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PREVIEW QUIZ
True or False
1. T F The philosopher Aristotle said that the human being is the thinking animal.
2. T F Concepts put the world of experience into mental boxes.
3. T F A heuristic approach to solving a problem is the same thing as using a formula to solve the problem.
4. T F Functional fixedness is a kind of mental set that helps you to solve problems.
5. T F The core of the creative process is rational, logical thought.
(Answers can be found on page 135.)
The last chapter made note of the fact that every emotion has a cognitive aspect. We not only feel, but we also think when we experience an emo- tion. In fact, thinking plays a role in almost all of our actions. This chapter is designed to further your understanding of the thinking process.
9 Thinking: Exploring
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to
• define thinking;
• specify three basic kinds of mental concepts;
• describe various strategies for solving problems;
• explain how mental sets can present obstacles to solving problems;
• distinguish between logical thinking and logical errors;
• state the core feature of the creative process.
When you think about a bird, you tend to concentrate on its ability to fly. The bird could be said to be the “flying animal.” When you think about a fish, you tend to concentrate on its ability to swim. The fish could be said to be the “swim- ming animal.” Similarly, when you think about human beings, one thing in par- ticular seems to stand out—our ability to think. The philosopher Aristotle said that the human being is the thinking animal.
The philosopher René Descartes tried to find a bedrock for his own philo- sophical viewpoint. He mistrusted much learning and doubted the truth of much so-called knowledge. He asked himself what he could be certain of. His answer was that he was certain he existed. And how was he certain that he existed?
Because he was thinking. He reasoned, “I think, therefore I am.” And this became the starting point for his philosophical reflections.
More recently, William James, the founding personality of a school of psy- chology called functionalism, defined psychology as the science of mental life.
And this is close to the commonsense view of psychology. Most people think of it in this way. It is the science of the mind; and the concept of the mind includes both our conscious awareness and our ability to think.
(a) The philosopher Aristotle said that the human being is the .
(b) The philosopher Descartes said that the fact that he was a thinking being made him con-
fident that he .
(c) James defined psychology as the .
Answers: (a) thinking animal; (b) existed; (c) science of mental life.
Note in the paragraphs above that not only thinking was implied, but think- ing about thinking. That’s what we will be doing in this chapter. The process of thinking about thinking is called metathought. Although we take for granted
that we can do it, a moment’s reflection suggests how unusual an ability it is.
Even if it is granted, as seems to some degree reasonable, that certain animals such as dolphins and chimpanzees can think, it is doubtful that they engage in metathought. They probably don’t think, as we do, about the nature of thought itself.
As indicated above, the study of thinking has a long and respectable tradition in both philosophy and psychology.
Before we proceed with its study, let’s define thinking. Thinkingis a mental process characterized by the use of symbols and concepts to represent both inner and outer reality. A symbolis a word, mark, sign, drawing, or object that stands for something else. Consequently, the word dog is a symbol that stands for an actual dog. Concepts are defined below.
(a) Thinking about thinking is called .
(b) Thinking is a mental process characterized by the use of and to represent both inner and outer reality.
(c) Something such as a word, mark, sign, drawing, or object that stands for something else
is called .
Answers: (a) metathought; (b) symbols; concepts; (c) a symbol.
Forming Concepts: Putting the World into Mental Boxes
A conceptis a mental category. A basic tool of thought, it is a way in which we organize and simplify information. Concepts put the world of experience into mental boxes. Let’s say you see a bowl of fruit containing an assortment of lemons and oranges. You see only two kinds of fruit. You don’t feel over- whelmed by information. However, it is clear that no one lemon is exactly like any other lemon. And no one orange is exactly like any other orange. The con- cepts of lemons and of oranges simplify things for us. The concept of lemons includes these attributes: a yellow skin, elongated shape, and somewhat sour taste. The concept of oranges includes these attributes: orange-colored, round, and sweet. Differences between individual lemons and oranges are obscured when we employ the two concepts. And this is the functional value of the con- cepts. There are three basic kinds of concepts: (1) conjunctive, (2) disjunctive, and (3) relational.
A conjunctive conceptstrings together perceived attributes. A conjunctionin grammar has the function of joining words and phrases. Similarly, a conjunctive concept joins attributes to make a perceptual whole. The concept of a lemon is conjunctive because to most of us a lemon is an object that has a yellow skin and an elongated shape anda somewhat sour taste.
To a child, forming the concept of a dog, a dog “is” an animal with some or all of these attributes: it barks andbites andhas fur anda tail andfour legs.
(a) A concept is a mental .
(b) Concepts help us to organize and simplify .
(c) A conjunctive concept attributes to make a perceptual . Answers: (a) category; (b) information; (c) joins; whole.
Note that when a child is acquiring the concept of a dog, there may be a period of confusion. Let’s say that three-year-old Tammy is visiting an aquarium with her parents. An entertaining show is put on with seals. Tammy calls them
“doggies” because they bark. The parents explain that seals are notdogs. If asked why, they might answer, “Because they don’t have legs the way dogs do.”
As is evident from the above, concepts are formed by both positive and nega- tive exemplars. A positive exemplaris an object or an idea that fits the concept, that can be contained within it. A negative exemplaris an object or an idea that does not fit the concept, that cannot be contained within it. For Tammy, her pet dog at home is a positive exemplar of the concept “dog.” The seal at the aquar- ium is a negative exemplar of the concept “dog.” However, it is a positive exem- plar of the concept “seal” or “aquatic animal.” (Without an adjective before it, the word exemplarmeans “a typical example.”)
(a) An object or idea that fits a given concept, that can be contained within it, is called called .
(b) An object or idea that does not fit a given concept, that can not be contained within it,
is called .
Answers: (a) a positive exemplar; (b) a negative exemplar.
A disjunctive concept treats perceived attributes in either-or terms. The classic example of a disjunctive concept is a strike in baseball. A strike is eithera ball that goes through the strike zone and is not swung at ora ball that is swung at and missed, even if it’s outside of the strike zone. Let’s say that forty-year-old Carl says, “I will drink any kind of wine except muscatel or port.” If he refuses a glass of wine at a friend’s house, it is possible to reflect that the host must have offered Carl either muscatel or port. “Wines that Carl won’t drink” is, in this case, a dis- junctive concept.
A relational concepttreats perceived attributes in terms of some connection between objects or ideas such as “more than,” “less than,” “bigger than,” “more beautiful than,” and so forth. A concept such as “cheapskate” is a relational con- cept. Nolan is a regular customer for breakfast in a family restaurant in a small
town. He always leaves a twenty-five-cent tip even though 15 percent of his breakfast check comes to about one dollar. Ogden is also a regular customer for breakfast. He always leaves a three-dollar tip. Both Nolan and Ogden are success- ful businessmen. The servers in the restaurant refer to Nolan as a “cheapskate” and to Ogden as a “big spender.” The two concepts are relational because they arise from the fact that Ogden’s tip is more than Nolan’s.
(a) A disjunctive concept treats perceived attributes in terms.
(b) What kind of a concept treats perceived attributes in terms of some connection between object or ideas such as “more than,” or “less than”?
Answers: (a) either-or; (b) Relational.