Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1996] 3 6 –4 2 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0951-354X]
Integrating information technology into university
teaching: identifying the needs and providing the
support
Sue Johnston, Coralie M cCormack
Ce ntre fo r the Enhanc e me nt o f Le arning, Te ac hing and Sc ho lars hip, Unive rs ity o f Canbe rra, Canbe rra, Aus tralia
Examines the integration of information technology (IT) into Higher Education teach-ing in the UK. Looks at the current status of IT in univer-sities and states that IT is only valuable if it is used in educationally sound ways. Highlights the barriers to the integration of IT and ways in which it could be more effec-tively adopted. States that the majority of staff need support if they are to use IT to its full potential and suggests ways of bringing this about. Con-cludes that this has to be a long-term goal and that it requires many resources.
Introduction
In sp it e of cla im s a b ou t t h e im p a ct of t ech n ol-ogy on u n iver sit y t ea ch in g a n d t h e a p p a r en t in d ica t or s of m a ssive ch a n ge in t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g a p p r oa ch es, t h e r ea l ch a n ges b ein g exp er ien ced by st u d en t s a n d t ea ch er s w it h in ou r u n iver sit ies a r e fa r less t h a n exp ect ed . For t h e m a jor it y of u n iver sit y t ea ch er s, it seem s t h a t t h er e a r e st ill m a n y b a r r ier s t o a n d som e p er son a l m isgiv in gs a b ou t m ov in g aw ay fr om a sole r elia n ce on t r a d it ion a l t ea ch in g a p p r oa ch es a n d m ov in g t ow a r d s in t e gr a t in g va r iou s t ech n ologies in t o t h eir t ea ch in g. T h is p a p er exp lor es su ch b a r r ier s a n d su ggest s a com b in a t ion of n eed s w h ich m u st b e m et b efor e u n iver sit y t ea ch er s a r e lik ely t o give w h oleh ea r t ed su p p or t t o t h ese m u ch h er a ld ed ch a n ges. At a t im e w h en m ost u n iver sit ies a r e gr a p p lin g w it h t h ese issu es, su ggest ion s w it h in t h e p a p er a r e a im ed a t t h ose w h o a r e m a k in g p olicies, m a n a gin g r esou r ces a n d im p lem en t in g st r a t e gies t o en cou r a ge u n iver sit y t ea ch er s t o in t e gr a t e t ech n ology in t o t h eir t ea ch in g.
Information technology in teaching
Un iver sit y p olicy m a k er s a n d sen ior m a n -a ger s w it h r esp on sib ilit y for su p p or t in g d evelop m en t s in u n iver sit y t ea ch in g a r e u n d er som e p r essu r e t o in vest r esou r ces t o m ove t h eir u n iver sit ies t ow a r d s m or e t ech -n ology -b a sed a p p r oa ch es t o t ea ch i-n g a -n d lea r n in g[1-3]. Qu est ion s a r ise a b ou t w h er e t h ese r esou r ces sh ou ld b e d ir ect ed a n d w h a t st r a t e gies sh ou ld b e u sed t o p r ov id e su p p or t . It is d ifficu lt n ot t o b e p er su a d ed by a t t em p t s t o con v in ce u s t h a t u n iver sit y t ea ch in g is u n d er goin g a t ech n ologica l r evolu t ion . Com -m er cia l soft w a r e co-m p a n ies cla i-m n ew w ay s of p r esen t in g lea r n in g m a t er ia ls w h ich a r e gu a r a n t eed t o m ot iva t e ou r ver y t ech n ologica lly lit er a t e st u d en t clien t ele. T h e gover n -m en t h a s p ou r ed r esou r ces in t o su p p or t in g t h e Au st r a lia n m u lt im ed ia in d u st r y a n d h a s cla im ed it s p ot en t ia l t o t r a n sfor m t h e r ole of u n iver sit ies[4]. Op en lea r n in g h a s b ecom e a ca t ch cr y p h r a se a n d is on ly on e exa m p le of n ew w ay s of t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g w h ich t a k e a dva n t a ge of t ech n ology. H igh er
ed u ca t ion n ew s is r ich w it h cla im s a b ou t t h e p ow er of in for m a t ion t ech n ology t o r evolu t ion ize t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g w it h in u n iver sit ies[2,3]. T h e Com m it t ee for t h e Adva n cem en t of Un iver sit y Tea ch in g (CAUT) is in u n d a t ed ea ch yea r w it h a p p lica t ion s for t ea ch in g d evelop m en t gr a n t s w h ich a r e t ech n ologica lly d r iven [5,6]. In 1993, 63 p er cen t of fu n d ed CAUT a p p lica t ion s in volved com p u t er -b a sed t ech n ologies t o a sign ifi ca n t ext en t [7]. T h e a p p a r en t em p h a sis on t ech -n ology -r ela t ed gr a -n t s i-n t h e 1995 r ou -n d p r om p t ed t h e Ch a ir m a n of CAUT t o m a k e w h a t a lm ost a p p ea r ed t o b e a d iscla im er t h a t t h ese gr a n t s m er ely r efl ect ed t h e p r op or t ion of a p p lica t ion s r eceived a n d w er e in n o w ay in d ica t ive of CAUT p r ior it ies[6].
Sue Jo hns to n and Co ralie Mc Co rmac k Inte grating info rmatio n te c hno lo gy into unive rsity te ac hing: ide ntifying the ne e ds and pro viding the suppo rt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 3 6 –4 2
h ave a t t em p t ed t y p ologies w h ich ca t e gor ize t h e a p p r oa ch es eit h er in t er m s of t h e t ech n ol-ogy on w h ich t h ey a r e b a sed or in t er m s of t h e t y p e of t ea ch in g t h ey a r e u sed t o
su p p or t [8,9]. On e d ifficu lt y is t h e r a p id r a t e a t w h ich t ech n ology is a dva n cin g a n d t y p gies q u ick ly b ecom e d a t ed a s n ew t ech n olo-gies a n d n ew a p p lica t ion s em er ge[10].
T h e lin k b et w een ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es a n d in for m a t ion t ech n ology is a lso p r oblem a t ic. In for m a t ion t ech n ology of it self d oes n ot h ave a n ed u ca t ion a l va lu e u n less it is p u t t o wor k in ed u ca t ion a lly sou n d w ay s. Tech n ology ca n b e m isu sed by t ea ch er s a s ca n a n y t ea ch in g t ool. T h e in t r od u ct ion of in for m a t ion t ech n ol-ogy d oes n ot gu a r a n t ee en h a n ced t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g. E xcellen t t ea ch in g m ay or m ay n ot in volve t h e u se of in for m a t ion t ech n ol-ogy ; p oor t ea ch in g m ay or m ay n ot in volve in for m a t ion t ech n ology [8]. T h e a im m u st b e t o u se in for m a t ion t ech n ology in w ay s w h ich en h a n ce t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g. T h is m ea n s id en t ify in g ed u ca t ion a l p r oblem s or a r ea s in w h ich t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g sh ou ld b e en h a n ced a n d em p loy in g in for m a t ion t ech n ology t o over com e t h ose p r oblem s or su p -p or t t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g in s-p ecifi c w ay s. Su ch a n a p p r oa ch su ggest s t h a t m oves t o u se in for m a t ion t ech n ology m u st b e d r iven by ed u ca t ion a l n eed s r a t h er t h a n a d esir e t o u se t h e t ech n ology for it s ow n sa k e. T h e a p p r oa ch a lso d ict a t es t h a t d evelop m en t s n eed t o b e eva lu a t ed t o en su r e t h a t t h ey a r e a ch iev in g t h e ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es b ein g sou gh t a n d t h a t a n y a ssocia t ed d isa dva n t a ges of u sin g t h e t ech n ologica l a p p r oa ch d o n ot d et r a ct fr om it s over a ll ed u ca t ion a l va lu e.
T h er e is som e ev id en ce t h a t cer t a in t ech -n ology -b a sed t ea ch i-n g a p p r oa ch es w h e-n em p loyed in cer t a in w ay s d o h ave b en efi cia l ou t com es for st u d en t s. St u d en t s a t on e Au st r a lia n u n iver sist y w er e “p osist ive st o a n u n a n t icip a t ed d e gr ee” a b ou t t h eir u se of com p u t er -b a sed ed u ca t ion , in d ica t in g t h a t it gave t h em fl exib ilit y in follow in g u p fr om lect u r es a n d r ev isin g m a t er ia l[11]. T h e a dva n t a ges of u sin g t ech n ology t o d eliver h igh er ed u ca t ion t o t h e wor k p la ce h ave b een r e p or t ed by H a m er [12]. In a m or e gen er a l w ay, La u r il-la r d [8] a n a ly ses t h e ed u ca t ion a l st r en gt h s a n d w ea k n esses of a r a n ge of a p p r oa ch es. T h e a dva n t a ges a n d d isa dva n t a ges of va r iou s a p p r oa ch es h ave a lso b een d ocu m en t ed in a n u m b er of r e p or t s[9,12].
Wh y t h en d o w e n ot see w id esp r ea d u se of in for m a t ion t ech n ology in t ea ch in g? T h e r ea lit y of t h e u n iver sit y cla ssr oom for m ost of ou r st u d en t s r em a in s a s it h a s b een for m a n y yea r s – a la r ge lect u r e t h ea t r e in w h ich t h e p r ofessor d eliver s a lect u r e, p ossibly a id ed by over h ea d t r a n sp a r en cies or ch a lk b oa r d . Va n H om r igh a n d O’Lea r y [13] h ave r e p or t ed t h a t
t h e m a jor it y of lect u r er s a t on e Au st r a lia n u n iver sit y con t in u ed t o u se lect u r e t h ea t r es for t r a d it ion a l lect u r e p r esen t a t ion even t h ou gh a dva n ced t ech n ology w a s r ea d ily ava ila ble in t h e d esign of t h e lect u r e t h ea t r e a n d t h er e w er e in cr ea sed op p or t u n it ies ava il-a ble for il-a lt er n il-a t ive m od es of p r esen t il-a t ion . In a su r vey of a ca d em ic st a ff a t t h e Un iver sit y of Ca n b er r a in Au st r a lia , 61 p er cen t in d ica t ed t h ey u sed elect r on ic m a il in t h eir t ea ch in g, 38 p er cen t u sed t h e In t er n et a n d on ly 10 p er cen t u sed self-a u t h or ed or com m er cia lly ava ila ble m u lt im ed ia p a ck a ges[14]. Sp ot t s a n d Bow m a n [15] h ave r e p or t ed sim ila r r esu lt s for a u n iver sit y in t h e USA w h er e fa cu lt y k n ow led ge of com p u t er t ech n ology a n d r ela t ed u se of in st r u ct ion a l t ech n ology w a s fou n d t o b e low.
Sp ot t s a n d Bow m a n [15] a r gu e t h a t in st a n ces of in n ova t ive u ses of in for m a t ion t ech n ology a p p ea r t o b e t h e exce p t ion r a t h er t h a n t h e r u le, w it h t h e in cor p or a t ion in t o p r a ct ice of n ew w ay s of r ea d in g a n d lea r n in g t a k in g m or e t im e t h a n m a n y r ea lize. “Wit h -ou t d efi n it ive d a t a t o su p p or t t h is con t en t ion t h a t t ech n ology is b ecom in g w id esp r ea d in a ca d em e, su ch a n a ssu m p t ion a p p ea r s n ot t o b e w ell gr ou n d ed in ev id en ce” (p. 58). T h u s, h ea d lin es a n d a r t icles w h ich fea t u r e in n ova t ive u ses of in for m a t ion t ech n ology in u n iver -sit y t ea ch in g a r e m er ely in d ica t ive t h a t t h er e is a ver y sm a ll n u m b er of a ca d em ics a t t h is “cu t t in g ed ge”, w h ile t h e m a jor it y h ave b een left fa r b eh in d . In a r ev iew of lit er a t u r e, Ca la d in e[16] con clu d ed t h a t “t h e m a jor it y of lit er -a t u r e su r veyed con cer n ed ‘su ccess st or ies’ a n d h en ce m ay n ot b e a va lid in d ica t or of t h e fu ll ext en t of ed u ca t ion a l lim it a t ion s” (p. 17). Wh en look in g a t t h e w h ole p ict u r e of u n iver -sit y t ea ch in g, few ch a n ges a p p ea r t o h ave b een m a d e over t h e yea r s.
What are the barriers?
Sue Jo hns to n and Co ralie Mc Co rmac k Inte grating info rmatio n te c hno lo gy into unive rsity te ac hing: ide ntifying the ne e ds and pro viding the suppo rt
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in su fficien t t im e, in a d eq u a t e fa cilit ies, t oo few in cen t ives a n d a la ck of su p p or t [19,20].
In t er v iew s w it h a r a n ge of a ca d em ic st a ff a t t h e Un iver sit y of Ca n b er r a p r ov id ed som e m or e d et a iled in for m a t ion a b ou t t h ese b a r r i-er s t o t h e in t e gr a t ion of in for m a t ion t ech n ol-ogy in t ea ch in g[14]. T h e in t er v iew s w er e con d u ct ed w it h st a ff w h o h a d r eceived gr a n t s w it h in t h e u n iver sit y for t ea ch in g d evelop -m en t p r oject s a ssocia t ed w it h in for -m a t ion t ech n ology. In v it a t ion s for com m en t s w er e a lso m a d e t o t h e en t ir e st a ff a n d a few in d iv id -u a ls, ot h er t h a n t h ose for m a lly con t a ct ed , r esp on d ed t o t h is in v it a t ion a n d p r ov id ed d a t a . T h e m a jor t h em es em er gin g fr om t h ese in t er v iew s w er e con cer n s a b ou t :
• t h e p ot en t ia l t o d ecr ea se op p or t u n it ies for in t er a ct ion s b et w een st a ff a n d st u d en t s; • d ifficu lt ies w it h in fr a st r u ct u r e su ch a s
in a d eq u a t e eq u ip m en t or p oor ly eq u ip p ed t ea ch in g sp a ces;
• la ck of k n ow led ge a n d sk ills of st a ff; • in su fficien t t ech n ica l su p p or t st a ff; • a la ck of t im e;
• in a d eq u a t e r esou r ces; a n d
• t h e r isk s a ssocia t ed w it h im p lem en t in g in n ova t ion s in t ea ch in g, p a r t icu la r ly t h ose u sin g t ech n ology.
A n u m b er of com m en t s id en t ifi ed b a r r ier s w h ich r ela t ed t o in su fficien t su p p or t p er -ceived t o b e p r ov id ed by t h e in st it u t ion . Resp on d en t s r efer r ed t o in su fficien t p r ov i-sion s in a r a n ge of a r ea s su ch a s t r a in in g, gen er a l su p p or t w h ile t h ey u sed n ew for m s of t ech n ology, a ccess t o eq u ip m en t of t h e for m r eq u ir ed t o u se n ew a p p r oa ch es in t h eir t ea ch in g, t ech n ica l su p p or t , r esou r ces t o p u r ch a se eq u ip m en t a n d a r ecogn it ion or a ck n ow led gem en t of t h e ext r a effor t in vest ed in d evelop in g n ew a p p r oa ch es t o t ea ch in g. T h e t im e-con su m in g n a t u r e of d evelop in g t ech n ology -b a sed m a t er ia ls a n d a p p r oa ch es w a s n ot ed , a s w a s t h e sca r cit y of t im e ava il-a ble t o com m it t o su ch t il-a sk s. Som e com m en t s r ela t ed t o t h e ga p in u n d er st a n d in g b et w een t h e t ech n ology exp er t s a n d t h ose cop in g w it h r ea l cla ssr oom issu es.
T h e r em a in in g b a r r ier s id en t ifi ed r ela t ed t o t h e p er ceived a t t it u d es a n d k n ow led ge of a ca d em ic st a ff. A la ck of fa m ilia r it y w it h t h e m a t er ia ls ava ila ble a n d w it h t h e p ot en t ia l of t ech n ology t o en h a n ce t ea ch in g w a s id en t i-fi ed , a s w a s a la ck of k n ow led ge of issu es r ela t ed t o t h e d esign of com p u t er -b a sed m a t e-r ia ls. At t it u d in a l b a e-r e-r iee-r s w h ich w ee-r e id en t i-fi ed in clu d ed a la ck of con i-fi d en ce a m on g som e st a ff in u sin g t h e t ech n ology a n d t r y in g n ew a p p r oa ch es. Som e r esp on d en t s felt t h a t t h eir collea gu es w er e som et im es en t r en ch ed in t r a d it ion a l t ea ch in g a p p r oa ch es a n d cou ld n ot see d iffer en t w ay s of t ea ch in g a n d
lea r n in g. T h er e w a s a m en t ion by som e t h a t st a ff w er e n ot n ecessa r ily con v in ced of t h e ed u ca t ion a l va lu e of ch a n gin g fr om t r a d i-t ion a l i-t ea ch in g a p p r oa ch es. Com m en i-t s a lso r ela t ed t o t h e ver y la r ge st e p p er ceived t o b e n ecessa r y in m ov in g t ow a r d s t ech n ology -b a sed a p p r oa ch es. T h e p ict u r e em er gin g fr om t h ese in t er v iew s is t h a t , w h ile som e, t h ou gh n ot a ll, st a ff m ay see t h e p ot en t ia l b en efi t s fr om in t e gr a t in g t ech n ology in t o t h eir t ea ch -in g, t h e m ea n s of a ch iev -in g t h ese b en efi t s a r e n ot p er ceived t o b e ea sy. T h ese a ca d em ics sen d a clea r m essa ge t h a t m ov in g in t o t h e wor ld of t ech n ology a p p ea r s t im e-con su m in g a n d u n cer t a in , w it h in su fficien t in cen t ives a n d su p p or t for t h em t o m a k e t h is m ove w it h con fi d en ce.
T h e d ifficu lt y w it h t h ese in t er est in g, a lt h ou gh som ew h a t p r ed ict a ble, list s of b a r r ier s is t h a t t h ey give few clu es t o t h e in t ier r ela -t ion sh ip s a m on g -t h e p oin -t s lis-t ed a n d -t h e p r ior it ies w h ich m u st b e a d d r essed w h en a t t em p t in g t o m in im ize t h e b a r r ier s. T h er e is a lso n o ev id en ce t h a t r em ov in g t h e b a r r ier s (if t h a t is in d eed p ossible) w ill r esu lt in ch a n gin g exist in g p r a ct ices. T h u s, t h ese list s d o n ot n ecessa r ily a ssist st r a t e gic p la n n in g for ch a n ge, p a r t icu la r ly in a clim a t e of sca r ce r esou r ces w h er e a ll b a r r ier s a r e u n lik ely t o b e a d d r essed sim u lt a n eou sly or d ism a n t led com p let ely. We n eed ot h er w ay s of exp lor in g t h e issu e. Ra t h er t h a n id en t ify in g p er ceived b a r r ier s t o b e over com e, a m or e u sefu l a p p r oa ch is t o t a k e a p osit ive st a n ce a n d look a t t h e n eed s t o b e m et for t ea ch in g p r a ct ices t o ch a n ge. Su ch a n a p p r oa ch is n ot n ecessa r ily ea sily a ch ieved b eca u se u n iver sit y t ea ch er s a r e n ot a lw ay s a ble t o id en t ify t h eir su p -p or t n eed s w h en t h ey a r e u n fa m ilia r w it h ed u ca t ion a l t ech n ology a n d u n aw a r e of t h e ed u ca t ion a l a n d t ech n ica l p ot en t ia l t h a t t h e t ech n ology h a s t o offer t h em . It is a ca se of n ot k n ow in g w h a t t h ey n eed t o k n ow u n t il t h ey a r e w ell a lon g t h e t r a ck of exp er im en t a -t ion a n d im p lem en -t a -t ion .
Towards a typology of adoption
Geogh e ga n [21] h a s a p p r oa ch ed t h e p r oblem by focu sin g on t h e n eed s of u n iver sit y t ea ch -er s a n d h a s su ggest ed t h a t va r iou s socia l a n d p sych ologica l fa ct or s u n d er lie t h e sp r ea d of
Sue Jo hns to n and Co ralie Mc Co rmac k Inte grating info rmatio n te c hno lo gy into unive rsity te ac hing: ide ntifying the ne e ds and pro viding the suppo rt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 3 6 –4 2
a r gu m en t p r ogr esses by su ggest in g t h a t t h is ga p h a s b een ca u sed by effor t s t o su p p or t d evelop m en t s b a sed on n eed s id en t ifi ed by t h e ea r ly a d op t er s, n ot t h e n eed s of t h e r em a in in g a ca d em ics w h o r eq u ir e t h e su p -p or t :
T h e su p p or t sy st em s t h a t m ost ca m p u ses h ave p u t in t o p la ce t o fost er t h e d e p loy m en t of in st r u ct ion a l t ech n ology w er e d esign ed by a n d for t h e ea r ly a d op t er s t h em selves, u n d er a n u n st a t ed a ssu m p t ion t h a t a ll p ot en t ia l a d op t er s n eed t h e sa m e k in d s of en cou r a gem en t , fa cilit ies, a n d su p p or t , d iffer in g fr om on e a n ot h er by d e gr ee, p er -h a p s, bu t n ot by k in d (p. 31).
Geogh e ga n ch a r a ct er izes ea r ly a d op t er s of in for m a t ion t ech n ology in t h eir t ea ch in g a s: • favou r in g r evolu t ion a r y ch a n ge;
• v ision a r y ;
• st r on g in t h eir t ech n ology focu s; • r isk -t a k er s;
• exp er im en t er s;
• la r gely self-su fficien t ; a n d ,
• “h or izon t a lly n et wor k ed ” (u sed t o wor k in g a cr oss d iscip lin es a n d a cr oss gr ou p s). In con t r a st , t h e m a in st r ea m m a jor it y is ch a r -a ct er ized -a s:
• favou r in g evolu t ion a r y ch a n ge; • p r a gm a t ic or con ser va t ive;
• st r on g in t h eir p r oblem a n d p r ocess focu s; • r isk -aver se;
• w a n t in g p r oven a p p lica t ion s of com p ellin g va lu e;
• n eed in g su p p or t ; a n d ,
• “ver t ica lly n et wor k ed ” (u sed t o wor k in g w it h in t h e b ou n d a r ies of t h eir d iscip lin e). T h is con t r a st su ggest s d iffer en t su p p or t n eed s for ea ch gr ou p a n d a lso h a s t h e im p li-ca t ion t h a t ea r ly a d op t er s a r e n ot n ecessa r ily a ble t o d efi n e t h e su p p or t n eed s of t h e m or e ca u t iou s m a in st r ea m m a jor it y.
Supporting the needs of the
majority
Given t h a t ea r ly a d op t er s w ill t r y n ew id ea s a n d b e a t t h e cu t t in g ed ge w it h m in im a l su p -p or t , it is n ecessa r y t o t u r n ou r a t t en t ion t o t h e m or e ca u t iou s m a in st r ea m m a jor it y a n d a t t em p t t o m eet t h eir su p p or t n eed s if t h e fu ll p ot en t ia l of in for m a t ion t ech n ology t o en h a n ce t ea ch in g is t o b e r ea lized . Given t h e ch a r a ct er iza t ion of t h is gr ou p, it is im p or t a n t t h a t st r a t e gies t a k e in t o a ccou n t t h e gr ou p ’s t en d en cy t ow a r d s evolu t ion a r y ch a n ge, p r a g-m a t ic con sid er a t ion s, a p r obleg-m -solv in g focu s, t h e n eed for st r on g ev id en ce of t h e va lu e of ch a n ge, t h e n eed for sign ifi ca n t su p -p or t a n d t h e lin k s t h a t m em b er s of t h is gr ou -p h ave w it h in t h eir d iscip lin e.
Alt h ou gh ea r ly a d op t er s m igh t a r gu e for t h e in vest m en t of m or e r esou r ces in h a r d -w a r e a n d soft -w a r e, t h e m a jor it y of a ca d em ics a r e lik ely t o b e over w h elm ed by sop h ist ica t ed a n d com p lex t ech n ology u n less sp ecifi c ed u -ca t ion a l b en efi t s a r e est a blish ed a n d ch a n ges a r e b r ou gh t a b ou t m or e slow ly. T h e im p lica t ion is t h a t su p p or t st r a t e gies for t h e m a in st r ea m m a jor it y sh ou ld b e gin w it h ed u ca -t ion a l issu es a n d -t h e ed u ca -t ion a l b en efi -t s of in t e gr a t in g t ech n ology in t ea ch in g, r a t h er t h a n t h e t ech n ica l a r gu m en t s a n d excit em en t w h ich oft en a ccom p a n y t ech n ology -b a sed a p p r oa ch es a n d a p p ea l t o t h ose w h o a r e st r on ger in t h eir t ech n ology focu s.
Given t h a t t h e m a in st r ea m m a jor it y w ill b e m ost sw ayed by ev id en ce t h a t in for m a t ion t ech n ology w ill over com e sp ecifi c ed u ca -t ion a l p r oblem s a n d w ill -t h en r eq u ir e on go-in g su p p or t go-in or d er t o effect a n y ch a n ge, it is im p or t a n t t o focu s on t h e la r ger ed u ca t ion a l p ict u r e, est a blish a n ed u ca t ion a l n eed for t h e in for m a t ion t ech n ology -b a sed a p p r oa ch a n d t h en su p p or t m oves t o a ch ieve t h e d esir ed ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es[21]. For p r a ct ica l r ea -son s, it b ecom es a ca se of n ot p r essu r in g a ll st a ff t o u se in for m a t ion t ech n ology in t h eir t ea ch in g. In st ea d , w e sh ou ld b e a im in g t ow a r d s a scen a r io in w h ich st a ff a r e w illin g t o exp lor e t h eir t ea ch in g w it h a v iew t o m a k -in g ch a n ges t o en h a n ce it ; t h a t t h ey k n ow a n d u n d er st a n d w ay s of ch a n gin g t h eir t ea ch in g aw ay fr om t r a d it ion a l a p p r oa ch es w h en t h er e is ev id en ce of t h e n eed t o d o so; t h a t st a ff u n d er st a n d t h e p ot en t ia l for in for m a t ion t ech n ology t o en h a n ce t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g in sp ecifi c w ay s; a n d , t h a t t h ey t h en feel con fi -d en t t o p u r su e -d evelop m en t s w h ich p r ov i-d e t h em a n d t h eir st u d en t s w it h t h e a dva n t a ges t h ey seek .
An institutional culture which values and rewards innovation in teaching
Sue Jo hns to n and Co ralie Mc Co rmac k Inte grating info rmatio n te c hno lo gy into unive rsity te ac hing: ide ntifying the ne e ds and pro viding the suppo rt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 3 6 –4 2
in t o p olicies a n d p r oced u r es w h ich h ave p r a ct ica l ou t com es for t ea ch er s a n d st u d en t s. Sen ior st a ff w it h in t h e u n iver sit y w ill b e seen t o su p p or t a n d va lu e t ea ch in g a s on e of t h e cor e a ct iv it ies of a ca d em ic st a ff. Sp ecifi c st r a t e gies in clu d e: t ea ch in g d evelop m en t gr a n t s; u n it s w h ich p r ov id e su p p or t for t ea ch in g; a p r ogr a m m e of p r ofession a l d evel-op m en t d ir ect ed a t u n iver sit y t ea ch er s; aw a r d s a n d r ew a r d s for excellen ce a n d in n o-va t ion in t ea ch in g; p r om ot ion op p or t u n it ies b a sed on t ea ch in g a ch ievem en t s;
in st it u t ion a l su p p or t for a ca d em ics t o ga in t ea ch in g q u a lifi ca t ion s; a n d a n en v ir on m en t in w h ich t h e r isk s a ssocia t ed w it h t r y in g n ew t ea ch in g a p p r oa ch es a r e su p p or t ed a n d r ew a r d ed r a t h er t h a n ign or ed or p u n ish ed [22].
Assistance with critical reflection on teaching
T h e n ext fa cet r ela t es t o in d iv id u a l u n iver sit y t ea ch er s a n d t h e n eed for t h ese in d iv id u a ls t o see t ea ch in g a s a p r a ct ice in w h ich r efl ect ion , self-m on it or in g a n d eva lu a t ion occu r t o d evelop n ew w ay s of im p r ov in g t h a t p r a ct ice. T h e m a jor it y of u n iver sit y t ea ch er s d o n ot h ave for m a l t ea ch in g or ed u ca t ion a l q u a lifi -ca t ion s a n d t h er efor e b a se m u ch of t h eir t ea ch in g on a p p r oa ch es w it h w h ich t h ey a r e fa m ilia r [23]. Most a r e u n fa m ilia r w it h t h e ed u ca t ion a l lit er a t u r e a n d w it h ed u ca t ion a l con ce p t s w h ich a llow t h em t o a r t icu la t e t h eir t h ou gh t s a b ou t t ea ch in g, u n d er st a n d a n d cr it iq u e t h eir p r a ct ice a n d t h en exp lor e a lt er -n a t ive w ay s of seei-n g a -n d p r a ct isi-n g t h eir t ea ch in g[22,23]. Wit h st r on g a lle gia n ce t o t h eir ow n d iscip lin e a ch a r a ct er ist ic of a ca d e-m ics, u n iver sit y t ea ch er s see t h e d iscip lin e of ed u ca t ion a s a n u n n ecessa r y, a d d it ion a l bu r d en or a d iscip lin e n ot n ot ed for it s u ser -fr ien d lin ess. In t h is r e ga r d , on e ver y su ccess-fu l d evelop m en t h a s b een t h e u n it s w it h in m a n y Au st r a lia n u n iver sit ies w h ich su p p or t t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g t h r ou gh wor k sh op s a n d in d iv id u a l con su lt a n cies sp ecifi ca lly for t h e a ca d em ic st a ff of t h e u n iver sit y [24].
T h ese ed u ca t ion a l d evelop m en t u n it s op er a t e fr om a d iscip lin a r y b a se of h igh er ed u ca -t ion a n d p r ov id e r esou r ces, wor k sh op s a n d ot h er p r ofession a l d evelop m en t p r ogr a m m es, in d iv id u a l a ssist a n ce, t ea ch in g eva lu a t ion ser v ices, p olicy a dv ice a n d som et im es for m a l, a ccr ed it ed cou r ses on t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g in h igh er ed u ca t ion . T h e r esou r ce com m it -m en t t o su ch u n it s is in it self a d e-m on st r a t ion of t h e in st it u t ion a l com m it m en t t o su p p or t for t ea ch in g w h ile t h e u n it s a ct in p r a ct ica l w ay s t o p r ov id e a ssist a n ce t o in d iv id u a ls a s w ell a s gr ou p s w it h in t h e u n iver sit y. On e r ole of t h is for m of a ssist a n ce is t o h igh ligh t issu es a n d p r oblem a r ea s w h ich n eed t o b e
a d d r essed , exp lor e t h e op t ion s ava ila ble a n d t o p r ov id e su p p or t w h ile a lt er n a t ive p r a ct ices a r e im p lem en t ed . T h e Au st r a lia n H igh er E d u ca t ion Cou n cil[25] h igh ligh t ed t h e va lu e of a u n iver sit y t ea ch er r eceiv in g feed b a ck on t ea ch in g w h ich is “a u gm en t ed by con ver sa -t ion w i-t h som eon e w i-t h exp er -t k n ow led ge on t h e t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g con t ext ” (p. 39).
Raising awareness about the potential for information technology to enhance teaching and learning
It is in t h is ligh t of exp lor in g ed u ca t ion a l issu es a n d p r oblem s, look in g for a lt er n a t ive (a n d b et t er ) w ay s of a ct in g a n d t r y in g n ew id ea s, t h a t in for m a t ion t ech n ology n a t u r a lly em er ges a s a n op t ion t o b e exp lor ed . In for m a t ion t ech n ology ca n b e u sed t o en h a n ce t ea ch -in g -in sp ecifi c w ay s t o over com e sp ecifi c sh or t com in gs in exist in g p r a ct ices a n d u n i-ver sit y t ea ch er s n eed t o b ecom e aw a r e of it s p ot en t ia l a dva n t a ges a n d d isa dva n t a ges a s t h ey con sid er t h eir op t ion s. Beca u se m a n y u n iver sit y t ea ch er s a r e n ot fa m ilia r w it h t ech n ology -b a sed a p p r oa ch es a n d m a t er ia ls, on e im p or t a n t St r a t e gy is t o p r ov id e d em on st r a t ion s of wor k in g exa m p les a n d t o sh ow -ca se in n ova t ive a p p li-ca t ion s a n d t h e t ea ch er s w h o u se t h em . T h er e is n o d ou b t t h a t t ea ch -er s lea r n m u ch fr om d iscu ssion s w it h ot h -er t ea ch er s, p a r t icu la r ly t h ose in t h e sa m e d isci-p lin e, w h o sh a r e t h eir exisci-p er ien ces in u sin g p a r t icu la r a p p r oa ch es for p a r t icu la r p u r -p oses. T h e elem en t of r isk is lessen ed w h en wor k in g exa m p les a r e ava ila ble a n d t h e ele-m en t of u n cer t a in t y a n d isola t ion is r ed u ced by con t a ct w it h som eon e w h o h a s a lr ea dy b een t h r ou gh t h e im p lem en t a t ion p r ocess. Given t h e “ver t ica l n et wor k in g” of a ca d e-m ics, t h is con t a ct h a s va lu e w h en it occu r s w it h ot h er s in t h e sa m e d iscip lin e. Alt er n a -t ively, -t h e “ver -t ica l n e-t wor k s” n eed -t o b e con sciou sly su p p lem en t ed by set t in g u p sp e-cia l for u m s t o fa cilit a t e sh a r in g of id ea s a cr oss d iscip lin es.
The need for design assistance
Sue Jo hns to n and Co ralie Mc Co rmac k Inte grating info rmatio n te c hno lo gy into unive rsity te ac hing: ide ntifying the ne e ds and pro viding the suppo rt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 3 6 –4 2
sp ecia list s t o wor k t h r ou gh a d esign p r ocess w h ich k ee p s ed u ca t ion a l issu es a t t h e for e-fr on t in d esign d ecision s. In t h is w ay, in st r u c-t ion a l d esign er s p r ov id e a lin k b ec-t w een c-t h e su b ject m a t t er sp ecia list a n d t h e p u r ely t ech -n ica l i-n p u t w h ich is -n eed ed i-n a -n i-n for m a t io-n t ech n ology -b a sed p r oject . N e glect in g t h ese ed u ca t ion a l d esign issu es in va r ia bly p r o-d u ces m a t er ia ls w h ich m igh t h ave t ech n ica l ele ga n ce bu t w h ich d o n ot n ecessa r ily h ave ed u ca t ion a l va lu e.
Support for production and implementation
T h er e is lit t le d ou b t t h a t ext en sive t ech n ica l su p p or t is r eq u ir ed for t h e p r od u ct ion a n d im p lem en t a t ion of t ea ch in g m a t er ia ls w h ich u se in for m a t ion t ech n ology. For t h ose ven t u r -in g -in t o m u lt im ed ia p r od u ct ion , a
m u lt isk illed t ea m of t ech n ica l su p p or t is n ecessa r y for t h e d evelop m en t p h a se. F u r t h er t ech n ica l su p p or t is n eed ed d u r in g t h e im p le-m en t a t ion a n d u se of t h e fi n ish ed p a ck a ge. Access t o exp er t ise in p r ogr a m m in g, a u t h or -in g t ools, copy r igh t p r ov ision s a n d gr a p h ics is r eq u ir ed . Som e in st it u t ion s h ave q u es-t ion ed w h ees-t h er es-t h ey ca n a ffor d es-t h e coses-t s in volved in su p p or t in g t h e p r od u ct ion of t h eir ow n cou r sew a r e a n d h ave lim it ed t h eir su p p or t t o t h e p u r ch a se a n d d eliver y of com -m er cia lly ava ila ble -m a t er ia ls[27]. E ven u n i-ver sit y t ea ch er s w h o p u r ch a se com m er cia lly ava ila ble soft w a r e r eq u ir e ed u ca t ion a l a ssis-t a n ce w issis-t h issis-t s selecssis-t ion a n d ssis-t ech n ica l su p p or ssis-t for it s in st a lla t ion a n d d eliver y t o st u d en t s.
The need for a technologically comfortable work environment
Alt h ou gh t h er e h a s b een a n a r gu m en t t o k ee p ed u ca t ion a l issu es a t t h e for efr on t in d evelop -m en t s r ela t ed t o in t e gr a t in g in for -m a t ion t ech n ology in t o t ea ch in g, su ch d evelop m en t s w ill n ot occu r if t h ey a r e m et by t oo m a n y t ech n ica l b a r r ier s w it h in t h e in st it u t ion . E ven u n iver sit y t ea ch er s con v in ced of t h e ed u ca t ion a l b en efi t s of t ech n ology -b a sed a p p r oa ch es w ill b e r esist a n t t o im p lem en t in g su ch ch a n ges if t h e en v ir on m en t is h ost ile. All b a sic t ech n ology n eed s m u st b e m et a n d su fficien t su p p or t p r ov id ed for a ca d em ics t o feel com for t a ble w it h u sin g t ech n ology in t h eir d a ily a ca d em ic wor k . Aca d em ics a r e u n lik ely t o in t e gr a t e in for m a t ion in t o t h eir t ea ch in g if t h ey a r e u n com for t a ble a b ou t u sin g com p u t er s in t h eir r esea r ch , u sin g elect r on ic m a il t o com m u n ica t e a n d a ccess-in g t h e In t er n et for t h eir ccess-in for m a t ion n eed s. F u r t h er m or e, t h ey w ill n ot r isk ch a n ges t o t r ied a n d t r u e t ea ch in g a p p r oa ch es if t h e a lt er n a t ives a r e h a m p er ed by a d d it ion a l wor k , in con ven ien ce, t ech n ica l h it ch es a n d som et im es ou t r igh t t ech n ica l fa ilu r e. T h er e m ay b e a n eed t o p r ov id e a m in im u m
st a n d a r d of eq u ip m en t for a ca d em ics. T h is m ay m ea n t h a t gen er a l t r a in in g a n d su p p or t for u sin g t ech n ology h ave t o b e u p gr a d ed so t h a t a ca d em ics h ave a feelin g of com for t a n d con fi d en ce a b ou t t h eir a b ilit y t o exp lor e a n d t h en in t r od u ce a p p lica t ion s of t ech n ology in t o t h eir t ea ch in g.
Conclusions
Wh en p la n n in g st r a t e gies t o en cou r a ge u n i-ver sit y t ea ch er s t o exp loit t h e p ot en t ia l of in for m a t ion t ech n ology t o en h a n ce t h eir t ea ch in g a n d t h e lea r n in g ou t com es of t h eir st u d en t s, t h er e is a t en d en cy t o b e gin t h ose p la n s w it h t ech n ica l con sid er a t ion s of soft -w a r e a n d h a r d-w a r e p r ov ision . Alt h ou gh t h is p a p er a r gu es t h a t t h er e is a n eed for a wor k en v ir on m en t in w h ich t h er e is a d e gr ee of t ech n ologica l com for t , it a lso a r gu es t h a t t h e m or e ca u t iou s m a in st r ea m m a jor it y of a ca d e-m ics a r e lik ely t o b e p er su a d ed by st r a t e gies w h ich k ee p ed u ca t ion a l issu es a t t h e for e-fr on t . T h is m ea n s en su r in g a n in st it u t ion a l clim a t e in w h ich good t ea ch in g is va lu ed a n d t h e r isk s a ssocia t ed w it h d evelop in g n ew a p p r oa ch es t o t ea ch in g a r e su p p or t ed a n d r ew a r d ed . Wit h in su ch a clim a t e, u n iver sit y t ea ch er s t h en r eq u ir e su p p or t a n d en cou r a ge-m en t t o r efl ect on t h eir ow n t ea ch in g a n d con sid er a lt er n a t ives w h ich en h a n ce t h a t t ea ch in g. On ce a cu lt u r e of su ch q u est ion in g is est a blish ed , t h er e is a n eed t o r a ise aw a r e-n ess a b ou t t h e st r ee-n gt h s a e-n d w ea k e-n esses of t h e t ech n ology -b a sed op t ion s a s a lt er n a t ives t o exist in g p r a ct ices. T h is r eq u ir es in d iv id u -a lized -a ssist -a n ce -a s w ell -a s -a b r o-a d en in g of aw a r en ess t h r ou gh t h e est a blish m en t of n et -wor k s b ot h w it h in a n d a cr oss d iscip lin es. Aw a r en ess a b ou t t h e op t ion s ava ila ble is t h en ext en d ed t o p a r t icu la r t ea ch in g con t ext s a n d issu es w it h t h e h elp of in st r u ct ion a l d esign -er s w h o a ssist t h e t r a n sla t ion of ed u ca t ion a l issu es in t o t h e d esign of a p p r oa ch es w h ich h ave ed u ca t ion a l va lu e. Develop m en t a n d p r od u ct ion of m a t er ia ls r eq u ir e ext en sive t ech n ica l exp er t ise w h ich m u st con t in u e in t o t h e im p lem en t a t ion a n d d eliver y p h a se.
Sue Jo hns to n and Co ralie Mc Co rmac k Inte grating info rmatio n te c hno lo gy into unive rsity te ac hing: ide ntifying the ne e ds and pro viding the suppo rt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 3 6 –4 2
Disa p p oin t m en t w ill con t in u e if su p p or t st r a t e gies d o n ot d ist in gu ish b et w een t h e n eed s of t h e ea r ly a d op t er s a n d t h e ver y d if-fer en t n eed s of t h e m or e ca u t iou s
m a in st r ea m m a jor it y. T h er e m u st b e r ecogn it ion it h a it it h e la it it er r eq u ir e exit en sive ed u ca -t ion a l a n d -t ech n ica l su p p or -t b efor e -t h ey w ill ch a n ge t h eir t ea ch in g.
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