The infant is on the threshold of continuing biological and psychological devel- opment. Our principal concern in this and future sections of this chapter is with psychological development. Freud’s theory of development has been highly influ- ential. First proposed about eighty years ago, it has had a large impact on the way in which both psychologists and parents have thought about sexual development in children. It has also influenced child-rearing practices.
According to Freud, there are five stages in psychosexual development. Psy- chosexual developmentrefers to the development of a sexual identity, attitudes toward sexual behavior, and emotional reactions to sexual stimuli. Sexual devel- opment, in Freud’s view, is much more than biological. Identity, attitudes, and emotional reactions are psychological in nature. That is why Freud used the term psychosexualinstead of simply sexualto refer to the kind of development he wanted to study.
The five stages of psychosexual development are: (1) oral, (2) anal, (3) phallic, (4) latency, and (5) genital. In order to appreciate Freud’s theory, it is necessary to introduce a concept he employed called libido. Libido is thought of as psycho- sexual energy, and Freud hypothesized that it is invested in different zones of the body during the various stages of psychosexual development. These zones, or areas, of the body are called the erogenous zones,and they are associated with sexual pleasure. The principal erogenous zones are the oral, anal, and genital areas of the body.
(a) The term refers to the development of a sexual identity, attitudes toward sexual behavior, and emotional reactions to sexual stimuli.
(b) Freud thought of as psychosexual energy.
(c) Zones of the body associated with sexual pleasure are called zones.
Answers: (a) psychosexual development; (b) libido; (c) erogenous.
The oral stagelasts for about two years (infancy). During this stage the infant obtains a substantial amount of pleasure from sucking, biting, chewing, and so forth.
The anal stage lasts for about one or two years (the stage of the toddler).
During the anal stage the toddler obtains a substantial amount of pleasure from, at times, withholding fecal matter and, at other times, expelling it. Note that this stage coincides with the time at which most children are toilet trained.
The phallic stagelasts for about three years (the stage of the preschooler).
During the phallic stage the preschooler, according to Freud, obtains a substan- tial amount of pleasure from self-stimulation of the phallus. The phallus in the male is the penis. In the female it is the clitoris. The phallic stage ends at about the age of six.
(a) What psychosexual stage is associated with infancy?
(b) What psychosexual stage coincides with the time at which most children are toilet trained?
(c) In the male, the phallus is the . In the female, the phallus is the .
Answers: (a) The oral stage; (b) The anal stage; (c) penis; clitoris.
The latency stage lasts for about six years. It begins at age six or seven and ends at age twelve or thirteen. In effect, it ends when puberty begins. The libido has migrated from the oral to the anal to the phallic zone. Now it goes under- ground and becomes, to surface appearance, dormant. The libido goes under-
ground not because of a lack of biological maturation, but because of psychologi- cal conflict. Freud suggested that the child has a certain amount of dawning sexual desire and tends to make the parent of the opposite sex the focus of this desire.
However, due to moral development, guilt sets in and the libido goes into hiding.
It is repressed to an unconscious level.
The emotional conflict associated with the child’s forbidden wish to seek sex- ual expression with a parent is called the Oedipus complex.Freud was inspired to coin this term from his familiarity with the Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex (i.e.,
“Oedipus, the King”) written by the dramatist Sophocles around 400 B.C. In the play, Oedipus inadvertently kills his own father and unknowingly marries his own mother. Writing in German in Austria, Freud used the term Oedipus complex to refer to either males or females. Later authors, writing in the United States, some- times use the term Oedipus complex to refer to males and Electra complex to refer to females. (Electrais also a Greek play. Written by the dramatist Euripides, also around 400 B.C., it bears some resemblance to Oedipus Rex.)
(a) According to Freud, during the latency stage the libido is repressed to an level.
(b) What name did Freud give to the emotional conflict associated with a child’s forbidden sexual wish during the latency stage?
(c) What term, not coined by Freud, is sometimes used to describe a female child’s sexual conflict during the latency stage?
Answers: (a) unconscious; (b) The Oedipus complex; (c) The Electra complex.
The genital stage begins at twelve or thirteen and continues throughout adulthood. With puberty, biological maturation can no longer be denied. The repression lifts and the individual becomes intensely conscious of sexual interest.
Libido makes a final shift from the phallus to a more general interest in the oppo- site sex. In normal development, the individual transfers sexual interest away from the parent and toward potential partners who are not members of the family.
Freud’s outline suggests that much can go wrong with sexual development.
There can be too much excitation and arousal associated with one of the stages. Or, conversely, there can be too much inhibition, punishment, or emotional injury asso- ciated with one of the stages. Freud indicated that either too much excitation or too much inhibition can induce a fixation of libido, meaning the libido is to some extent “stuck” in one particular erogenous zone. According to Freud, such fixations may play a role in various problems and maladaptive behaviors, including overeat- ing, constipation, pedophilia, exhibitionism, fetishism, and sexual dysfunctions.
Freud’s theory is, as are all theories, a set of concepts, not a set of facts. Freud’s theory has received its share of criticism. For example, research suggests that although self-stimulation of the phallus is relatively common in children, it is not,
as Freud thought, a behavior pattern demonstrated by almost all children. The psychoanalyst Karen Horney, one of Freud’s advocates, rejected the biological sexuality of the Oedipus complex. Instead, Horney suggested that, for example, a male child is often jealous of the position of power and importance the father has with the mother. The male child has a forbidden wish to take the father’s place, not so much as a sexual rival, but as a psychological one.
(a) During what stage does the libido make a final shift from the phallus to a more general interest in the opposite sex?
(b) Freud indicated that either too much excitation or too much inhibition can induce a of libido in one particular zone.
(c) The psychoanalyst Karen Horney rejected Freud’s emphasis on the of the Oedipus complex.
Answers: (a) The genital stage; (b) fixation; erogenous zone; (c) biological sexuality.