:89) consists of several steps. Those are as
follows.
1) Needs Survey
Needs survey is conducted to grasp and understand the learners as much as
possible in order to gain learners’ needs in learning English. It should include the
Goals, Topics, and General
Purposes
Learner Characteristics
Learning Objectives
Subject Content
Pre-Assessment Teaching/
Learning Activities, Resources Support
Services
Evaluation
identification of the communication requirements, personal needs, motivations,
relevance, characteristic of learners, and physical resources of the learners.
2) Description of Purpose
This step is to clarify the purpose of language program based on the needs
survey. The description sometimes entirely stems from the needs assessment.
Other elements that might not directly come out of the needs survey may be
added. Yalden (1987: 105) stated that “the more accurately one can predict the
learners’ need will be, the more clearly the content of a syllabus can be
described”.
3) Choice of Syllabus
The election of which the syllabus will be carried out in the program
appears in this step. In this sense, the determination regards the learners’ needs
and characteristics.
In most CBI courses, the syllabus is derived from the content area, and
these widely vary in detail and format (Richard and Rodgers, 2001:212).
However, only theme based model of CBI which chooses content and
instructional sequence according to language learning goal (Brinton et al.,
1989:26).
4) Production of Proto-syllabus
At this step, the syllabus designer specifies the content derived from a
description of the purpose the learners have for acquiring the target language
language itself, and language use to be covered in a certain program, which is
developed.
5) Production of Pedagogical Syllabus
Pedagogical syllabus represents a plan to implement the content of the
language teaching/learning at the classroom level. The language program
designer, at this stage, should realize the syllabus in the form of teaching-learning
materials and testing approaches.
6) Development and Implementation of Classroom Syllabus
In this step, the program designer organizes the learning activities within
the lesson plan and develops the teaching materials. Yalden (1987:139) suggests
that the teacher should deal with the teaching techniques and realize the syllabus
in the form of teaching materials.
7) Evaluation
The step is intended to evaluate all components in the language program,
i.e. the students, the instructional program, and the teaching.
8) Recycling Stage
The last step is intended to fit between goals set and the final performance
of the learners. The content is reassessed; the materials and the teaching
approaches are revised.
The steps of Yalden’s instructional design, which is called as Yalden’s
Figure 2.2 Language Program Development of Yalden (Yalden, 1987: 88)
From the two instructional models above, the writer will not use all of
those steps, however some steps will be used and the others will not be used. The
writer will combine from the two instructional models. From Yalden’s model, the
writer takes first step, namely Needs Survey. This is one strength of Yalden’s
Model. This aids to explore and understand the learners’ need to learn English.
Hence, the foundation of language program can be well established. Kemp’s
second step, which is finding out learners’ characteristics, is not be used because it
can be included in need analysis. The writer combines this step with Kemp’s first
step, because Goals, Topics, and General Purposes determine the track of
Content-Based Instructional (CBI) Program. Kemp’s third step is used for
determine learning objectives of the materials designed based on CBI. The
objectives in a typical CBI course are stated as objectives of the content course.
Achievement of content course objectives is considered as necessary and
sufficient evidence that language learning objectives have been achieved as well.
However, theme-based CBI takes exception to this generalization. In
Theme-Based model, language learning objectives drive the selection of theme topics;
that is, there are often set linguistic objectives in the curriculum, and thematic
modules are selected for the degree to which they provide compatible contexts for
Subject Content is used for the next step because this step determines the
application of CBI principles in instructional design materials. The next step is
taken from Kemp’s sixth step, which is Planning the Teaching/Learning Activities
and Resources. The main activities in this materials design are applying
techniques and activities which are commonly found in CBI classrooms suggested
by Brinton (2003:209) which are pair and group work, information gap, jigsaw,
graphic organizers, discussion and debate, role-play, survey tasks, process writing,
problem solving, sequencing, ranking, and values clarification. The final step is
evaluation. Both Kemp and Yalden use evaluation as the final step for their
model. The writer takes this step because it is used for measuring the outcome of
the materials designed. It is very important to obtain evaluation values in order to
revise the materials designed.
2. School-Based Curriculum 2006
The School-Based Curriculum (SBC) is the newest curriculum from the
National Education Department that was issued in 2006. The overview of the
nature of English language, the goals and the scope of English Subject, and the
Standard and Basic Competencies of Elementary Level in SBC is described as
follows.
a. The Nature of English Language Based on School-Based Curriculum English language is a means of communicating both in the oral form and
written form. To communicate is to understand and to express the information,
to communicate in heuristic meaning is the ability to comprehend and/or produce
verbal and/or written texts which is realized in the form of the comprehension of
four language skills, i.e. listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Thus, English
subject is proposed to develop the skills accordingly that the students are able to
communicate in English in the current literacy level (Departemen Pendidikan
Nasional, 2006: 277).
Literary level consists of performative, functional, informational, and
epistemic. In performative level, people are able to read, write, listen, and speak
using symbols. In functional level, people are able to use language to fulfill their
daily needs such as reading newspaper, and manuals. In informational level,
people are able to access knowledge with their language ability while in epistemic
level people are able to express knowledge into the target language (Wells, 1987).
b. The Goals of English Subject for Elementary Level Based on School-Based Curriculum
Elementary level English subject has some goals as follows.
1) Develop communicative competence in English both orally and written in a
simple form to achieve functional literacy level.
2) Develop the awareness about the nature and importance of English to increase
c. The Scopes of English Subject for Elementary Level Based on School-Based Curriculum
According to Departemen Pendidikan Nasional (2006: 278) there
scopes in English lesson based on 2006 curriculum is the ability to communicate
verbally in a simple form in the school context, which includes listening,
speaking, reading, and writing aspects. Writing and reading aspect is directed to
support the verbal communication learning.
d. Standard Competencies and Basic Competencies for Elementary Level of School-Based Curriculum
English Subject for Elementary students has specific Standard and Basic
Competencies. Regarding the study, below is the presentation of Standard and
Basic Competencies based on School-Based Curriculum for the sixth grade of
Elementary School as shown in Table 2.1
Table 2.1. SBC Standard and Basic Competencies of Elementary Level (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional , 2006)
Standard Competencies Basic Competencies
Listening
At the end of the course,
students are able to comprehend very simple instruction by action in classroom context.
At the end of the course, students are able to: 1.1 Respond by action based on the instruction appropriately in classroom context.
1.2 Respond very simple instruction verbally in classroom context.
Speaking
At the end of the course,
students are able to express very simple instructions and
information in the classroom context.
At the end of the course, students are able to:
2.1 Converse accompanying the action appropriately using the expressions of introducing self, greeting, closing, and giving instruction.
2.2 Converse to ask/give the services/things
Table 2.1 Continued
Standard Competencies Basic Competencies
2.3 asking for things, and giving things.
2.4 Converse to ask/give information appropriately using the expressions of thank offering, apologizing, giving apology, forbiding, blessing, and inviting. Axpress politeness appropriately using the thank you, sorry, please, and excuse me expressions.
Reading
At the end of the course,
students are able to comprehend very simple short functional and descriptive texts in the
classroom context.
At the end of the course, students are able to: 3.1 Read loudly by pronouncing the words, phrases, and simple sentences correctly.
3.2 Comprehend simple sentences and simple written messages .
Writing
At the end of the course, students are able to write very simple short functional texts in the classroom context
At the end of the course, students are able to: 4.1 Pronounce simple English utterances correctly and appropriately using correct punctuation including words, phrases, and simple sentences.
4.2 Rewrite simple English text correctly and appropriately like greetings and written messages.
3. Theory of Children’s Cognitive Development
Considering the fact that learners in the Junior level of Bright Education
Center (BEC) are young learners, the next discussion appears to be the discussion
of the young learners.
According to Philips (1993) ‘young learners’ means children from the first
year of formal schooling, which are five or six years old, to eleven or twelve years
old. Regarding the children learning, the years at primary school have important
role in children’s cognitive development. Piaget (1980), as cited in Hergenhahn et
al., (1997), argues that children develop their ability to deal with their
environment in different way at each stage in their life. He identifies four main
Thinking stage, Concrete Operations stage, and Formal Operations stage. Each
stage is discussed as follows.
a. Sensorimotor Stage
The Sensorimotor stage occupies the period from birth to about 2 years old
children. This stage is characterized by the absence of language. Because the
children don’t have words for things, objects do not exist when they are not
dealing directly with them. In this stage, children’s interactions with their
environment deal only with the here and now. Toward the end of this stage, they
come to realize that objects exist even when they are not experiencing them
(Hergenhahn et al., 1997: 286).
b. Preoperational Thinking Stage
The preoperational stage starts from the children at about two years old to
about seven years old. During the preoperational stage, children acquire language
skills and become able to deal with the world symbolically instead of directly
through motor activities (Watson et al., 1973:72). They begin to classify things in
certain classes based on their similarity, but they make some mistakes because of
wrong concepts (Hergenhahn et al., 1997: 286).
c. Concrete Operations stage
The concrete operation stage starts at about seven years old to eleven or
twelve years old. Children, in this stage, begin to develop conservation (Watson et
al, 1973: 72). Conservation is the ability to realize that number, length, substance,
and area remain constant even though they may be presented to the child in some
classes in some series and with number concepts. During this stage, children can
perform rather complex operations on problems as long as the problems are
concrete and not abstract.
d. Formal Operations Stage
Formal operations stage begins at eleven or twelve and extends for about
two more years. Children in this stage are able to handle abstract relationships,
deal with hypothetical situations, understand and use probability, and deal with
other complex problems involving logic and reasoning (Watson et al., 1973: 72).
Piaget (1980), as cited in Ginn (2005), promotes a child-centered
educational curriculum to create optimal conditions for learning. Thus, he
supports active discovery learning environments in schools. Children need to
explore, to manipulate, to experiment, to question, and to search out answers for
themselves. However, this does not mean that children should be allowed to do
whatever they want. This is teachers’ role to be able to assess the children’s
present cognitive level. Piaget (1980), as cited in Ginn (2005), emphasizes that
learning instruction should be individualized as much as possible and children
should have opportunities to communicate with one another, to argue and debate
issues. The teacher should present students with materials and situations and
occasions that allow them to discover new learning.
Regarding the problem formulations, namely how a set of Content-Based
English instructional material for the Junior level of Bright Education Center is
designed and what the designed materials look like, this study focuses on the
BEC is in the range of those ages. As Phillips (1993:19) concludes, young
learners in ten years old to twelve years old have capabilities that should be
considered in teaching English language. These capabilities are shown by the
Table 2.2 below.
Table 2.2. Capabilities of Young Language Learner in age 10-12 years old (Phillips, 1993:19)
Characteristics Implication Need
Longer attention span Greater range of activities possible in class
Opportunities to engage in tasks that require focus and commitment
can be given responsibility chance to be independent
Still children have need for security and pleasure
Techer sensitive to their needs and moods
More cooperative with peers can do more group work Variety of grouping in class i.e. work on own, in pairs, in group, as class
Intellectual, motor and social skills developing
can be challenged more Activities that challenge them
Developing own learning strategies
children won’t all react in the same way to the same task/topic
Chance to personalize their learning experience
Harmer ( 2001:38) states that young learners learn differently from older children,
adolescents, and adults in the following ways:
- They respond to meaning even if they do not understand individual words.
- They often learn indirectly rather than directly – that is they take in information
from all sides, learning from everything around them rather than only focusing
- Their understanding comes not just from explanation, but also from what they
see and hear and, crucially, have a chance to touch and interact with.
- They generally display an enthusiasm for learning and curiosity about the
world around them.
- They have a need for individual attention and approval from the teacher.
- They are keen to talk about themselves, and respond well to learning that uses
themselves and their own lives as main topics in the classroom.
To design the materials, the designer has to consider children interests, to make
the learning interesting and motivating. Hurlock (1980) promotes some children
interest at the age of six old years to twelve years old, such as constructive games,
adventuring, hobby, games and sports, and entertainment. Hurlock (1980) also
denotes that interest can be function as powerful reinforcement.
4. Content-Based Instruction
The next section discusses Content-Based Instruction (CBI). The
discussion serves as the principles to develop a set of English instructional
materials for the Junior level of Bright Education Center.
a. Definition and Rationale of CBI
Content-Based Instruction refers to an approach to second language
teaching in which teaching is organized around the content or information that
students will acquire, rather than around a linguistic or other type of syllabus
(Richard and Rodgers, 2001:204). Content is considered as subject matter, while
(Brinton et al, 1989). Snow (2001:303) states the definition of “content” in this
discussion, which is the use of subject matter for second language teaching
purpose. Brown (1989) mentions five conditions that are fulfilled by this
approach. First, the content-based language curriculum takes into account the
interests and needs of the learners. Second, it incorporates the eventual uses the
learner will make through the target language. Third, it builds on the students’
previous learning experiences. Fourth, it allows a focus on use as well as on
usage. Fifth, it offers learners the necessary conditions for second language
learning by exposing them to meaningful language in use. Derived from these
conditions, this approach assumes that language is best learned when it is used as
a medium of instruction for learning something else, such as academic content
(Snow, 2001:304).
There are five rationales for integrating CBI with the teaching of language,
as Brown (1989:3) states. First, proponents of English for Specific Purposes
(ESP) note that for successful language learning to occur, the language syllabus
must take into account the eventual uses the learner will make of the target
language. Second, the use of informational content which is perceived as relevant
by the learners is assumed to increase motivation in the language course, and thus
to promote more effective learning. Third, this approach apply the pedagogical
principle that any teaching should build on the previous experience of the learner,
as they take into account the learners’ existing knowledge of the subject matter
and of the academic environment as well as their second language knowledge.
than on fragmented examples of correct sentence-level usage. Fifth, most recent
researches suggest that a necessary condition for successful language acquisition
is that the “input” in the target language must be understood by the learner
(Krashen, 1985, cited in Brown, 1989). Since input must also contain new
elements to be acquired, comprehension is accomplished with the help of cues
from the situational and verbal context. This process requires that the learner is
focused on meaning rather than on form.
b. Principles of CBI
CBI is based on two central principles (Richard and Rodgers, 2001: 207).
The first principle is a belief that people learn a second language more
successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring information,
rather than as an end in itself. Supporting this belief, Brinton (in Nunan, 2003:
207) states that central to CBI is the belief that learning occurs not only through
exposure to the teacher’s input but also through peer input and interaction.
Accordingly, students assume active, social roles in the classroom that involve
interactive learning, negotiation, information gathering, and the co-construction of
meaning (Lee and VanPatten, 1995, as cited in Nunan, 2003). These show the role
of language as a vehicle for learning content.
Second principle is a belief that CBI better reflects learners’ needs for
learning a second language. This principle reflects on the fact that many
content-based program serve to prepare ESL students for academic studies or for
and teaching as quickly as possible, and the processes through which such
learning and teaching are realized, are a central priority.
c. Theory of Language of CBI
A number of assumptions about the nature of language underlie CBI
(Richard and Rodgers, 2001: 208). The first assumption is that language is
text-and discourse-based. In this assumption, CBI addresses the role of language as a
vehicle for learning content. The focus of teaching is how meaning and
information are communicated and constructed through text and discourse. The
textual and discourse structure of written texts are such as letters, reports, essays,
description, or book chapters, or of speech events such as meetings, lectures, and
discussions. The second assumption is that language use draws on integrated
skills. In this assumption, CBI views that language is used in involving several
skills together. Students are often provided by activities that link the skills
integratively, because this is how the skills are generally involved in the real
world. Hence students might read and take notes, listen and write a summary, or
respond orally to things they have heard or written. They seek to bring together
knowledge, language, and thinking skills. Then, the third assumption is that
language is purposeful. Based on this assumption, language is used for specific
purposes, whether it is academic, vocational, social, or recreational. The learners
need to be clearly adjusted with its purposes and the language codes that signal
and link these expressions of purpose to receive maximum benefit from CBI.
d. Theory of Learning of CBI
It is described earlier that one of the principles of CBI is that people learn
a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means of
acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself (Richard and Rodgers, 2001:
209). Considering models of CBI that is used, Brinton et al, (1989:17) writes that
successful language learning occurs when students are presented with target
language material in a meaningful, contextualized form with the primary focus on
acquiring information. As cited in Richard and Rodgers (2001: 209), some studies
support the above principle (Scott, 1974; Collier 1989; Grandlin, 1993; Wesche,
1993). These studies support the position of second languages in formal education
setting, which are best learned when the focus is on mastery of content rather than
on mastery of language per se. This distinguishes CBI from traditional approaches
to language teaching in which language form is the primary focus of the syllabus
and of classroom teaching.
Some additional assumptions are derived from the core principles of CBI.
One important consequence is that people learn a second language most
successfully when the information they are acquiring is perceived as interesting,
useful, and leading to a desired goal (Richard and Rodgers, 2001: 209). This is
based on English for Specific Studies (ESP). Proponents of ESP note that for
successful learning to occur, the language syllabus must take into account the
eventual uses the learner will make of the target language (Brinton et al., 1989:3).
Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 8) supports that “learners were seen to have needs
learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learning”. Furthermore, Brinton et
al. adds that the use of informational content which is perceived as relevant by the
learner is assumed by many to increase motivation in the language course, and
thus to promote more effective learning (Brinton et al., 1989:3).
The second assumption is based on the fact that some content areas are
more useful as a basis for language learning than others (Richard and Rodgers,
2001:210). Certain areas of content are thought to be more effective as a basis for
CBI than others.
The third assumption views that students learn best when instruction
addresses students’ need (Richard and Rodgers, 2001: 210). This emphasizes that
in CBI the content that students study is selected according to their needs.
Authentic texts, both written and spoken, that students will encounter in the real
world (e.g., at school or at work) provide the starting point for developing a
syllabus, therefore relevance to learners’ need is assured.
The fourth assumption is related to the teaching that builds on the previous
experience of the learners (Richard and Rodgers, 2001:211). Based on this
assumption, the starting point of the lesson is therefore what the students already
know about the content.
e. Types of Teaching Learning Activities in CBI
There are some descriptions of activity types in CBI. Stoller (1997), as
cited in Richard and Rodgers (2001:212), provides a list of activities classified
according to their instructional focus such as language skills improvements,
skills, and synthesis of content materials and grammar. In addition, Brinton
(2003:209) lists some techniques and activities which are commonly found in CBI
classrooms such as pair and group work, information gap, jigsaw, graphic
organizers, discussion and debate, role-play, survey tasks, process writing,
problem solving, sequencing, ranking, and values clarification.
f. The Roles of Learner in CBI
One of the goals of CBI is to generate learners to be autonomous.
Accordingly, learners are able to understand their own learning process and take
charge of their own learning from the very start (Stryker and Leaver as cited in
Richard and Rodgers, 2001:213). Learners will support each other in collaborative
mode of learning. These assume an active role of the learners. “Learners are
expected to be active interpreters of input, willing to tolerate uncertainty along the
path of learning, willing to explore alternative learning strategies, and willing to
seek multiple interpretations of oral and written texts”. (Richard and Rodgers,
2001: 213). In addition, learners can take as sources of content (Richard and
Rodgers, 2001:213). Commitment of the learners is needed to this kind of
approach to language learning.
g. The Roles of Teacher in CBI
Richard and Rodgers (2001:214) underlie some roles of teacher in CBI.
They have to be not only a good teacher, but also a knowledgeable teacher. This
means that teacher must know the subject matter and bring out that knowledge
from students. Teachers are responsible for selecting and adapting authentic
planning and presentation. Moreover, as Brinton (1989:3) noted, they have to
analyze learners’ needs, and have to create learner-centered classrooms.
Furthermore, Tedick et al. (2001:3) propose the more fully equipped roles of
teachers in CBI. In general, Tedick et al. (2001) proposes teachers’ roles as the
provider of the CBI-fitted materials, the controller of the activities in CBI
classrooms, the learners’ needs analyst, and the developer of the content. The
presentation is in the Table 2.3.
Table 2.3. Teachers’ Roles in CBI (Tedick et al., 2001:3)
Teacher’s roles Characteristics
1. Provider of the CBI-fitted materials
•base planning on themes
•follow a communicative syllabus yet are aware of the needs to focus on form in the context of content instructions
•emphasize tasks that are cognitively engaging and intrinsically motivating
•increase the number and vividness of examples
•establish clear and meaningful context for learning
•provide for students-centered activities provide hands-on involvement
2. Controller of the activities in CBI classroom
•use the target language consistently
•provide meaningful, communicative, significant context for language learning to occur; create concrete experiences
•emphasize comprehension at beginning stages; include reading and writing as tools even in early stages of language development
•assess performance frequently and regularly
•pay attention to both form and function when considering language and content instructions
•know that effective vocabulary instruction is a key
Table 2.3 Continued
Teacher’s roles Characteristics
•maximize students output and provide for opportunities for students to produce extended discourse
•gear activities towards students’ interests, developmental levels, 3. Learner’s needs
analyst
experiences, various learning styles, and needs
•recognize that learners are active constructors of meaning and plan accordingly
•draw upon learners’ past experiences and knowledge as well as previous experiences from the curriculum
4. Developer of the CBI plan
•come together to develop an overall plan for language development in sync with content development
h. The Roles of Materials in CBI
As proposed by Richard and Rodgers (2001: 215), the materials used in
CBI are authentic. In one sense, authenticity implies that the materials “are like
the kinds of materials used in native-language instruction (Richard and Rodgers,
2001: 215). In another sense, as Brinton (1989: 17) writes, authenticity refers to
introduction of newspaper and magazine articles and any other media materials
“that were not originally produced for language teaching purposes. Richard and
Rodgers (2001) recommend a rich variety of materials types. Accordingly, realia
such as tourist guidebooks, technical journals, railway timetables, newspaper ads,
radio and TV broadcasts, and so on can be provided in order to vary the type of
materials. However, as proposed by Richard and Rodgers (2001: 215),
comprehensibility is an important consideration of materials’ role. Authentic
“This may mean linguistic simplification or adding redundancy to text materials”
(Richard and Rodgers, 2001:21).
5. Models of CBI
Brinton (1989) proposes three models of CBI, they are theme-based
model, sheltered model, and adjunct model. Meanwhile, Snow (2001:305-309)
develops the models of CBI to be five, adding immersion education and
content-enriched foreign language in the Elementary School. All are reviewed below.
a. Immersion Education
Snow (2001: 305-306), divides Immersion education into two, total
immersion and partial immersion. Total immersion means that learners receive the
majority of their schooling through the medium of their second language (Snow,
2001). Meanwhile, partial immersion allows the 50% of the study time to use the
first language on learning the subject. Immersion education is a well-developed
model designed to teach foreign languages to English speaking children at the
elementary school level.
b. Content-Enriched Foreign Language in the Elementary School
This model finds points of coincidence with the standard school
curriculum which can be paired with the objectives of the foreign language
curriculum (Snow, 2001:306). For example, terms and structures for describing
animals are coordinated with a science unit on biology, rather than being
c. Theme-Based Model
Theme-Based model is a type of CBI in which selected topics or themes
provide the content from which teachers extract language learning activities
(Snow, 2001:306). Theme-based model can be implemented in elementary
schools as well as in language institutes at the college or university, where classes are often composed of students of different language backgrounds or interests.
The further discussion of theme-based model is discussed on the next part of this
chapter.
d. Sheltered Model
Sheltered model of CBI refers to content courses taught in the second
language to a group of learners by a content area specialist (Brinton, 1989:15).
The learners are separated deliberately between learners of second or foreign
language and native speakers of the target language for the purpose of content
instruction (Snow, 2001:307). Students can tend to take a content course
conducted in their second language instead of taking a traditional second language
class.
e. Adjunct Model
The adjunct model is a content-based approach in which students are
concurrently enrolled in a language class and a content course. There is a link
between language and content departments. The success of this model depends on
the coordination of objectives and assignment between language and content
Total
Figure 2.3 Content-Based Language Teaching: A Continuum of Content and Language Integration (Snow, 2001:305)
6. Theme Based Model
Theme-based model, which is one of the CBI types, is reviewed on
account of its most appropriateness to be applied to the Bright Education Center
context as an English Course institution.
a. Definition and Features of Theme-Based Model
Theme-based model is a type of CBI in which selected topics or themes
provide the content from which teachers extract language learning activities
(Snow, 2001: 306). Theme-based courses differ substantially from more
traditional language courses. In traditional language courses, topics are usually
restricted to a single activity, such as reading or listening exercise (Brinton et al.,
1989: 15). Most important, as proposed by Brinton et al. (1989), “they differ in
that the organizational principles inherent in the themes or activities, ensuring
their contextualization and significance”. Theme-based is often made to integrate
the topic into the teaching of all skills. The primary purpose of the model is to
help learners develop second language competence within specific topic area.
Accordingly, it is inferred that the instructional format is for English as Second
Language (ESL) format that focus on language skills and functions mastery.
of language proficiency. It means that this model can be implemented in the low
level such as elementary school until in the higher level such as college or
university, where classes are often consist of students of various language
backgrounds or interests whose goal is to attend college or university in
English-speaking country (Snow, 2001:307).
b. Implications for Theme-Based Model
Brinton et al. (1989: 20) outlines a number of implications for the
theme-based model. The first implication is that the setting for the implementation of
theme-based model is adults’ school, language institutes, and all language
programs. In this view, the model can be implemented in all settings. Second
implication is that the theme-based model is appropriate at all levels of language
proficiency. Moreover, theme-based curricular units integrate all four skills. The
fifth implication, the materials should be teacher developed and use commercial
ESL texts. The last implication is that language teachers need training in
curriculum of syllabus design and materials development in theme-based since
this model requires much teacher’s involvement and efforts to develop.
7. English Skills
The review of English skills is due to the fact that the emphasis of
theme-based model of CBI is on language skills implementation. The skills are taught
integratively within specific topic area. English skills are differentiated into four
macro skills i.e. listening, reading, speaking, and writing. As Helgesen (2003:48)
