THE LEARNING CONCEPT OF EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE
ITS IMPLICATION IN LEARNING LANGUAGE
Submitted to the Board o f Examiners in Partial Fulfillment
o f the Requirements for the Degree o f Sarjana Pendidikan Islam (S.Pd.I)
in the English and Education Department
by
NUR HIDAYAH
NIM. 113 01 065
ENGLISH AND EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
STATE ISLAMIC STUDIES INSTITUTE
(STAIN) SALATIGA
DEPARTEMEN AGAMA
SEKOLAH TINGGI AGAMA ISLAM NEGERI (STAIN) SALATIGA
Jl. Tentara Pelajar 02 Telp. (0298) 323706, 323433 Fax 323433 Salatiga 50721
Website :
w w w .stain salatiu a.ac.id
E-mail : administrasi@stainsalatiga.ac.id
D E K L A R A S I
B ism illahirrahm anirrahim
Dengan penuh kejujuran dan tanggung jawab, peneliti menyatakan bahwa
skripsi ini tidak berisi materi yang pernah ditulis oleh orang lain atau pernah
diterbitkan. Demikian juga skripsi ini tidak berisi satupun pikiran-pikiran orang
lain, kecuali informasi yang terdapat dalam referensi yang dijadikan bahan
rujukan.
Apabila di kemudian hari ternyata terdapat materi atau pikiran-pikiran
orang lain di luar referensi yang peneliti cantumkan, maka peneliti sanggup
mempertanggung jawabkan kembali keaslian skripsi ini di hadapan sidang
munaqosyah skripsi.
Demikian deklarasi ini dibuat oleh peneliti untuk dapat dimaklumi.
Salatiga, 20 Desember 2005
Peneliti
NUR HIDAYAH
NIM. 113 01 065
State Islamic Studies Institute o f Salatiga
ATTENTIVE COUNSELOR NOTES
Case : Nur Hidayah’s Thesis
Salatiga, Desember 20th, 2005
Dear
The Head of State Islamic
Studies Institute of Salatiga
Assalamu’alaikum Wr. Wb.
After reading and correcting Nur Hidayah’s thesis entitled “THE LEARNING
CONCEPT OF EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE ITS IMPLICATION IN
LEARNING LANGUAGE”, I have decided and would like to propose that if it
could be accepted by the educational faculty, I hope it would be examined as soon
as possible.
Wassalamu’alaikum Wr. Wb.
Drs. Sa’adi. M.Ag
NIP. 150 256 821
DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS AFFARIS
STATE ISLAMIC STUDIES INSTITUTE
SALATIGA
Jl. Stadion 03 Phone (0298) 323706 Salatiga 50721
STATEMENT OF CERTIFICATION
THE LEARNING CONCEPT OF EDW ARD LEE THORNDIKE
ITS IM PLICATIO N IN LEARNING LANGUAGE
N U R H ID A Y A H
NIM: 11301065
Has been brought to the board of examiners in January 7th, 2006/Dzulhijah 7th
1426 H to completely fulfill the requirement of the Degree of
Sarjana Pendidikan
Islam (S.Pd.I)
in English and Education Department.
Salatiga,
January 7th. 2006
Dzulhijah 7th 1426 H
NIP. 150 256 821
Every bardsfp is follow ed b y ease
(Q5. At In sfra fi
5
)
Read h tbe name o f your Lord wbo created created
man from d o ts o f congealed blood, Read! Your Lord is
tfe M ost Boumffui One, w fo ta u g ft b y trie pen, taught
man what be did n o t Rnow,
DEDICATION
This thesis is whole heartedly dedicated to :
-
My beloved Dad and Mom, Mr. Karim and Mrs. Masturoh , thanks for your
love, I really love you. “nothing gonna change my love for you”.
-
My beloved brothers, Ifan and Hanif, I love you, do the best for your future. I
hope you will be a good moslem.
-
My special friends, Indah, Muji, Alfi and Siti. I really love you. Together with
you, giving special memory in my live. Remember, we are the champion !!
My sweet and wonderful friends, Abu Daffa, mbak Nung, Sekar, Faiz, Wanti,
Ali, Nanang and Heri, keep your smile whatever will be.. ’’You know I can’t
smile without you”.
My husband will be, prepare yourself before Allah makes us together.. “I will
be right here waiting for you”.
For Myself, you must be survive !!
AlhamdulillaHrabbiralamin, in the name of Allah the Lord of the
universe, because of Him the writer could complete this thesis as one of the
requirements for getting
Sarjana
in English Department of Educational Faculty of
State Islamic studies Institute (STAIN) Salatiga in 2006.
However, this success would not be achieved without supports, guidances,
advice, helps and encouragements from individuals and institutions, therefore, let
him say thanks to :
1. Drs. Badwan, M.Ag, the Head of State Islamic studies Institute (STAIN) of
Salatiga.
2. Drs. Sa’adi, M.Ag, the consultant of this thesis, thanks for his careful
guidance, wisdom, kindness and suggestions during the completion of this
thesis.
3. Hammam,S.Pd.,
Hanung
Triyoko,SS.,
Ruwandi,S.Pd,
Dra.
Woro
Retnaningsih. and whole lecturers in English Department, thanks for your
supports, guidances and helps.
4. My beloved mother and father, who have taught me everything, facilitated me,
I really love you, may God bless you.
5. My younger brothers Alik Ifana and Akhmad H anif, I’m very sorry I cannot
care and spend much time for you, I love you so much.
6. Abu Daffa and Mbak Nung, thanks for your spirit to reach my future, thanks
for everything, Allah will replace everything you give to me.
7. My wonderful friend, Ali Suryo, thanks for everything, be patient, please
forgive me for everything I do., together with you, giving an other meaning of
my life. You must keep your ideal to the end. I really love you. We have much
memories, I can’t forget it because you mean everything to me at the present.
8. My beloved Sekar., thanks for your help and kindness., we must keep our
accompanies !! you are my true close friend, in sadness or happiness we
always together.. I really love you !!
9. My beloved best friend, Nanang.. Thanks for your patience!! You teach me
how to be wise and patient women. We have a secret, you must keep it. OK!!
10. My Beloved sister Faiz, be patient and wise, I am sorry I have make your heart
pain. In the deepest of my heart, I really love you, sometimes You are very
funny but sometimes you make me annoy., he., he !!
11. All of Ratno’s boarding house, Jeki (my roommate), Uyung (my sweet ffind),
Othim, Sisca, Uung, Kino, Ida, Zidan, Enuk, Wien, Chorry, Illus, Farhah. We
have much memories.
12. All of my friends of TBI 01, especially Hanik.
13. Mas Yuli, thanks for your help.
14. All people who help me that I can not mention one by one.
Finally, the writer realizes that this thesis is still far from being perfect and
still needs many improvements therefore all suggestions and criticisms for
perfection will be welcome and received with gratitude. However the writer hopes
that this will give useful significance for readers
Title Page...
i
Deklarasi...
ii
Attentive Counselor...
iii
Certification P ag e...
iv
Motto ...
v
Dedication ...
vi
Acknowledgement...
vii
Table of Content...
x
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. The Background of Study ...
1
B. The Statement of Problem...
3
C. The Limitation of Problem...
3
D. The Objective of Study...
3
E. The Benefits of study...
4
F. The Definition of Terms...
4
G. The Literature Review...
5
H. The Research Methodology...
7
I. The Outline of Thesis...
9
CHAPTER II
THE BIOGRAPHY OF EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE,
HIS WORK AND HIS VIEW OF LEARNING
A. The Biography of Edward Lee Thorndike...
10
B. The Works of Edward Lee Thorndike...
15
C. Edward Lee Thorndike’s View of Learning...
17
CHAPTER III
THE THEORIES UNDERLYING OF LEARNING
A. The Definition of Learning...
21
B. The Role of Teacher in Teaching Learning process...
24
C. The Problems in Teaching Learning Process,
Especially in Learning Process...
29
CHAPTER IV
AN ANALYSIS OF LEARNING
A. The Essence of Learning...
34
B. The Aim of Learning...
35
C. The Material of Learning...
37
D. The Method of Learning...
39
E. The Evaluation of Learning...
43
F. The Evaluation of Learning in Edward Lee
Thorndike’s Perspective in Teaching Learning,
especially in Learning Process
CHAPTER V
CLOSURE
A. Conclusion of the Thesis...
48
B. Suggestion...
50
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CURICULUM VITAE
APPENDIX
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Learning is an activity which is always done by every people. Since
the people bear until die, there are much learning processes which are already
done.
Learning not just happens in certain institution, but the interaction with
the environment then the people get the new experience is a learning process
too. These environments are family, playing environment, school
environment, neighbor etc. like this quotation :
“Learning pervades our life. It is involved not only in mastering a new
skill or academic subject but also in emotional development, social
interaction, and even personality development. We learn how to fear,
how to love, how to be polite, how to be intimate, and so on”.1
From that explanation above, it can be taken that the definition of
learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that
result from practice behavior change there are due to maturation (rather than
practice) or to temporary conditions of the organism (such as fatigue or
drug-induced state) are not included.2
From those explanations above, it can be seen that learning is a
complex phenomenon. Learning needs involvement of all aspects of
'Rita L. Atkinson, Ricard C. Atkinson at all.,
Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology,
Harcourt Brace and Company, USA, 1996, page 227
2Ibid.,
page 227
2
personality of human being, thought, emotions, and body language, beside
lmowledge, attitude and the previous convictions and the future perceptions.
Quantum Teaching
defines that learning with all its definitions is a
full-contact
activity.3
4 So, there are many experts attempt to research and
analyze about learning itself. From that, it can be known about the
qualification of learning, the success and the failure of learning.
From many experts who are known by the writer, Edward Lee
Thorndike is an expert that according to the writer can give an explanation
about the concept of learning with his theory of connectionism or bond
psychology.5 In this research, the writer will try to describe the theory of
learning by Edward Lee Thorndike. So it can be summarized explicitly about
learning according to Edward Lee Thorndike.
This research has a purpose to explain explicitly the concept of
learning according to Edward Lee Thorndike perspective, so as a student
teacher who will face the teaching learning process directly can understand the
essence of learning. Like this quotation in Quantum Teaching :
“The teaching or learning process is a complex pnenomenon.
Everything have meaning every word, thought, measure and
association and in how far
you
compose the environment, presentation,
and course design, as far as that the learning process is happen.6
3Bobby De Porter, Mark Reardon & Sarah Singer Nourie,
Quantum Teaching,
Ari
Nilandari, Mizan, Bandung, 2004, page 3
4Ibid.,
page 6
The word
you
in that text refers to
the teacher.
If every students
teacher or a teacher understand about the essence of learning like that
explanation above, so every knowledge or skills which are given will succeed
optimally and it means that the teaching learning process is successful.
B. Statement of the Problem
1. How is the concept of learning according to Edward Lee Thorndike ?
2. How to apply the view of Thorndike in the teaching learning process ?
3. What is the implication of Thorndike’s theory of learning in language
learning ?
C. Limitation of the Problem
The writer would like to limit the problem into the concept of learning
according to Edward Lee Thorndike and it’s application in teaching learning
process especially in learning language.
D.
Objectives of the Study
1. To reveal the concept of learning according to Edward Lee Thorndike.
2. To find out the relevance'of the application of Edward Lee Thorndike’s
view in teaching learning process.
3. To find out the implication of Thorndike’s theory of learning in language
E. Benefits of the Study
1. Theoretical benefit
4
It is to contribute scientific development, especially of learning
concept which is related with teaching learning language process.
2. Practical benefit
A clear understanding of learning concept will be a motivation for
teachers or students teacher to make teaching learning language process
successful.
F. Definition of the Terms
1. The Concept
•
* 7
A concept is an idea underlying a class of thing for general nation.
It also means the idea or definition which is abstracted based on the
concrete even.7
8
2. Learning
Wide knowledge gained by careful study.9 It also means acquiring
or getting of knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience, or
instruction.10
■
*
7As
Hornby,
Oxford Advanced Dictionary,
Oxford University Press of Concern English,
New York, 1974, page 175
*Depdikbud,
Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia,
BP, Jakarta, 1994, page 456
9AsHornby,
op. cit,
page 481
G. Literature Review
The writer would like to tell the other thesis has not do this research
yet as comparison. There are as follows : the first, the title is “PROBLEM OF
LEARNING TENSES (A CASE STUDY AMONG THE 3rd YEAR
STUDENTS OF SLTP MUHAMMADIYAH SALATIGA IN SCHOOL
YEAR OF 2002/2003)”, which has been researched by Badriyah in 2003, the
students of State Islamic Institute (STAIN) of Salatiga. She analyzes about the
factors of effecting learning. There are internal and external factors.11
The second, review related to this research and the title is “THE
CORRELATION BETWEEN THE INTEREST OF LEARNING ENGLISH
AND ENGLISH ACHIEVEMENT OF THE STUDENTS OF THE SLTP N 3
MERTOYUDAN MAGELANG IN THE YEAR OF 2001/2002”, which has
been researched by Misbakhul Munir in 2002, the students of State Islamic
Institute (STAIN) of Salatiga. He analyzes about theories of learning. There
are the theory of learning according to capacity psychology, association theory
and Gestalt theory. 12
The third review related to this research and the title is “CHILDREN
STRATEGIES
IN
LEARNING
ENGLISH
SPELLING,
THEIR
CORRELATION WITH THEIR ERROR SPELLING (A CASE STUDY
AMONG STUDENTS OF MIN TEGALARUM GRADE FOUR AND FIVE,
IN THE 2002/2003)”, which has been researched by Kunti Asihani Alfi
11 Badriyah,
Problem o f Learning Tenses (A Case Study Among the 3rd Year Students of
SLTP Muhammadiyah Salatiga in School Year Of 2002/2003),
unpublished thesis, Salatiga 2003
6
Muslihah in 2002, the students of State Islamic Institute (STAIN) of Salatiga.
She analyzes about the learning strategies. There are direct strategies and
indirect strategies.13
The fourth review related to this research and the title is “THE
EFFORT OF SCHOOL IN SOLVING THE PROBLEMS OF THE
TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS OF THE ENGLISH SUBJECT (A
CASE STUDY OF SLTP ISLAM SUDIRMAN I BRINGIN, KABUPATEN
SEMARANG IN THE ACADEMIC YEAR OF 2003/2004)”, which has been
researched by Maskuri in 2004, the students of State Islamic Institute (STAIN)
of Salatiga. He analyzes about the management of the learning state. Those are
the collide phase, the natural phase, the name phase, the demonstration phase,
the frequent phase, and the party phase.14
The fifth review related to this research and the title is “THE
EFFECTIVENESS OF USING GAMES IN ENGLISH TEACHING
LEARNING PROCESS OF FIFTH YEAR STUDENTS OF MADRASAH
IBTIDAIYAH SRUWEN 04 KEC. TENGARAN KAB. SEMARANG 2002”,
which has been research by Agus Edy Setyawan in 2002, State Islamic
Institute (STAIN) o f Salatiga. He analyses about the natural learning. The
13 Kunti Asihani Alfi Muslihah,
Children Strategies in Learning English Spelling,
Their Correlation With Their Error Spelling (A Case Study Among Students o f MIN Tegalarum
Grade Four and Five, in the 2002/2003),
unpublished thesis, Salatiga 2002
word learning is one way to describe all the change that took place in Juan
complete the primary and secondary data source. They are :
Quantum
Teaching
by Bobby De Porter, Mark Reardon and Sarah Singer
Nourie,19
Psychology o f the Education Process
by Joel R. David and
15
Agus Edy Setyawan,
The Effectiveness o f Using Games in English Teaching
Learning Process o f Fifth Year Students o f Madrasah lbtidaiyah Sruwen 04 Kec. Tengaran
Kab. Semarang 2002,
unpublished thesis, Salatiga 2002
'"Gordon H. Bower and Ernest R. Hilgard,
Theory o f Learning,
Prentice-Hall, New
York, Fifth Edition
" Sumardi Suryabrata,
Psychologi Pendidikan,
Rajawali, Jakarta, 1984
18 H Douglas Brown,
op. cit.
8
Samuel Ball,20
Education Psychology fo r Teachers
by Anita E.
Woolfolk, Lorraine Me Cune-Nicolish,21 2
2
2
3
Reflective Teaching in
22
Second Language Classroom
by Jack Ricard and Charles Lockhart,
Pendekatan Dalam Proses Belajar Mengajar
by A. Tabrani Rusyan,
Active Learning
by Mel Siberman,24
Teaching and Learning English
as a Foreign Language
by Charles C. Fries,25 etc.
2. Method of Analysis
a. Descriptive analysis
It tries to collect the data to construct, to analyze and interpret
the data having been obtained.
b. Critical method
It will uncover the thought of Edward Lee Thorndike about the
concept of learning and finding its relevance with the teaching-learning
language especially in learning language process.
21 Anita E. Woolfolk, Lorraine Me Cune-Nicolish,
Education Psychology fo r Teaches,
Prentice-Hall, USA, 1984
22 Jack C. Ricard, Charles Lockhart,
Reflective Teaching in Second Language
Classroom,
Cambridge University Press, USA, 1994
23 A. Tabrani Rusyan et. all.,
Pendekatan dalam Proses Belajar Mengajar,
Remadja
Karya, Bandung, 1989
study, definition of the terms, literature review, research methodology, and
outline of thesis.
Chapter II tells about the biography of Edward lee Thorndike, his
works and his view of learning.
Chapter III tells about the Theories of Learning. It includes the
definition of learning, the role of teacher in teaching learning process, the
problem of teaching learning especially in learning language process.
Chapter IV tells about an analysis of learning. It includes the essence
of learning, the aim of learning,. the material of learning, the method of
learning, the evaluation of learning and the implication of learning in
Thorndike’s perspective for the teaching learning language process.
Chapter V tells about closure. There are conclusion and suggestion.
C H A P T E R II
THE BIOGRAPHY OF EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE,
HIS WORKS AND HIS VIEW OF LEARNING
A. The Biography of Edward Lee Thorndike
E. L. Thorndike was born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts on August,
31, 1874. He was the son of a Methodist Minister, Edward R. Thorndike, and
Abby Thorndike. Thorndike was fortune because his father was a minister and
during this period of time it was more likely that children of minister or
pastors would receive a higher education.
Thorndike, even as a young student, was a very dedicated to his
studies. When attending college, Thorndike’s first area of interest was English.
He received his BS (Bachelor’s Degree) from Wesleyan University in 1895.
After receiving a BS, he decided to attend Harvard. Harvard is where
Thorndike found his love for psychology. And in 1897 he received his MA
(Master Degree) from Harvard University. At Harvard, he worked under and
*
with William James. He received his PhD {Philosophic Doctoral) from
Columbia University in 1898, and at Columbia he worked under James M.
Cattel.
About his carriers and nominations, in the same year that he received
his PhD, he accepted a position as Assistant professor at Western Reserve
University.
At the age of 26, married Elizabeth Moulton on August, 29, 1900.
James E. Russel approached Thorndike after one of his class exercise offering
a position at teachers college of College of Columbia University. He remained
teaching there until he retired in 1940, but he worked actively till his death,
ten years later. He became president of APA (American Psychological
Association) in 1912 and became president of the American Association for
the advancement of science in 1934.1
Though Thorndike’s father was an itinerant Methodist minister, the
predominance of religion during Thorndike’s youth did not inspire his latter
beliefs. Rather, he rejected religion as an adult and viewed science as a secular
alternative. The often referred to himself as an “intellectual agnostic”.
Children of 19,n-century ministers were more likely to receive higher
education than other children because of the strong ties between the clergy
and universities. Thorndike chose to attend Wesleyan University, a Methodist
ministry-sponsored college, from where he graduated with a bachelor’s degree
in 1895. He received another undergraduate degree from Harvard University,
and then shifted his focus to psychology and earned a master’s degree in 1897.
Thorndike subsequently applied to Columbia University and entered
its psychology doctoral program. In his first summer term, Thorndike met
James McKeen Cattell, a nationally prominent and distinguished professor.
Cattell quickly gained Thorndike’s respect and admiratoion. They
corresponded regularly, and Thorndike solicited thesis advice and assistance
12
with experiements. Catteli proved very supportive of Thorndike’s work and
accepted one of his manuscripts for publication in Science magazine. He also
invited Thorndike to give his first lecture at the American Psychological
Association. Catteli exerted great influence within the scientific community,
and his acceptance of Thorndike as a star pupil proved to be immensely
rewarding for the young scholar.
Many psychologists consider Thorndike’s 1898 doctoral thesis
Animal
Intelligence: An Experimental Study o f the Associative Processes in Animals
to be the origin of the scientific study of animal behavior. In his field-breaking
work, Thon described his “puzzle box” experiments with cats. From these, he
proposed several “laws” concerning the bonds between stimuli and responses,
which he labeled the Connectionism Theory of Learning. Though Thorndik’s
work appears quite similar to Ivan Pavlov’s 1902 law of reinforcement, the
two studies appear to be a case of simultaneous independent discovery.
Pavlov (1928) himself wrote, “I must acknowledge that the honor of having
made the first steps along the path belongs to E. L. Thorndike”.
Following Cattell’s recommendation, Thorndike began to apply his
doctoral research on animal intelligence to human subjects-particularly
children. Thus began Thorndike’s merger of psychology and pedagogy.’
Thorndike, a proponent of research-based curriculum reform,
prompted curricular and methodological changes in several subject areas. For
example, he frequently spoke out against the classical course of study
Greek to be unnecessary. He asserted that progress in these languages did not
correlate to progress in other subject areas. In 1910, he published a scale to
measure children’s handwriting that used a positive correlation between rate
and quality. The scale gained quick acceptance and became the first
standardized achievement test to be widely used in public schools.
Mathematics was another of his curricular foci. Thorndike did not
approve of arithmetic practice solely for the sake of “mental gymnastics”, and
incorporated this theory into his 1917 series
Thorndike Arithmetics-an
instant
best seller. In this exercise book, Thorndike only included mathematical
problems that were directly relevant to real, daily life.
Thorndike authored a number of books and articles to help educators
and textbook writers choose the appropriate vocabulary for their students. In
1927, he compiled
The Teacher’s Word Book,
a list of 4.5 million words in
English from 41 different sources, including newspapers, advertisements, and
popular fiction. He ordered these words on the basis of most commonly to
least commonly used. He released two subsequent revisions of this popular list
in 1932 and 1944. The latter books also contained word lists, but a greater
number of these words were taken from a broader range of contextual sources.
His main desire for these lists was that they be used to determine if a specific
word should be included in writing for children.
He argued for the existence of inherited intellectual differences, and
that an accurate intelligence test could predict and individual’s future carter.
14
completion, arithmetic, vocabulary, and directions. The logic behind this test
became the foundation for modem intelligence tests.
In 1928, Thorndike conducted a major study of adult learning, the first
of its kind. This study revealed that the ability of adults to learn declined very
little with age, disproving the prevalent belief that ability for mental
development stopped at about age 16. This finding changed the direction of
adult learning and spumed new developments in the field of adult education.
Thorndike’s ideas became poplar worldwide, and his book
Adult Learning
was even translated into Polish.
In 1939, Thorndike officially retired from Columbia University, but
continued his research and writing. In 1946, Thorndike gave his last public
speech at the Roxbury Latin School. Soon afterward, Thorndike wrote to a
friend, “I am now a very tired old man, but not unhappy”. His last year was
one of illness-pneumonia, shakiness, and a minor stroke. His wife later found
files, papers, and personal correspondence that he had carefully arranged in
preparation for death. Many of these papers are in Montrose, New York, under
the custody of Frances Thorndike Cope. Another large collection is held at the
teachers college archives at Columbia University. Small collections of
miscellaneous papers and notes can be found at Wesleyan Univesity, in
Middletown, Connecticut, the Cornell University Library, and the Harvard
University Library/ 2
B. The Works of Edward Lee Thorndike
1. Major Publication
a. Thesis on Animal Intelligence in 1898 (he was 24 at that time)
b. Education Psychology (1903)
c. Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurements (1904)
d. The elements of Psychology (1905)
e. Animal Intelligence (1911)
f. A Teacher’s Workbook (1921)
g. The Measurement of Intelligence (1927)
h. The Fundamentals of Learning (1932)
i. The Psychology of Wants, Interests and Attitudes (1935)
j. Human Nature An the Social Order (1940)
k. Published more than 50 books and more than 400 articles.3
2. Research
Thorndike first research project pertained to “mind reading ability”
in children. In this experiment, Thorndike would think of a number, letter
or object and the child in front of him would try to guess what he was
thinking of.
After the failure of the “mind reading” experiments Thorndike
decided to do an experiment on the instinctive and intelligent behavior of
chickens. While doing the experiment, Thorndike kept his chickens in his
16
room up until the point were his landly began to protest. No space in
Harvard, so William James took his chickens in.
The next research is The Puzzle Box Experiment. The animal
(often a cat) is put into a box and tries to find its way out. The box
consisted of ropes, levers, and latches that the animal could use as a means
of escape. Once the cat escapes, a reward is given.
Thorndike trough his observation realized that after time, the cat
would use a trial and error technique. Thorndike also realized that with
more trials the less time it took the cat to escape. Thorndike concluded that
the cat learned through trial and error as do humans in similar
circumstances.
Becoming less interested in animal research and he decided to
devote himself to research with humans.
3. Contributions
a. Thorndike was viewed as a man who changed the way children were
educated.
b. Revised dictionaries in order to make it-easier for children to read by
using simpler word and offering pictures.
c. Studied animal intelligence with the puzzle box.
d. Applied the knowledge learned from his studies with animals to
humans.
e. Designed a scale to measure children’s handwriting, reading, drawing
f. Designed a scale to measure intelligence called :
C - Sentence Completion
A - Arithmetic Ability
V - Vocabulary
D - Ability to Follow Direction
g. CAVD became the foundation of IQ tests
h. Devised IQ tests for the U.S. Army during WWI.4
C. Edward Lee Thorndike’s View of Learning
The most characteristic form of learning of both lower animals and
man was identified by Thorndike as
trial and error learning,
or as he
preferred to call it later, learning by selecting and connecting. In this
paradigmatic situation, learners are confronted by a problem situation in which
they have to reach a goal such as escape from a problem box, attain some
food, or win some money. They do this by selecting a response from a number
of possible responses, performing that response, and then receiving some
consequence or outcome. A trial is defined by the length of time (or number of
errors) involved in a single reaching of the goal.
The typical experiment is one in which a hungry cat is placed in
confining box, which is reproduced from Thorndike’s very first paper (1898).
Some sort of unlatching device - a loop of wire, a handle, a knob - would be
mounted inside the box; when it was manipulated, the door would fall open,
permitting the animal to escape confinement and get a bite of food just outside
18
the door. In Thorndike’s analysis, the interior of the problem-box constitutes
the “stimulus situation”; to this stimulus situation, the animals would bring a
repertoire of possible behaviors of responses to try out in attempting to escape
from the box. Thus, typically the initial trials would be characterized by much
irrelevant, unsuccessful behavior for the first several minutes - a great amount
of clawing, biting, rubbing, meowing, thrashing about, and clinging to the
ceiling - before the door latch would be tripped, in almost an “accidental”
fashion. The performance score recorded on a given trial was the amount of
time elapsed before the animal performed the correct response and escaped.
Initially, the times were very large due to so much random, irrelevant
behavior. However, on succeeding trials the time score become smaller, but
slowly and irregularly.
The Thorndike’s experiments on animals had a very profound
influence upon his thinking about human learning. He became convinced,
contrary to the then popular beliefs, that animal behavior was tittle mediated
by ideas. Responses were said to be made directly to the situation as sensed.
While he did not go so far as to totally deny ideation among animals, he was
convinced that the great bulk of their learning could be explained by the direct
connecting of acts to situations through the automatic action of the law of
effect, unmediated by ideas. The similarity of the learning curves of human
believe that the same essentially mechanical phenomena disclosed by animal
learning are also fundamental to human learning.5
Animal’s learning or human’s learning, have an essential laws of
learning, there are : law of readiness, law of exercise, and law of effect.6
1. Law of Readiness
Readiness characterizes many of circumstances under which a
learner tends to be satisfied or annoyed. Thorndike recognized several
forms of readiness; 1) a strong desire for an action sequence is aroused,
then the smooth carrying out of that sequence is satisfying. 2) If that action
sequence is thwarted or blocked from completion, then such blocking is
annoying. 3) If an action is fatigued (tired out) or satiated, then forcing a
further repetition of the act is annoying.
2. Law of Exercise
In a short account of Thorndike’s views, the impression may be
given that repetition of a habit was presumed to increase its strength, on
the premise that “practice make perfect”. Thorndike in his early writings
referred to this as the law ofexercise. This law has two forms : 1) The use
of connection increase its strength. 2) The disuse of a connection (not
practicing it) lead to its weakening or forgetting.7
5 Gordon H. Bower and Ernest R. Hilgard,
Theory o f Learning,
Prentice Hall, New York,
” ifth Edition pagr 2
20
3. Law of effect
The law of effect refers to strengthening or weakening of a connection
as a result of its consequences. When a modifiable connection is made and is
accompanied or followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the
connection is increases. If the connection made and following by punishment
or an annoying state of affairs, its strength is decreases.8
Beside those laws, Thorndike suggests that there are five subordinate
laws and minor laws. Those are; law of multiple response, law of attitude (law
of set, law of disposition), law of partial activity (law of prepotency element),
and law of associative shifting. But those five laws, in the next work is used
rarely, because there are no connection between primary laws and subordinate
laws clearly.9
8
Ibid.,
page 25
THE THEORIES UNDERLYING LEARNING
A. The Definition of Learning
There /are much definitions about learning. Those definitions are very
complex. Learning not just happens in certain institution. Everyday, human
beings face that process, they face something new, watch closely, analyze and
make summary that they get something new, so they get experience from
those.
The researches about learning have already researched by several
figures at least since the Golden Age of ancient Greece, for examples
Socrates. He implies that through a questioning discovery-type process, man
could best learn to understand his environment. Plato added the thought that
man was born with certain native potentialities. Those with poor potential a
person lit to be a ruler. Aristotle interests in how man is able to organize in his
mind the multitude of events, lie constantly experiences, suggested three laws
of association-contiguity, similarity, and contrast.5
It can show that the item of “learning” have a great consent because of
its roles. The next definition, will give illustration more about learning itself. 1
*
1 Joel R. Davits, Samuel Ball,
Psychology o f the Education Process,
Me. Graw-Hill Inc., .
USA, 1970, page 2
22
3. Learning does not have to be deliberate or conscious. A tennis player may
have learned a bad method of tossing the ball before serving, but the
player could be completely unaware of the pattern until the instructor
points it out. Finally, learning does not always involve knowledge or skill
' j
such as spelling and tennis attitudes and emotions can also be learned.
According to Edward Lee Thorndike, animal’s learning or human’s
Readiness characterizes many of circumstances under which a
learner tend to be satisfied or annoyed. Thorndike recognized several
forms of readiness; 1) a strong desire for an action sequence is aroused,
then the smooth carrying out of that sequence is satisfying. 2) If that action
sequence is thwarted or blocked from completion, then such blocking is 2
3
2 Anita E. Wool folk, Lorraine Me Cune-Nicolish,
Education Psychology fo r Teaches,
Prentice-Hall, USA, 1984, pae UjiS
annoying. 3) if an action is fatigued (tired out) or satiated, then forcing a
further repetition o f the act annoying.
2. Law o f exercise
In a short account o f Thorndike’s views, the impression may be
given that repetition of a habit was presumed to increase its strength, on
the premise that “practice makes perfect”. Thorndike in his early writings
referred to this as the law o f exercise. This law has two forms: 1) The use
o f connection increase its strength. 2) The .disuse o f a connection • (not
practicing it ) lead to its weakening or forgetting.4
3. Law o f effect
The law o f effect refers to strengthening or weakening of a
connection as a result of its consequences. When a modifiable connection
is made and is accompanied or followed by a satisfying state o f affairs, the
strength o f the connection increases. If the connection is made and
following by punishment or an annoying state o f affairs, its strength
decreases.5
Beside those laws, Thorndike suggests that there are five
subordinate laws and minor laws. Those are; law o f multiple response, law
o f attitude (law o f set, law o f disposition), law o f partial activity (law of
prepotency element), and law of associative shifting. But those five laws,
4Gordon H. Bow er and Ernest R. Hilgard, Theories o f Learning, Prentice-Hall, New
24
in the next work is used rarely, because there are not connection between
primary laws and subordinate laws clearly.6
From those definitions o f learning above, it is clear that learning is an
activity which involve o f all subject in teaching learning process. The teacher
has a great role in that process, and the learner must has a great desire too, to
follow the teaching learning process.
B. The Role of Teacher in Teaching Learning Process
A role can be defined as the part take by a participant in any act of
communication. In some interaction, roles are relatively fixed (e.g., doctor-
patient or teacher-student) whereas in others, role are temporary and open to
negotiation. For example within an office, a group o f colleagues may have
hierarchical roles (e.g. senior, accountant, junior accountant, assistant
accountant), whereas in a social situation outside the office context the same
colleagues may interact on equal terms. When roles are compared (e.g.
patient-child, doctor-patient, pilot-flight attendant), they are seen to have the
following characteristics:
1. They involve different kinds o f work and different levels o f responsibility.
2. They involve different kinds o f relationships and different patterns of
interaction <ind communication.
3. They involve different power relationships.
Wright (1987) points out that some roles are defined primarily by the
work people do, while others are mainly defined by the kind of interpersonal
relationships they imply. While it might be assumed that the role of the
teacher is primarily an occupational role, predetermined by the nature of
schools and of teaching teachers interpret their roles in different ways
depending on the kinds o f schools in which they work, they teaching methods
they employ.7
At the most general level, a teacher is a person who helps others learn.
Yet teachers do much more than explain, lecture, and drill. They also design
materials, make assignments, evaluate student performance, and maintain
- discipline. They must keep records, arrange the classroom, create and learning
experiences, talk to parents, and counsel students.
A teacher assumes a multitude o f roles, they are :8
1. The teacher as an instructional expert. Teachers must constantly make
decisions about teaching materials and methods. These decisions are based
on a number of factors, including the subject matter to be covered, the
abilities and needs o f the students, and the overall goals to be reached.
What is the best way to teach subtraction to second-graders. How can I
teach creative writing to a seventh-grader who has never mastered basic
writing skills? What book should I use to teach reading to eleventh-graders
who read at a fifth-grade level but are insulted by fifth-grade readers?
Should I let students cover the next assignment individually or in groups?
Which would' be best for this lesson: lecture, discussion, discovery
7 Jack c. Ricard, Charles Lockhart, Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classroom,
Cambridge University Press, USA, 1994, pag?
26
learning, programmed, instruction, recitation, or seatwork? Would a
microcomputer be a worth while investment for the school, and how
would I use it in my classes? Teacher make hundreds o f these instructional
decisions each week. In addition they are expected to know the answers to
a multitude o f questions about the subject itself.
2. The teacher as a motivator. Nothing the teacher does results automatically
or magically in student learning. The student must act. But motivation
involves more than starting each lesson with something exciting. Many
decision have an effect on student motivation. The grading method a
teacher uses, for example, can motivate students to try harder or to give
up. The question, how can I keep my students actively involved in
learning? Is at the heart of effective teaching. It is something you will need
'to think about everyday.
3. The teacher as manager. Most elementary teachers spend an average of
only 20 to 30 percent o f the day in direct verbal interaction with students.9
Much o f the remaining 70 percent is spent in some form o f management.
The figure for direct teaching in secondary schools is higher, but managing
the class still takes a large percentage o f the teacher’s time. Management
includes supervising class activities, organizing, lessons, completing
forms, preparing tests, assigning grades, training aides, meeting with other
teachers and parents and keeping record. Given only 24 hours in the day,
teachers must be skillful managers of time, projects, deadlines, and people
if they hope to have any private lives beyond working hours.
As a teacher you also will have to deal with another type of
management: classroom management, or the maintenance o f a .healthy
learning environment relatively free o f behavior problems. You have met
this concept many times under the more traditional heading o f discipline.
Teachers need to develop a number o f methods for dealing with major and
minor behavior problems so the class can get on with the process of
learning.
4. The teacher as leader. Although teacher must be concerned with the needs
o f each student, in reality they seldom work with individuals for an
extended period o f time. Teaching, almost inevitably, is leading a group of
students. An effective teacher is an effective leader, using the power o f the
group to promote individual growth. In the role o f group leader. “The
teacher is expected to be a refree, detective, limiter of anxiety, target to
hostile feelings and frustation, friend and confidant, substitute parent,
object o f affection and crushes, and ego supporter.
5. The teacher as counselor. Although teacher can not be expected to act as
guidance counselors, they must be sensitive observers o f human behavior.
They must try to respond constructively when students’ emotions are
getting in the way o f the learning. They must know when a particular
student needs to see a mental health specialist. Often teachers are expected
28
to interpret the results o f these test for the students and their parents. In
every class there are students who bring their personal problems to the
teacher. The teacher should be aware o f the opportunities and the dangers
involved in these situations. The feelings o f parents, the standards of the
community, the needs o f other teachers and students all must be
l
considered.
6. The teacher as environmental engineer. The term environmental engineer
may seem a bit far-fetched when the teacher think about teaching. Yet the
way the physical space o f a classroom is used help or hinder learning.
Changes made by a teacher may be minor (for example, posters and
occasional seating in a circle for discussion), or they may involve major
restructuring. School budgets usually do not allow the purchase or extra
bookshelves, room deviders, of learning carrels. Thus, in their role as
environmental engineers some teachers even build or adapt furniture for
their classrooms.
7. The teacher as a model. No matter what teacher do as a teacher, the
teacher will be acting as a rpodel for the students. Enthusiasm for a subject
will more likely be taught by an enthusiasm teacher giving a less-than
perfect demonstration than by a bored instructor lecturing brilliantly on the
value o f the subject.10
Considering the importance o f teacher’s role in teaching learning
process, the teacher have to be ideal teacher. They have to give the best things
for their students. Moreover, it is clear that learning needs a good teacher to
help students to acquire or getting of knowledge o f a subject or a skill by
study, experience, or instruction. Here, the teacher are figures who determine
the teaching learning process successfully.
C. The Problem of Teaching Learning Process, Especially in Learning
Language
There are many problems faced by people to learning. They may come
from the teacher or the learner. The problem come from the teacher is, that the
teacher do not understand about their role. Basically, there are many
definitions o f teaching : ll
1. Teaching is a complex process, it just not gives an information from the
teacher to the learner. There are many activities or measure which are
done, especially when it wishes a better result in learning.
2. Teaching is all effort which is deliberated in the framework of giving a
possibility for students to the continuity of teaching learning process with
the purpose which is formulated. The target of teaching is the learner to
learn.
3. According to William H. Burton: Teaching is an effort in giving stimuli,
guidance, direction and spirit to the learner in order to make learning
process happen. In this case Burton just defines that the material lesson
just a stimuli, and something which is gotten by the learning process is.
11 A. Tabrani Rusyan et. all., Pendekatan dalam Proses Belajar Mengajar, Remadja
4. Cagne and Briggs say that : “Instruction is a set of events which affect
learners in such way that learning is facilitated”. So the something
important in the teaching does not the teacher’s effort in giving materials,
but how the learners can learn the materials to be in accordance with the
purpose. It means that the teacher’s effort is just a series of event which
can influence student to learn. The teacher does not have a role as
information’s transferor, but as a director and facilitator o f learning.
5. The success o f teaching must be based on confession o f truth that the
essential lesson is a process which have meaning, and it is just not a
mechanic process.
Factually those definitions are not understood by the teacher
a. The teacher just giving information to the learner, just monotonously
in teaching, no variation. So the learner will bore, the learners just
receive the lesson theoretically.
b. The purpose of instruction is just transferring information, the teacher
never know how the student's response do the learner understand or
not, the teacher ignoresdt.
c. The teacher thinks that the materials are the target o f instruction, but
how every learner can understand about the lesson is not considered by
the teacher.
The problem that comes from the learners are, they do not have a great
motivation to learn. They are passive when the teacher explain the materials,
moreover, they ignore. This problem may be caused by the readiness of
learner, the varieties of subject which make the learner confused. This
quotation will give an explain about the capacity o f learner. This is :
“Most teachers speak about 100 to 200 words per minute. But how many of
those words do students hear? Well, it depends on how they are listening. If
the students are really concentrating, they might be able to listen attentively to
50 or 100 words per minutes, or half of what a teacher is saying. That is
because students are thinking a lot while they are listening. It is hard to keep
up with a talk active teacher. More likely, the students are not concentrating
because, even if the material is interesting, it is hard to concentrate for a
sustained period o f time. Studies show that students hear (without thinking) at
the rate o f 400 to 500 words per minute. When listening for a sustained period
o f time to a teacher who is talking up to four times more slowly, students are
likely to get bored, and their minds will wander”.
According to that explanation, the teacher must have a good way to
make the learner have a great motivation to learn. There are several reasons
that most people tend to forget what they hear. One of the most interesting
reasons has to do with the rate at which a teacher speaks and the rate at which
students listens, they are :
What I hear, I forget
What I hear and see, I remember a little
What I hear, see and ask question about or discuss with someone else,
I begin to understand.
32
What I teach to another, I master.12
Based on that explanation, the teacher must be expert in formulating
the material in order to make the learning process successful.
When the learning process is implied in learning language, especially
English, the problems are :
“In learning a new language, then the chief problem is not at first that
o f learning vocabulary items. It is, first, the mastery o f the sound system - to
understand the stream of speech, to hear the distinctive sound features and to
approximate their production. It is, second, the mastery o f the features of
arrangement that constitute the structure o f the language. These are the matters
that the native speaker as a child has early acquired as unconscious habits;
they must became automatic habits o f the adult learner o f a new language. O f
course this things cannot be learned in a vacuum. There must be sufficient
vocabulary to operate the structures and represent the sound system in actual
use. A person has learned a foreign language when he has thus first, within a
limited vocabulary mastered the sound system (that is, when he can
understand the stream o f speech and achieve an understandable production of
it) and has, second, made the structural devices (that is, the basic arrangements
o f utterances) matters of automatic habit.
As a matter o f fact one can achieve mere fluency in a foreign language
too soon. In the classes o f the English language institute we have often had
students who have come to us with a knowledge o f a considerable number of
12 Mel Silberman, Active Learning, Asman and Schuster Company, Massachusetts, 1996,
English words and thus speaking with some fluency. Unfortunately, however,
their pronunciation was not English either in the separate sounds or in
intonation, and thus was extremely difficult to understand. Their use of
structural devices was also not English. Such students, with fluency in
vocabulary but .with no basic of either the sound system or the structure, are
almost without exception hopeless so far as every achieving a satisfactory
control of English is concerned. They are usually unwilling or incapable of
starting again at the fundamentals of the language and building up new habits
within a limited vocabulary. The teachers do much more in less time for those
students who when they come, know no English whatever, than for those who
already have some fluency with no accurate control of the sound system or the
structure.13
By those problems the teacher is responsible to think the solutions.
They certainly have to perform and actualize the theory of learning, in order to
make the teaching learning language process effectively.
CHAPTER IV
AN ANALYSIS OF LEARNING
A. The Essence of Learning
From many definitions of learning, like Kumble and Garmezy said that
learning is relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency and is the
result of reinforced practice.1 The other definition is acquiring or getting of
knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience, or instruction.2 From
those, it can be taken that there are many essence of learning : 3
1. Learning is acquisition or “getting’"
2. Learning is retention of information or skill
3. Retention implies storage systems, memory, cognitive organization
4. Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acting upon events
outside or inside the organism.
5. Learning is relatively permanent, but subject to forgetting.
6. Learning involves some forms of practices, perhaps reinforced practice.
7. Learning is a change in behavior.
In the other definitions, learning always involves a change in the
person who is learning. The change may be for the better or for the worse,
deliberate or unintentional. To qualify as learning, this change must be
1 H. Douglas Brown, Principles o f Language Learning and Teaching, Prentice Hall,
USA, 1980, page 7
2 Ib id, page 7 3 Ibid, page 7
A. The Essence of Learning
From many definitions of learning, like Kumble and Garmezy said that
learning is relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency and is the
result of reinforced practice.1 The other definition is acquiring or getting of
knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience, or instruction.2 From
those, it can be taken that there are many essence of learning : 3
1. Learning is acquisition or “getting’"
2. Learning is retention of information or skill
3. Retention implies storage systems, memory, cognitive organization .
4. Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acting upon events
outside or inside the organism.
5. Learning is relatively permanent, but subject to forgetting.
6. Learning involves some forms of practices, perhaps reinforced practice.
7. Learning is a change in behavior.
In the other definitions, learning always involves a change in the
person who is learning. The change may be for the better or for the worse,
deliberate or unintentional. To qualify as learning, this change must be
1 H. Douglas Brown, Principles o f Language Learning and Teaching, Prentice Hall,
U SA 1980, page 7 2 Ibid, page 7 3 Ibid, page 7
35
brought about by experience, by the interaction of a person with the
environment.
Learning is a change in a person that comes about as a result of
experience. A change in what aspect of the person? The answer to this
question that has traditionally separated the behavioral definition of learning
from the cognitive definition.4
In this- case, Edward Lee Thorndike is considered in behavioral
psychologist because he has focused almost solely on observable behavior and
behavioral changes, in fact, many of the early behaviorists refused even to
discuss the concepts of thinking or emotion, since thoughts and emotions
could not be observed directly.5
B. The Aims of Learning
Generally the objectives of learning are : 6
1. The Cognitive Purpose
The cognitive purpose is when we learn about the science of
knowledge, information, views and the other. The aims which have
purpose to add the knowledge is a cognitive purpose.
According to Boom, learning will show clearly the characteristic
and the ranges of the cognitive purpose. They are :
a. Addition of knowledge, which include the abilities purpose to
memorize, imitate, reappreciate, etc.
4Anita Woolfolk, Lorraine Me. Cune, Educational Psychology f o r Teacher, Prentice
Hall, USA, 1984, page 159
5 Ibid., page 160
b. Comprehension, there are n ability to understand, interpret, and
reexplain in the other form.
c. Application, there are an ability to use or apply the theory, principle,
rule, and information in the new situation.
d. Analyze, for example to analyze a complexes problem devided into
several parts to research one by one (case).
e. Syntese, this is to relate a several part to the new form
f. Evaluation, this is an ability to define criteria.
2. Psychometric purpose
This is to relate with the skill or motor skill.
3. The affective purpose
This purpose involve
a. Attitude
b. Appreciation
c. Values
d. Evaluation
e. To please <
f. To regard, and the others.
Those aim of learning must be appropriate in learning process,
because those are the human’s elements to change their behavior ar
cognitive. So the new skill or knowledge ability can be reached. When
learning just focuses on one o f them. So it will not balance, for example if
