what he’s talking about, in some cases an authority may be a pseudo-authority or give bad advice. It would have been far better if Nadine could have answered Kitty by saying, “Green foods contain folic acid, an important component of good nutri- tion. Also, vegetables have a lot of fiber, and this promotes regularity.”
Arguing in circles takes place when one’s premise contains the conclusion that one wants to reach. Edgar tells his girlfriend Janet, “I love you.” Janet asks,
“Why do you love me?” Edgar says, “I don’t know. Just because I do.” Janet presses. “But whydo you?” Edgar, sweating and a little confused, says, “Because you’re so lovable!” It would have been a better answer if Edgar could have said,
“Because I like your personality and your sense of humor.” Or, “Because you’re more fun to be with than anyone I’ve ever met.” His actual answer, based on a cir- cular argument, was empty of any real meaning.
Attack on character picks out a negative attribute of another person and uses this attribute to discredit other aspects of the person’s behavior. Kathleen is thinking about taking her car for repairs to Jake, a local auto mechanic. Mabel, a friend, tells Kathleen that she shouldn’t take her car to Jake. “Why?” asks Kath- leen. “Because I hear he cheats on his wife,” says Mabel. Obviously, Jake’s mari- tal behavior has nothing to do with his ability to repair cars.
(a) Making a reference to a respected person, believed to be well informed, when one’s own logic or reasoning is weak is called .
(b) What logical error takes place when one’s premise contains the conclusion that one wants to reach?
(c) What logical error picks out a negative attribute of another person?
Answers: (a) appeal to authority; (b) Arguing in circles; (c) Attack on character.
tally retarded because his answers to questions were so odd, deviant, and unex- pected. He is well known for improving the electric light bulb. However, he also invented wax paper and the phonograph. When he died he had patented 1,150 inventions, a record for American inventors that still stands.
Divergent thinking often involves breaking mental sets. The example of the Wright brothers realizing that wings don’t have to flap has already been given.
Divergent thinking also involves combining familiar elements in new combina- tions. Dumbo the flying elephant combines the familiar image of an elephant and its large ears with the also familiar image of a bird flying and flapping its wings.
The cartoon character that results doesn’t exist in the real world, but has enter- tained both adults and children for years.
(a) The core feature of the creative process is . (b) Divergent thinking often involves breaking .
(c) Dumbo the flying elephant combines familiar elements in . Answers: (a) divergent thinking; (b) mental sets; (c) new combinations.
Convergent thinking, in contrast to divergent thinking, follows conven- tional thought pathways. It is the core feature in rational thought, thought that employs both inductive and deductive logic. Intelligence (see chapter 10) requires convergent thinking. When a student is asked to answer a multiple-choice test, he or she employs convergent thinking. There is thought to be one and only one best answer to a given question.
The Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer asserted that productive thinking, high-quality creative thinking, combines both divergent and convergent thinking in a functional way. Wertheimer and Albert Einstein were personal friends. In his book Productive Thinking,Wertheimer explores how Einstein arrived at the Special Theory of Relativity. It is clear that divergent thinking was required, because in the theory it is possible for space to warp and time to slow down. Both of these con- cepts were radical departures from standard concepts of physics held in the early part of the twentieth century. On the other hand, convergent thinking was also required, because Einstein employed a large base of theory and knowledge that made his own theory both reasonable and acceptable to scientists in general.
(a) What kind of thinking follows conventional thought pathways?
(b) Wertheimer said that what kind of thinking combines both divergent and convergent thinking in a functional way?
Answers: (a) Convergent thinking; (b) Productive thinking.
It is possible to evaluate the quality of creative thinking by three criteria:
(1) productivity, (2) originality, and (3) flexibility. Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910), author ofWar and Peaceand Anna Karenina,is generally thought to be one of the world’s greatest authors. Why? Let’s employ the three criteria. First, Tolstoy was extremely productive. He wrote many books, short stories, and essays. He left behind a large body of work.
Second, he was highly original. War and Peace broke the ground for a now- familiar kind of book, the war novel. Anna Karenina was one of the first great romantic tragedies presented in the form of a novel. It pioneered today’s tearjerk- ers and soap operas. Although the patterns are familiar today, they were highly original when Tolstoy first presented them. In general, his stories and essays often presented characters and ideas from unusual perspectives.
Third, Tolstoy was unusually flexible. As already indicated, he expressed his ideas in several forms. Also, he changed his philosophy of life from an egocentric one to a selfless one, and wrote extensively about the shift in his viewpoint. As you can see, Tolstoy receives high marks on all three criteria.
(a) Tolstoy wrote many books, short stories, and essays. This example is associated with what criterion used to evaluate creative thinking?
(b) Tolstoy’s works often presented characters and ideas from unusual perspectives. This exam- ple is associated with what criterion used to evaluate creative thinking?
Answers: (a) Productivity; (b) Originality.
SELF-TEST
1. The process of thinking about thinking is called a. cognitive existentialism
b. symbolic production c. functional reflection d. metathought
2. What kind of a concept strings together perceived attributes?
a. A relational concept b. A disjunctive concept
c. An iconic concept d. A conjunctive concept
3. Which of the following identifies an object or an idea that fits a concept, that can be contained within it?
a. Positive exemplar b. Negative exemplar
c. Bipolar exemplar
d. Transformational exemplar
4. Step-by-step instructions for operating a microwave oven provide an exam- ple of
a. a heuristic approach b. a means-end analysis
c. an algorithm d. an insight analysis
5. Let’s say you figure out the square root of 12 without a formula. Instead, you rely on your understanding of the concept of a square root. What kind of a problem-solving approach are you using?
a. An algorithm
b. A heuristic approach c. A means-end analysis d. An operant reflection
6. Which of the following correctly defines a mental set?
a. A conscious conditioned reflex b. An unconscious wish
c. A subconscious determining tendency d. A false negative
7. What exists when there is a need to use a tool or familiar object in a novel way and one can’t perceive the novel way?
a. Cognitive slippage b. Mental facilitation
c. Functional fixedness
d. Transformational perception
8. What kind of reasoning is characterized by making observations and gathering information until a general conclusion is reached?
a. Inductive reasoning b. Deductive reasoning
c. If-then reasoning d. Relational reasoning
9. Deductive reasoning is reasoning in which a. a premise follows from a conclusion b. a premise follows from a hyperpremise
c. a conclusion follows from a metaconclusion d. a conclusion follows from a premise
10. What is the core feature of the creative process?
a. Convergent thinking b. Divergent thinking
c. Congruent thinking d. Reliable facts
ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST
1-d 2-d 3-a 4-c 5-b 6-c 7-c 8-a 9-d 10-b
ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ
1. True.
2. True.
3. False. Heuristic approaches employ principles, rules-of-thumb, and insights to solve problems.
4. False. It iscorrect that functional fixedness is a type of mental set. However, functional fixedness exists when there is a need to use a tool or familiar object in a novel way and one can’t perceive the novel way. Consequently, such fixedness interferes with solving a problem.
5. False. The core feature of the creative process is divergent thinking.
KEY TERMS
algorithm analogy
appeal to authority arguing in circles attack on character concept
conjunctive concept convergent thinking deductive reasoning definition of the problem disjunctive concept divergent thinking false analogy false assumption flexibility
functional fixedness hasty generalization heuristic approaches illumination
incubation
inductive reasoning logical thinking means-end analysis mental set
metathought negative exemplar originality
overgeneralization paleological thought positive exemplar predicate thinking preparation
productive thinking productivity
rational thought relational concept symbol
thinking verification
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PREVIEW QUIZ
True or False
1. T F The concept of intelligence is associated with the ability to think clearly and to function effectively in the environment.
2. T F The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is based on the performance method of measuring intelligence.
3. T F Information, or general knowledge, is not associated with intelligence.
4. T F An intelligence quotient (IQ) score of 100 is evidence of superior intelligence.
5. T F A valid test is one that measures what it is supposed to measure.
(Answers can be found on page 152.)
Thinking, the subject matter of the previous chapter, plays a significant role in intelligence. Indeed, as the subtitle of this chapter suggests, rational thought is at the core of intelligence. We will now examine the concept of intelligence and the ways in which it can be measured.