Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:E:Environmental Management and Health:Vol07.Issue3.1996:

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Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth

7 / 3 [1996] 4 –1 1 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0956-6163]

Forces and incentives in the promotion of

environmental protection and improved working

conditions

Per Christensen

and

Sussi Handberg

De partme nt o f De ve lo pme nt and Planning, Aalbo rg Unive rs ity, Aalbo rg, De nmark

Presents fi ndings from an investigation of the adoption of different “ abatement” technologies in 30 Danish fi rms, encompassing tradi-tional iron manufacturers and electroplating fi rms. The abatement measures were all instigated to improve environ-mental or occupational safety and health conditions. Rea-sons and incentives for these measures were investigated. Finds that there are big dif-ferences between the differ-ent types of fi rms. Moreover public regulation is the most common incentive for adopt-ing abatement technologies. Internal forces in the com-pany – attitudes of manage-ment and employees – were also found to have an essen-tial infl uence, while economic considerations play only a minor role.

Introduction

In r ecen t yea r s t h er e h a s b een a m a jor focu s on t h e t r a n sfor m a t ion of in d u st r ia l p r od u c-t ion c-t ow a r d s a clea n er p r od u cc-t ion on a su s-t a in a ble b a sis[1]. T h e Br u n d s-t la n d Com m is-sion ’s r e p or t Ou r Com m on Fu tu re[2] d efi n es su st a in a b ilit y ver y b r oa d ly, a n d en com p a sses n ot on ly a r ed u ct ion of t h e en v ir on m en t a l in fl u en ces on n a t u r e, bu t a lso a r ed u ct ion of a dver se im p a ct s on p eop le, n o m a t t er if t h e im p a ct s a r e wor k or leisu r e r ela t ed .

On e of t h e fou n d a t ion s for t h e t r a n sfor m a -t ion of p r od u c-t ion is -t h e im p lem en -t a -t ion of d iffer en t t ech n ologies w h ich a r e a ble t o r ed u ce p ollu t ion a n d a dver se im p a ct s fr om t h e t ech n ologies in u se. T h e t r a n sfor m a t ion of p r od u ct ion is t r a d it ion a lly m a n a ged t h r ou gh t h e im p lem en t a t ion of d iffer en t a d d -on t ech n ologies su ch a s ven t ila t i-on , h igh er sm ok est a ck s, t r ea t m en t of w a st e, a n d t h e u se of p r ot ect ive clot h in g a n d scr een in g/ sh ield -in g of m a ch -in er y. Recen t ly, t h e u se of su b st i-t u i-t ion of m a i-t er ia ls, clea n er i-t ech n ologies a n d ch a n ges in h a b it s a n d or ga n iza t ion a l r ou t in es h ave b een a d op t ed , t oo. T h e la t t er m ea -su r es, w h ich a ll cou ld b e in clu d ed u n d er t h e h ea d in g “clea n er p r od u ct ion ” a r e a dva n t a -geou s a s t h ey p r even t p ollu t ion or ot h er a dver se im p a ct s occu r r in g in t h e fi r st p la ce. T h e for m er a d d -on t ech n ologies a r e oft en r eject ed w it h r efer en ce t o t h e fa ct t h a t a dver se im p a ct s a r e d isp la ced m er ely fr om on e a r ea t o a n ot h er, or fr om on e m ed iu m , e.g. a ir, t o a n ot h er, e.g. w a t er.

Tod ay t h er e is con sid er a ble a gr eem en t t h a t t h e t r a n sfor m a t ion of p r od u ct ion is b est im p lem en t ed t h r ou gh t h e a d op t ion of clea n er t ech n ologies a n d a p r even t ive a p p r oa ch , t h er eby avoid in g a n y k in d of “p r oblem d is-p la cem en t ”. Ta k in g su st a in a b ilit y ser iou sly t h u s im p lies t h a t en v ir on m en t a l p r ot ect ion sh ou ld t a k e wor k in g con d it ion s in t o con sid -er a t ion .

Ma n y cou n t r ies h ave a d op t ed en v ir on m en -t a l a c-t s w h ich a r e in s-t iga -t ed by a p er sp ec-t ive of in t e gr a t ion a n d p r even t ion , u n d er t h e m a in a im of st im u la t in g t h e in t r od u ct ion of clea n er t ech n ologies[3,4]. How ever, in m ost cou n t r ies t h e t r a n sfor m a t ion t o clea n er t ech -n ologies is a slow p r ocess, a -n d t h er e a r e m a n y in d ica t ion s t h a t clea n er t ech n ologies

h ave n ot yet exp er ien ced a m a jor

b r ea k t h r ou gh in a n y b r a n ch of in d u st r y [5].

The question of incentives

In r ela t ion t o t h e q u est ion of d issem in a t ion of clea n er t ech n ologies, it h a s b een q u est ion ed w h ich in cen t ives m ost efficien t ly a ffect t h e in d u st r y. T h e t r a d it ion a l “com m a n d a n d con t r ol” r e gu la t ion h a s b een u n d er a t t a ck for in efficien cy, a s it n eit h er m ot iva t es t h e a d op -t ion of p r even -t ive m ea su r es n or p r om o-t es -t h e m ost cost -effect ive solu t ion s[6,7]. In st ea d it h a s b een p oin t ed ou t t h a t econ om ic in cen -t ives sh ou ld b e fu r -t h er ed [8]. Besid es, i-t h a s r ecen t ly b een em p h a sized t h a t in for m a t ion , ed u ca t ion a n d a t t it u d e bu ild in g in t h em -selves a r e cr u cia l in cen t ives for a su st a in a ble d evelop m en t .

Differ en t for m s of socia l r e gu la t ion , e.g. occu p a t ion a l h ea lt h a n d sa fet y a s w ell a s en v ir on m en t a l r e gu la t ion , h ave b een u n d er -t a k en in Den m a r k . T h ey fu n c-t ion p r im a r ily t h r ou gh t h e u se of d iffer en t for m s of com m a n d a n d con t r ol in st r u m en t s, su ch a s p er -m it s, or d er s a n d a dv ice a n d t h r ou gh t h e im p osit ion of efflu en t lim it s, t im e lim it s, in sp ect ion p r oced u r es, et c. T h ese in cen t ives w ill b e fu r t h er ela b or a t ed on in t h e su b se-q u en t sect ion .

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Pe r Chris te ns e n and Sus s i Handbe rg Fo rc e s and inc e ntive s in the pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntal pro te c tio n and impro ve d wo rking c o nditio ns Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth

7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1

r isk a ssocia t ed w it h d iffer en t t y p es of p r od u c-t ion p r ocesses.

At t it u d es a n d k n ow led ge a r e oft en seen a s d ecisive fa ct or s w h en com p a n ies for m u la t e t h eir ow n en v ir on m en t a l p olicies or t r y t o st ay a h ea d of t h e r e gu la t or y d em a n d s im p osed on t h em [9]. It is w ell k n ow n t h a t “h u m a n a ct ion ” is con st r a in ed n ot on ly t o in cid en ces w h er e d em a n d s a r e im p osed or econ om ic b en efi t s ga in ed , bu t a lso t h a t p eop le a ct b eca u se it is m or a lly a p p ea lin g t o t h em , b eca u se t h ey h ave a ffect ion s for t h e su b ject a n d feel a com m it m en t [10]. E ven bu sin ess b eh av iou r is in fl u en ced by a t t it u d es a n d k n ow led ge, a n d ca n t h u s d evelop d iffer en t d e gr ees of r esp on sib ilit y t ow a r d s societ y a n d societ a l n eed s[11,12]. T h e n u r t u r in g of en v i-r on m en t a l a t t it u d es t h i-r ou gh t h e p i-r eced in g d eca d es, h a s d efi n it ely h a d a n im p a ct on p r ev iou s a n d com in g gen er a t ion s of m a n a ge-m en t a n d la b ou r.

On ly few in vest iga t ion s h ave sou gh t t o cla r ify w h ich in cen t ives h ave a ffect ed t h e clea n er t ech n ologies a lr ea dy im p lem en t ed in in d u st r y, bu t t h ese a ccen t u a t e t h a t “com -m a n d a n d con t r ol” r e gu la t ion h a s h a d t h e d ecisive in fl u en ce[13-15].

Dif ferences in regulatory approach

In Den m a r k , a s in m ost ot h er cou n t r ies, occu -p a t ion a l h ea lt h a n d sa fet y a n d en v ir on m en t a l r e gu la t ion a r e d ist in ct sp h er es of gover n m en t p olicy. T h is d iv ision of la b ou r h a s it s d r aw -b a ck s, a n d r ecen t ly it h a s -b een d iscu ssed w h et h er t h is w a s a n op t im a l solu t ion . T h e in t e gr a t ion of t h e t wo a d m in ist r a t ive b od ies cou ld im p r ove p er for m a n ce a n d ser v ice a s w ell a s cu r b som e of t h e gr ow t h in t h e p u blic sect or [16]. F u r t h er m or e, it b ecom es st ill m or e obv iou s t h a t t h er e is a n a ct u a l a s w ell a s p ot en t ia l over la p of a ct iv it ies in t h e r e gu la -t or y b od ies[17].

T h e t wo d iffer en t k in d s of socia l r e gu la t ion a r e or ga n ized in t wo d iffer en t a d m in ist r a t ive st r u ct u r es. Occu p a t ion a l h ea lt h a n d sa fet y r e gu la t ion is execu t ed by t h e Min ist r y of La b ou r, a n d is t h u s a gover n m en t a l a u t h or it y, w h ile en v ir on m en t a l r e gu la t ion is u n d er loca l a n d r e gion a l a u t h or it ies a n d execu t ed by t h eir a d m in ist r a t ive b od ies. F u r t h er m or e, t h e r e gu la t or y set t in g d iffer s w id ely b et w een t h e t wo sp h er es. Le gisla t ion , r e gu la t or y m ea n s, en for cem en t a n d t h e d iffer en t p a r t ies in volved in t h e im p lem en t a t ion of t h e r e gu la -t ion a r e so d iffer en -t -t h a -t w e in fa c-t h ave -t wo d iffer en t “r e gu la t or y p a r a d igm s”. Let u s b r iefl y ou t lin e t h e fu n d a m en t a l d iffer en ces.

E n v ir on m en t a l r e gu la t ion is a lm ost exclu -sively b a sed on com m a n d a n d con t r ol p r oce-d u r es su ch a s p ollu t ion p er m it s (p r ooce-d u ct ion

a p p r ova ls a n d w a st ew a t er licen ces) a n d or d er s. T h e E n v ir on m en t a l P r ot ect ion Act is a fr a m ewor k law, a n d p er m it s or or d er s a r e issu ed by t h e r e gion a l or m u n icip a l a u t h or it ies. N or m a lly it h ey sp ecify lim iit s a n d sit a n -d a r -d s in t h e p er m it s. To a cer t a in -d e gr ee t h e lim it s a r e fi xed on t h e b a sis of gu id elin es est a blish ed by t h e E n v ir on m en t a l P r ot ect ion Agen cy, bu t t h e loca l a u t h or it ies h ave d iscr e-t ion a r y p ow er e-t o give d u e con sid er a e-t ion e-t o econ om ic a n d t ech n ologica l ca p a b ilit ies a s w ell a s t h e loca l ecologica l con d it ion s. T h e en v ir on m en t a l r e gu la t ion is in fl u en ced by gover n m en t , loca l a u t h or it ies a n d t h e in d u s-t r y a s w ell a s a m u ls-t is-t u d e of cis-t izen gr ou p s, en v ir on m en t a l or ga n iza t ion s a n d n eigh b ou r s w h ich a ll h ave t h e r igh t t o a p p ea l t h e issu in g of p er m it s, a n d in a d d it ion t h ey h ave fr ee a ccess t o a ll in for m a t ion on com p lia n ce a n d ca n even r e p or t v iola t ion s t o t h e loca l p olice.

T h e Occu p a t ion a l H ea lt h a n d Sa fet y Act is a lso a fr a m ewor k law, bu t t h e r e gu la t ion is execu t ed by sp ecia l gover n m en t la b ou r in sp ect or a t es w h o m on it or fi r m com p lia n ce w it h n a t ion a l st a n d a r d s set by t h e Min ist r y of La b ou r in join t colla b or a t ion w it h t h e p a r t ies on t h e la b ou r m a r k et . Besid es com m a n d a n d con t r ol t h e r e gu la t ion is a lso b a sed on a p a r -t icip a -t or y m od el. In fi r m s w i-t h m or e -t h a n -t en em p loyees it is m a n d a t or y t h a t a join t m a n -a gem en t -l-a b ou r h e-a lt h -a n d s-a fet y com m it t ee is cr ea t ed . T h is com m it t ee is r esp on sible for a d m in ist er in g t h e h ea lt h a n d sa fet y law, w h ile t h e la b ou r in sp ect or a t es’ r ole is t o en for ce t h e law a n d a dv ise t h e fi r m s of h ow b est t o com p ly w it h it . T h e p a r t ies on t h e la b ou r m a r k et h ave b ig d ir ect in fl u en ce on d ecision s on h ow occu p a t ion a l sa fet y a n d h ea lt h p r oblem s a r e t o b e r e gu la t ed , bu t ot h er st a k eh old er s a r e n ot t a k in g p a r t in t h e d eci-sion m a k in g.

Beca u se of t h e d iffer en ces in t h e a d m in is-t r a is-t ive sy sis-t em (cen is-t r a lized / d ecen is-t r a lized ) a n d t h e p a r t icip a t ion of a w id e gr ou p of st a k e-h old er s in en v ir on m en t a l p r ot ect ion it is p r ob a bly u n lik ely t h a t t h e t wo a r ea s of p u blic p olicy ca n b e fu sed . T h is w a s a lso t h e r esu lt of t h e p olit ica l d eb a t es in 1991 w h ich con -clu d ed t h a t colla b or a t ion fr om t h e b ot t om , w it h b et t er exch a n ge of in for m a t ion , join t in sp ect ion of fi r m s, et c., sh ou ld b e t r ied ou t fi r st .

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n ew st r a t e gy t h e en v ir on m en t a l a u t h or it ies h ave m oved t h eir r e gu la t or y effor t s fr om p ollu t ion con t r ol t o in fl u en cin g t h e t ech n olo-gies u sed in t h e fi r m , b ot h w h en it com es t o t h e sp ecifi c p r od u ct ion t ech n ologies a s w ell a s wor k r ou t in es, t h e u se of r aw m a t er ia ls, a n d so on . Ch a n ges of t h e p r od u ct ion p r ocess w ill p r ob a bly oft en h ave a n a dver se im p a ct on t h e wor k in g en v ir on m en t , a n d en v ir on m en t a l p r ot ect ion is t h er eby in t er m in gled w it h occu -p a t ion a l sa fet y a n d h ea lt h con sid er a t ion s. T h is is a ccen t u a t ed by t h e la b ou r in sp ec-t or a ec-t es’ focu s on p r od u cec-t ion p r ocesses w h ich a lso em p h a size su b st it u t ion of h a za r d ou s m a t er ia ls. In t h e lon g r u n t h is a t lea st n eces-sit a t es im p r oved a n d in cr ea sed co-op er a t ion b et w een t h e t wo r e gu la t or y b od ies.

Recen t ly, in vest iga t ion s h ave b een m a d e con cer n in g t h e con n ect ion s b et w een en v ir on -m en t a l p r ot ect ion a n d occu p a t ion a l h ea lt h a n d sa fet y [16-18]. In a ll ca ses it w a s sh ow n t h a t in t h e a ct u a l r e gu la t ion t h er e w a s ver y lit t le over la p b et w een t h e r e gu la t ion s m a d e by t h e t wo a u t h or it ies. Wh en la r ger gr ou p s of in d u st r ies w er e exa m in ed it w a s con clu d ed t h a t t h e t wo a u t h or it ies a lm ost exclu sively k e p t t o t h eir ow n a r ea of r e gu la t ion , a n d ver y seld om u sed t h e exist in g ch a n n els of coop er a t ion t o com m en t on a n d in fl u en ce ea ch ot h -er s’ r e gu la t ion . Con t r a r y t o t h is it h a s b een d em on st r a t ed t h a t som e of t h e sp ecifi c clea n er t ech n ologies d evelop ed h ave a n im p a ct on occu p a t ion a l sa fet y a n d h ea lt h [19]. T h e r ea son w h y t h is con n ect ion d oes n ot sh ow in t h e b r oa d er in vest iga t ion s is p r ob a -bly t h a t clea n er t ech n ologies h ave n ot yet b een d issem in a t ed t o la r ger gr ou p s of in d u s-t r ies[5]. As-t lea ss-t in s-t h e lon g r u n is-t m u ss-t b e exp ect ed t h a t coop er a t ion w ill in cr ea se con -com it a n t w it h t h e in cr ea sin g a d op t ion of clea n er p r od u ct ion m ea su r es in in d u st r y.

Methods

In t h is in vest iga t ion w e h ave exa m in ed closely t h e a d op t ion of d iffer en t “a b a t em en t t ech n ologies” in a gr ou p of 30 Da n ish fi r m s. T h e fi r m s a ll b elon g t o t h e ir on a n d m et a l in d u st r y. Fou r t een of t h e fi r m s a r e elect r o-p la t er s a n d t h e r em a in in g 16 fi r m s a o-p o-p ly a w id e va r iet y of t r a d it ion a l m a n u fa ct u r in g t ech n ologies p r ocesses su ch a s w eld in g, cu t -t in g, sa n d bla s-t in g, d e gr ea sin g, p ick lin g, p a in t in g.

T h e elect r op la t in g fi r m s a r e gen er a lly sm a ll w it h t y p ica lly t wo t o 200 em p loyees. Ir on m a n u fa ct u r er s w it h a n in -h ou se elect r o-p la t in g d e o-p a r t m en t , w h ich w e h ave in clu d ed in t h e elect r op la t in g ca t e gor y, a r e la r ger in gen er a l, in t h is in vest iga t ion w it h u p t o 200 em p loyees a n d a t u r n over of u p t o 250 m illion

Da n ish k r on er. F ir m s execu t in g on ly elect r op la t in g h ave n or m a lly on ly t wo t o 20 em op loy -ees a n d a t u r n over of on ly a few m illion Da n ish k r on er. T h e p r ocesses u sed in t y p ica l elect r op la t in g fi r m s or d e p a r t m en t s a r e gr in d in g a n d p olish in g of it em s, d e gr ea sin g a n d elect r op la t in g[20].

T h e ir on m a n u fa ct u r er s a r e a lso sm a ll, a lt h ou gh a few fi r m s a r e la r ger t h a n t h e t r a -d it ion a l -d efi n it ion of sm a ll a n -d m e-d iu m size-d in d u st r ies. T h e sizes of t h e in vest iga t ed fi r m s a r e fr om six t o 650 em p loyees a n d a t u r n over of u p t o 700 m illion Da n ish k r on er. T h is su b -d iv ision of fi r m s com p r ises a w i-d e va r iet y of fi r m s m a n u fa ct u r in g ir on or d iffer en t sor t s of st a in less st eel u sin g p r ocesses lik e w eld in g, cu t t in g, p u n ch in g, sa n d bla st in g, gr in d in g, p ick lin g, d e gr ea sin g, p a in t in g, a n d som e t im es even elect r op la t in g. T h e su b d iv ision in t o t wo gr ou p s is t h u s n ot clea r -cu t bu t is m a d e w it h r efer en ce t o t h e fi r m ’s m a in a ct iv i-t ies[21].

T h e in vest iga t ion w a s ca r r ied ou t d u r in g 1991/ 1992. T h e 30 fi r m s a r e a ll loca t ed in t h e n or t h er n p a r t of J u t la n d . For ea ch fi r m w e h ave collect ed q u a lit a t ive d a t a fr om t h r ee d iffer en t sou r ces:

1 p la n t in sp ect ion a n d a n op en en d ed in t er -v iew w it h t h e m a n a ger ;

2 a r ev iew of a ll m u n icip a l d ocu m en t s r e ga r d in g t h e fi r m s’ p er m it s, em ission s, in sp ect ion r e p or t s, m in u t es;

3 a r ev iew of t h e la b ou r in sp ect or a t es’ d ocu m en t s r e ga r d in g or d er s, in sp ect ion r e p or t s, m in u t es.

Da t a w er e collect ed st a r t in g fr om 1974, or com m en cem en t of p r od u ct ion , t o t h e en d of 1991. T h e fi r m s w er e loca t ed in t en d iffer en t m u n icip a lit ies a n d cover ed by t h r ee d iffer en t la b ou r in sp ect or a t es.

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a ct ion . Con t r a r y t o t h is t h e a ccou n t s in t h e a r ch ives t en d t o em p h a size t h e in fl u en ce of t h e r e gu la t or y b od ies. In ea ch sin gle in st a n ce w h er e w e h ave id en t ifi ed a t ech n ologica l ch a n ge, w e t r y t o give a m or e a d eq u a t e a ccou n t of t h e a ct u a l cou r se of even t s by p ay -in g d u e r esp ect t o t h e d iffer en t a ccou n t s of t h e even t in q u est ion .

An in vest iga t ion lik e t h is a lso h a s som e in h er en t w ea k n esses. Two t h in gs a r e wor t h m en t ion in g:

1 n ot a ll r eleva n t t ech n ologica l ch a n ges in t h e fi r m s h ave b een id en t ifi ed ;

2 t h e ch a r a ct er of t h e t ech n ologica l ch a n ges a r e p r ob a b ly b ia sed w it h r e ga r d t o t h e t ech n ica l ch a r a ct er of t h e ch a n ges.

N ot a ll t ech n ologica l ch a n ges m a d e fr om 1974, or com m en cem en t of p r od u ct ion , h ave b een id en t ifi ed . T h e r ea son is t h a t d et a iled k n ow led ge of t h is is n ot ava ila ble. T h e d escr ip t ion s in t h e a r ch ives of t h e m u n icip a l-it ies a n d t h e la b ou r in sp ect or a t es give m a in ly a p ict u r e of ch a n ges in w h ich t h ese a u t h or i-t ies h ave p layed a r ole, bu i-t i-t h ey p r ob a bly d o ii-t w it h t h e sa m e va lid it y in a ll t h e yea r s fr om 1974 u n t il n ow. T h e in for m a t ion w e ga t h er fr om t h e m a n a ger s in t h e fi r m oft en in clu d es t ech n ologica l ch a n ges n ot m en t ion ed in t h e a r ch ives, bu t t h is in for m a t ion is b ia sed w it h r e ga r d t o t h e t im e h or izon . Ma n a ger s t y p i-ca lly h a d n ot b een em p loyed by t h e fi r m sin ce 1974 or com m en cem en t of p r od u ct ion , a n d t h er efor e obv iou sly d o n ot h ave in for m a t ion of a ll p r eced in g ch a n ges. Besid es, m ost of t h e m a n a ger s h ave a lim it ed m em or y of t h ese ch a n ges. T h e la t er t h e ch a n ges t h e m or e r eli-a ble t h eir k n ow led ge or m em or y of t h em . T h is d iffer en ce in m em or y of t h e d iffer en t sou r ces of in for m a t ion w ill lea d p r ob a bly t o a n over est im a t ion of t h e le ga l sou r ces of in fl u en ce on t ech n ologica l ch a n ge. As a con -seq u en ce of t h e d iffer en ce in m em or y, fu t u r e in vest iga t ion s sh ou ld focu s on ly on sh or t er sp a n of yea r s (e.g. t h r ee t o fi ve yea r s) t o m a k e su r e t h a t n o over est im a t ion of le ga l sou r ces t a k es p la ce.

A secon d w ea k n ess con cer n s t h e ch a r a ct er of t ech n ologica l ch a n ges t a k en in t o con sid er -a t ion . Tech n ologic-a l ch -a n ges -a lso in clu d e ch a n ges in t h e or ga n iza t ion a l con t ext a n d in k n ow led ge r ela t ed t o t h e t ech n ology. Most ch a n ges id en t ifi ed a r e of a m or e t ech n ica l n a t u r e. T h is im p lies t h a t ch a n ges in wor k r ou t in es a n d or ga n iza t ion a l set -u p oft en a r e over look ed , b eca u se t h ey a r e seld om in t h e focu s of t h e r e gu la t or y b od ies, a s w ell a s oft en over look ed by t h e m a n a ger s w h o sh a r e a n en gin eer in g b ia s t ow a r d s m or e h a r d -cor e t ech n ica lit ies. T h is p ot en t ia lly lea d s t o a n over est im a t ion of t ech n ica l ch a n ges.

Technological changes in the two

groups of industries

In t h e 30 fi r m s w e h ave id en t ifi ed 268 a d op t ed “t ech n ologica l m ea su r es”. In t h e follow in g w e w ill a n a ly se t h ese in r ela t ion t o t wo d im en sion s. F ir st , w e a r e in t er est ed in fi n d -in g t h e r ela t ion b et w een t h e m ed ia (w a t er, a ir, n oise, et c.) a n d t h e ch a n ges ca r r ied ou t . Secon d , w e a r e in t er est ed in u n veilin g t h e r ea -son s given for t h e ch a n ges, i.e. w h et h er t h ey r ela t e t o a t t it u d es or a r e of a n econ om ic or le ga l or igin . F u r t h er m or e w e t r y t o u n d er lin e som e of t h e d iffer en ces b et w een t h e t wo su b -d iv ision s of en t er p r ises, t h e elect r op la t in g fi r m s a n d t h e ir on m a n u fa ct u r er s.

In t h e follow in g w e w ill d iffer en t ia t e b et w een t ech n ologica l ch a n ges m a d e on fou r d iffer en t m ed ia . T h e w a t er m ed iu m sign ifi es t h a t ch a n ges a r e ca u sed by p r oblem s r ela t in g t o d isch a r ge of w a st ew a t er. Air m ed iu m sign i-fi es p r oblem s in r ela t ion t o a ir q u a lit y

w h et h er in t h e wor k in g en v ir on m en t or in t h e en v ir on m en t su r r ou n d in g t h e fi r m . N oise a lso cover s p r oblem s in t h e wor k in g en v ir on -m en t a s w ell a s t h e su r r ou n d in gs of t h e fi r -m . T h e ca t e gor y “m iscella n eou s” en com p a sses a va r iet y of p r oblem s, eit h er r ela t ed t o sk in a ller gy p r oblem s ca u sed by m a n ip u la t ion of d iffer en t m a t er ia ls or t h e m or e gen er a l r isk exp osu r e con n ect ed w it h t h e h a n d lin g of ch em ica ls.

In Ta ble I w e h ave ou t lin ed t h e n u m b er s of t ech n ologica l ch a n ges m a d e in r ela t ion t o t h e fou r ca t e gor ies of m ed ia for t h e t wo t y p es of in d u st r y.

In t h e elect r op la t in g fi r m s w e fou n d a n aver a ge of 7.9 a d op t ed t ech n ologica l m ea -su r es, w h ile t h e ir on m a n u fa ct u r er s r ea ch ed a n aver a ge of 9.9 p er fi r m . T h u s, t h e elect r o-p la t er s h ave b een less “in n ova t ive” t h a n t h e ot h er fi r m s w it h in t h e ir on a n d m et a l in d u s-t r y. T h is is in a ccor d a n ce w is-t h ou r gen er a l im p r ession of t h e r e gu la t or y effor t s of t h e p u blic a u t h or it ies. Alt h ou gh t h e

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7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1

As is clea r ly seen fr om Ta ble I w e fi n d t ech n o-logica l ch a n ges w it h in a ll fou r t y p es of m ed ia , a lt h ou gh m or e t h a n h a lf of t h em a r e fou n d in con n ect ion w it h t h e a ir m ed iu m . T h er e a r e m a jor d iffer en ces b et w een t h e t wo gr ou p s of fi r m s. T h e elect r op la t er s a r e r e gu -la t ed m ost in t en sively on t h e w a t er m ed iu m a n d p a r t ly on a ir a s w ell. T h e ir on a n d m et a l fi r m s a r e r e gu la t ed a lm ost exclu sively in con n ect ion w it h t h e a ir m ed iu m . T h ese d if-fer en ces m ir r or t h e va r iou s t y p es of p r oblem s en cou n t er ed in t h e t wo gr ou p s of fi r m s. T h ese d iffer en ces a r e obv iou s w h en w e look closer in t o t h e t wo m ed ia , w a t er a n d a ir. Mea su r es ca u sed by p r oblem s r ela t ed t o a ir a r e 6.4 p er ir on a n d m et a l fi r m a n d on ly 2.9 for elect r o-p la t er s. Ta k in g t h e t oxicit y of va o-p ou r s fr om elect r op la t in g b a t h s in t o con sid er a t ion w e m u st con clu d e t h a t t h e fi r m s b elon gin g t o t h e ca t e gor y ir on a n d m et a l m u st ow e t h eir h igh d e gr ee of r e gu la t ion t o t h e m u lt it u d e of d iffer -en t p r ocesses u sed in ea ch fi r m , p r ocesses t h a t a lm ost a ll a ffect t h e a ir m ed iu m . Wh en it com es t o t h e w a t er m ed iu m w e fi n d , a s exp ect ed , t h a t m or e m ea su r es h ave b een im p lem en t ed in t h e elect r op la t in g fi r m s (3.4 p er fi r m ) w h ile t h ese h ave b een u n d er r e gu la t or y p r essu r e in t h e 1980s b eca u se of p r ob -lem s w it h h eav y m et a l con t en t in slu d ge fr om m u n icip a l w a st ew a t er t r ea t m en t p la n t s. T h e ir on a n d m et a l fi r m s a lso h ave a va r iet y of p r ocesses cr ea t in g w a st ew a t er. Am on g t h ese p ick lin g, p a in t in g a n d w a t er -b a sed d e gr ea s-in g a r e k n ow n t o con t r ibu t e t o h eav y m et a l p ollu t ion of t h e w a st ew a t er. T h ese sou r ces a r e sm a ller a n d t h u s oft en n ot r e gu la t ed or r e gu la t ed la t er t h a n t h e efflu en t s fr om elec-t r op la elec-t in g b a elec-t h s. Ad d ielec-t ion a lly, oelec-t h er w a selec-t e-w a t er p r oblem s fr om t h ese sou r ces a r e of m in or con cer n w h ile t h ey p r im a r ily r ela t e t o t h e d isch a r ge of oil a n d gr ea se. T h u s t h e ot h er ir on a n d m et a l fi r m s h ave few er im p le-m en t ed le-m ea su r es w it h r ela t ion t o t h e w a t er m ed iu m (0.9 p er fi r m ).

It is a lso con sp icu ou s t h a t on ly few m ea -su r es a r e im p lem en t ed in r ela t ion t o n oise, a lt h ou gh t h is t op ic is w id ely d iscu ssed in t h e

in d u st r y a n d con sid er ed in t h e u r b a n a n d loca l p la n n in g.

The impact of dif ferent incentives

and forces

For ea ch of t h e t ech n ologica l m ea su r es w e h ave t r ied t o id en t ify t h e r ea son b eh in d it s a d op t ion . T h e for ces a n d in cen t ives a ffect in g t h e a d op t ion of t h ese m ea su r es ca n b e m u n ic-ip a l r e gu la t ion , t h e r e gu la t ion of t h e la b ou r in sp ect or a t e, t h e a t t it u d es a n d p olicies of t h e h ea lt h a n d sa fet y com m it t ee, econ om ic con -sid er a t ion s or m a n a gem en t a t t it u d es. If t h is in for m a t ion is seen in r ela t ion t o t h e m ed ia w e r ea ch t h e follow in g r esu lt s for t h e t wo gr ou p s of in d u st r ies (Ta bles II a n d III). All in a ll w e see t h a t r e gu la t ion p lay s t h e d om in a n t r ole. Toget h er m u n icip a l en v ir on m en t a l r e gu la t ion a n d la b ou r in sp ect or a t es ca u sed 73.7 a n d 78.2 p er cen t of t h e im p lem en t ed m ea su r es r esp ect ively in t h e t wo gr ou p s, w h er e t h e m u n icip a lit ies r e gu la t e m ost a ct ively in r ela t ion t o t h e w a t er m ed iu m a n d t h e la b ou r in sp ect or a t e t o t h e a ir m ed iu m . E ven t h ou gh r e gu la t or y a ct iv it ies m ay b e over est im a t ed , it m u st b e con clu d ed t h a t t h ey p lay a r a t h er d om in a n t r ole in t h e im p lem en -t a -t ion of -t h ese m ea su r es. In con -t r a s-t -t o -t h is w e m u st con clu d e t h a t econ om ic r ea son s a r e m a r gin a l, even t h ou gh t h er e m igh t b e a n u n d er est im a t ion of old er m ea su r es in st iga t ed t h is w ay. E con om ic r ea son s d o p lay a r ole in t h e a d op t ion of m ea su r es in r ela t ion t o t h e w a t er m ed iu m in t h e elect r op la t in g fi r m s, bu t t h is is in lin e w it h t h e exp ect a t ion , w h ile it is on e of t h e few a r ea s in w h ich ch a r ges a n d u ser fees a r e im p osed .

Re gu la t ion a n d econ om ic in cen t ives a r e b ot h ext er n a l for ces a ffect in g t h e fi r m a n d it s a d op t ion of t ech n ologica l m ea su r es, a n d in b ot h gr ou p s of in d u st r ies w e fi n d t h a t a p p r ox-im a t ely 80 p er cen t of a ll m ea su r es a r e ca u sed by ext er n a l fa ct or s. In con t r a st t o t h ese ext er -n a l for ces, a t t it u d es a -n d h ea lt h a -n d sa fet y com m it t ees a r e in t er n a l for ces em a n a t in g fr om a t t it u d es a n d com m it m en t s in m a n a

ge-Table I

Change s re late d to e nviro nme nt and wo rking c o nditio ns divide d ac c o rding to trade and type o f me dia

Water Air Noise M iscellaneous Total

Electroplating (no. = 14) 4 8 .0 4 0 .0 1 .0 2 1 .0 1 1 0 .0

Per cent 4 3 .6 3 6 .4 0 .9 1 9 .1

Number per firm 3 .4 2 .9 0 .1 1 .5 7 .9

Iron manufacturers (no. = 16) 1 4 .0 1 0 2 .0 6 .0 3 6 .0 1 5 8 .0

Per cent 8 .9 6 4 .6 3 .8 2 2 .8

No. per firm 0 .9 6 .4 0 .4 2 .2 9 .9

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m en t a n d / or in t h e la b ou r for ce a s w ell. T h ese in t er n a l for ces p lay a sm a ller bu t con -sp icu ou s r ole, a m ou n t in g t o 20 p er cen t for t h e t wo gr ou p s of in d u st r ies r esp ect ively. T h is m ea n s t h a t t h e in t er n a l for ces a r e n ot a s d om in a n t a s t h e r e gu la t or y for ces bu t d efi n it ely of a m u ch h igh er im p a ct t h a n econ om ic for ces.

T h e h ea lt h a n d sa fet y com m it t ee p lay s t h e m ost con sp icu ou s r ole in t h e ir on m a n u fa c-t u r er s gr ou p w h ile (m a n a gem en c-t ) a c-t c-t ic-t u d es a r e m ost con sp icu ou s in t h e elect r op la t in g gr ou p. T h is u n d er lin es, a s a for em en t ion ed , t h a t h ea lt h a n d sa fet y com m it t ees exist a n d a r e w ell-fu n ct ion in g in t h e ir on m a n u fa c-t u r er gr ou p bu c-t h a r d ly in c-t h e elecc-t r op la c-t er

gr ou p. T h e r ea son for t h e d iffer en t p a t t er n s is p r ob a b ly t wo-fold . F ir st of a ll t h e com m on d en om in a t or of t h e t wo in t er n a l for ces is a t t it u d es. Ma n a gem en t a t t it u d es a r e

exp r essed t h r ou gh m a n a gem en t d ecision s in t h e fi r m s w h er e w e d o n ot fi n d a h ea lt h a n d sa fet y com m it t ee a n d t h r ou gh t h e com m it t ee w h en it exist s a n d fu n ct ion s w ell. T h e d iffer -en t p a t t er n s b et w e-en t h e t wo gr ou p s of fi r m s a r e t h e r esu lt of t h e u se of h ea lt h a n d sa fet y com m it t ees a n d u lt im a t ely of t h e size of t h e fi r m s. In t h e la r ger fi r m s t h e a t t it u d es exp r essed by t h e h ea lt h a n d sa fet y com m it -t ees a r e a lso a n effec-t of wor k er p a r -t icip a -t ion . Bu t it is con sp icu ou s t h a t t h e su m of t h e t wo for ces a r e a lm ost eq u a l – on ly a lit t le h igh er Table II

Bac kgro und fo r c hange s in the e nviro nme nt and wo rking c o nditio ns in the e le c tro plating firms s plit up into type o f me dia

Labour Health and safety

M unicipality inspectorate committees Economic Attitudes Total

Water 3 2 .5 1 – 6 .5 8 4 8

(6 7 .7 ) (2 .1 ) – (1 3 .5 ) (1 6 .7 ) (1 0 0 )

Air 3 2 6 .5 3 – 7 .5 4 0

(7 .5 ) (6 6 .3 ) (7 .5 ) – (1 8 .8 ) (1 0 0 )

Noise – 1 – – – 1

– (1 0 0 ) – – – (1 0 0 )

M iscellaneous – 1 7 1 1 2 2 1

– (8 1 ) (4 .8 ) (4 .8 ) (9 .5 ) (1 0 0 )

3 5 .5 4 5 .5 4 7 .5 1 7 .5 1 1 0

(3 2 .3 ) (4 1 .4 ) (3 .6 ) (6 .8 ) (1 5 .9 ) (1 0 0 )

Note:

Perc entages in parentheses

Table III

Bac kgro und fo r c hange s in the e nviro nme nt and wo rking c o nditio ns in the iro n manufac turing firms s plit up into type o f me dia

Labour Health and safety

M unicipality inspectorate committees Economic Attitudes Total

Water 1 2 – – 0 .5 1 .5 1 4

(8 5 .7 ) – – (3 .6 ) (1 0 .7 ) (1 0 0 )

Air 4 .5 7 6 1 6 – 5 .5 1 0 2

(4 .4 %) (7 4 .5 ) (1 5 .7 ) – (5 .4 ) (1 0 0 )

Noise 1 5 – – – 6

(1 6 .7 ) (8 3 .3 ) – – – (1 0 0 )

M iscellaneous 3 2 2 8 – 3 3 6

(8 .3 ) (6 1 .1 ) (2 2 .2 ) – (8 .3 ) (9 9 .9 )

2 0 .5 1 0 3 2 4 0 .5 1 0 1 5 8

(1 3 .0 ) (6 5 .2 ) (1 5 .2 ) (0 .3 ) (6 .3 ) (1 0 0 )

Note:

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in t h e ir on m a n u fa ct u r er s gr ou p (21.5 p er cen t ) com p a r ed w it h t h e elect r op la t er s (19.5 p er cen t ). It seem s a s if m a n a gem en t a t t it u d es a ccou n t t o a cer t a in d e gr ee for a ll t h e

in t er n a l for ces a n d t h a t t h e wor k er s’ exp r es-sion s of t h eir a t t it u d es a r e on ly m in u scu le com p a r ed w it h t h is, bu t h er e w e m u st b ea r in m in d t h a t t h e a ct u a l ext en t of im p lem en t ed m ea su r es is b igger in t h e ir on m a n u fa ct u r er s t h a n in t h e elect r op la t er s gr ou p. Alt h ou gh m a n a gem en t a t t it u d es a r e t w ice a s com m on a ca u se in t h e elect r op la t er s (1.25 p er fi r m ) com p a r ed w it h t h e ir on m a n u fa ct u r er s (0.6 p er fi r m ) t h e h ea lt h a n d sa fet y com m it t ee is fi ve t im es a s com m on a ca u se in t h e ir on m a n u fa ct u r er s (1.5 p er fi r m ) t h a n in t h e elect r op la elect er s (0.3). T h er e is elect h en a cer elect a in ju select ifi -ca t ion for t h e v iew p oin t t h a t wor k er p a r t ici-p a t ion a ct ively st im u la t es a n d en h a n ces t h e d e gr ee of fi r m s’ com m it m en t t o im p r ove wor k in g con d it ion s. T h is of cou r se is r a t h er obv iou s w h en w e t a k e in t o con sid er a t ion a ll t h e a dver se im p a ct s t h a t p r od u ct ion ca n h ave on t h e wor k for ce. It is a lso obv iou s fr om t h e t wo t a bles t h a t t h e h ea lt h a n d sa fet y com m it -t ees h ave b een a c-t ive w h en i-t com es -t o “a ir ” a n d “m iscella n eou s”. T h is sign ifi es t h a t exp o-su r e t o va p ou r s of, for exa m p le, solven t s a n d gr ea ses ca u sin g sk in a ller gies, h a s b een a p r oblem t h a t t h e com m it t ees h ave r ea ct ed on , w h ile p r oblem s r ela t ed t o w a st ew a t er h ave n ever b een d ea lt w it h by t h e com m it t ees.

In t h e p r eced in g sect ion s w e h ave ela b o-r a t ed on t h e a d op t ed t ech n ologica l ch a n ges a n d t h e r ea son s given for t h ese. On e q u est ion r em a in s t o b e t a k en in t o con sid er a t ion , n a m ely t h e r ela t ion b et w een t h e t wo t y p es of p u blic r e gu la t ion . In on ly on e in st a n ce of t h e 268 a d op t ed t ech n ologica l m ea su r es d id w e fi n d t h a t t h er e w a s a n over la p b et w een t h e r e gu la t or y a ct iv it ies of t h e t wo b od ies. T h is h a p p en ed in a n elect r op la t in g fi r m w h ich w a s a b ou t t o in st a ll a ir ext r a ct ion on a n elect r o-p la t in g b a t h . In a ll t h e ot h er in st a n ces t h e t wo a u t h or it ies d iv id ed t h e ca ses a n d t h e a r ea s of in t er est b et w een ea ch ot h er. T h e la b ou r in sp ect or a t es a n d t h e h ea lt h a n d sa fet y com -m it t ees h ave focu sed on r ed u cin g t h e i-m p a ct of a ir b or n e p ollu t a n t s in t h e wor k p la ce by ven t ila t ion or su b st it u t ion of su b st a n ces. T h e m u n icip a l a u t h or it ies h ave focu sed on t h e im p a ct on t h e su r r ou n d in g en v ir on m en t m a in ly t h r ou gh im p osin g st a n d a r d s for t h e h eigh t of sm ok est a ck s, bu t in a few in st a n ces t h e im p osit ion of t h ese st a n d a r d s ca u sed t h e fi r m s t o su b st it u t e t h e p a in t in g t o w a t er -b a sed p a in t in g or h igh solid solven t --b a sed , bu t t h is su b st it u t ion a p p a r en t ly w a s n ot n ot ed a n d a t lea st n ot r ea ct ed on by t h e la b ou r in sp ect or a t e. T h e con clu sion m u st b e t h a t a t lea st u p u n t il 1991 t h e t wo a u t h or it ies ver y m u ch st u ck t o t h eir t r a d it ion a l t a sk a n d

d iv ision of la b ou r w it h ou t even t r y in g t o id en t ify a n d ela b or a t e on r e gu la t ion s t h a t cou ld h ave n e ga t ive a s w ell a s p osit ive effect s on t h e ot h er p a r t y ’s a r ea s of ju r isd ict ion a n d in t er est . T h is con clu sion is ver y m u ch in a ccor d a n ce w it h r esu lt s fr om t h e Da n ish fi sh p r ocessin g in d u st r y [17]. If t h is is a cor r ect con clu sion t h er e is n o d ou b t t h a t t h e t wo a u t h or it ies w ill en cou n t er in cr ea sin g p r ob -lem s con cu r r en t w it h t h e esca la t in g im p lm en t a t ion of clea n er t ech n ologies, bu t h op e-fu lly n ew a n d b et t er p r a ct ices of co-op er a t ion h ave d evelop ed in t h e m ea n t im e.

Conclusion

In t h is st u dy w e h ave fou n d t h a t t h er e a r e p r ofou n d d iffer en ces b et w een t h e t wo gr ou p s of in d u st r ies – t r a d it ion a l ir on m a n u fa ct u r -er s a n d elect r op la t in g fi r m s – in t h e a m ou n t a n d t y p es of a b a t em en t t ech n ologies a d op t ed . T h e r ea son b eh in d t h is is t h e d iffer en ces in size a n d d iver sit y of p r od u ct ion p r ocesses u sed in t h e t wo gr ou p s of fi r m s. For b ot h gr ou p s of fi r m s p u blic r e gu la t ion is t h e m ost com m on in cen t ive, w it h t h e ver y obv iou s a d d it ion t h a t t h e m u n icip a lit ies a r e r e gu la t -in g m a -in ly on t h e w a t er m ed iu m w h ile t h e la b ou r in sp ect or a t es r e gu la t e m a in ly on t h e a ir m ed iu m , t h e u se of sk in a ller gic ch em i-ca ls, a n d t h e u se a n d la b ellin g of ch em ii-ca ls in gen er a l. Most r em a r k a ble is t h e m in u t e im p a ct t h a t econ om ic con sid er a t ion p lay s, u n d er lin in g t h a t m ost of t h e a dver se im p a ct s of p r od u ct ion , w h et h er a ffect in g t h e wor k -for ce or t h e en v ir on m en t , a r e seen st ill a s “fr ee good s” w h ich d o n ot h ave a n y im p a ct on t h e p r iceset t in g of t h e p r od u ct s. T h e in t er -n a lizi-n g of t h e cost s of p r od u ct io-n by u si-n g ch a r ges a n d fees is n ot u sed t o su ch a d e gr ee – exce p t m ay b e for w a st ew a t er d isch a r ges – t h a t econ om ic con sid er a t ion s ca n st im u la t e a n d p r om ot e t h ese t y p es of t ech n ologica l ch a n ges. Su r p r isin gly, in t er n a l for ces, i.e. a t t it u d es of m a n a gem en t a n d em p loyees, h ave a m u ch m or e essen t ia l in fl u en ce on t h e a d op -t ion of a b a -t em en -t m ea su r es -t h a n econ om ic con sid er a t ion s. In ou r v iew t h is fa ct or u n d er -lin es t h e n ecessit y of t a k in g “a t t it u d es” in t o gr ea t er con sid er a t ion w h en p olicies a r e d esign ed a n d im p lem en t ed .

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