Paengkoum, P. 1 & C. Yuangklang2
1School of Animal Production Technology, Institute of Agricultural Technology, Suranaree University of Technology, Muang, Nakhon Ratchasima, 30000, Thailand; 2Department of Applied Biology, Rajamangala University of Technology-Isan, Muang, Nakhon Ratchasima,
30000, Thailand
Abstract
Feeding by-products of the crop and food processing industries to livestock is a practice as old as the domestication of animals by humans. It has two important advantages- these being to diminish dependence of livestock on grains that can be consumed by and to eliminate the need for costly waste management programs. Livestock is vital to the economy of many developing countries. Animals are a source of food, more specifically protein for human diets, income, employment and possibly foreign exchange. For low income producers, livestock can serve as a store of wealth; provide draught power and organic fertilizer for crop production and a means of transport. Consumption of livestock and livestock products in developing countries, though starting from a low base, is growing rapidly. Increasing livestock production is an important component of this process, both because developing country consumers are expected to spend an increasing share of their rising incomes on livestock products, and because taking advantage of favourable livestock-crop production interactions is one approach to a more efficient, sustainable agriculture.
Introduction
Livestock are usually helpful in sustaining agricultural production. However, there are cases where livestock development has had disastrous environmental consequences. While raising animals, more than 70% expenditures are incurred on feed. Due to increasing human population, the area under fodder production is decreasing about 2% after each decade (Leng, 1990). Thus, underfeeding of our animals is one of the main reasons for low production. This is simply because an underfed animal uses a higher portion of its feed for body maintenance.
Thus, less of its feed intake is converted into production/ products useful to mankind. There may be many options to overcome the shortage of feed for livestock but one of them is the use of agro by-products.
Agro by-products are one of such feed materials that could be utilized. These feedstuffs which are derived in integrated crop-livestock systems, are materials obtained other than the main product for which the crop is cultivated.
Agriculture-based industry development in every developing country which is exporter of farm commodities, such as rice, corn, sugar, rubber, cassava, chicken, etc, should receive highest priority in national development. Export of raw materials such as those aforementioned should be reduced and saved for local agro-industry. Ready-to-serve foods can get greater export earning than export of raw materials. With good government policy and management, profits from export of agro-industrial products can be equitably shared by
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small farmers who produce the raw materials. One of many serious problems of small farmers in developing countries is the low price of farm commodity controlled by local traders and the middlemen. The small farmers have no bargaining power for higher prices due to lack of market access, and other limitations such as small quantity of production, remoteness of the farm, and farmer‘s debt and financial pressure (Chantalakkana, 2011).
Therefore, the major problems with animal feeding occur in tropical areas subjected to long dry seasons, and there is insufficient plant biomass carried over from the wet season to support animal population. Moreover, acute dry season with insufficient amounts of a low quality and relatively indigestible feed, the protein content is consequently lowered. Thus, developed methodology is needed to improve the quality and sustainable feed for animals as local feed resources (Wanapat, 2011).
Treatment methods of crop-residues and low-quality roughages
In recent years, considerable attention has been given to improve the feed value of fibrous agricultural residues and by-products as well as supplementation strategies. The quantity and quality of feed resources in the tropics have been limited by seasonality and their nutritive values (Devendra, 1990; Wanapat, 1990; Wanapat and Devendra, 2007). However, due to enormous amount of crop residues available in the developing countries potential uses of these resources have been presented (Leng, 1990 and Wanapat, 1993). In general, fibrous agricultural residues contain a large pool of structural carbohydrates which can be potentially degraded by rumen microbes into volatile fatty acids. There are limitations encountered in the utilization of these resources as feeds. Therefore, the strategies of improving the nutritive values by treatments and/or supplementation are needed to overcome the shortfalls and to improve feeding efficiency for the sustainable feeding systems for ruminants.
Crop-residues
It is important to keep the concept of crop residues in perspective. While the term generally refers to various by-products from crop cultivation, we should avoid lumping all residues together. Each residue, and even each fraction of certain residues, is different in terms of its availability, its nutritive value and its potential impact in relation to the overall feeding system. We can, however, distinguish one major group of residues, the fibrous crop residues (FCRs), which have in common their high biomass, and their low crude protein and high crude fibre contents, of approximately 3-4% and 35-48% respectively. These FCRs form the base of feeding systems for ruminants throughout the developing countries, and include all cereal straws, sugarcane tops, bagasse, cocoa pod husks, pineapple waste and coffee seed pulp. Complementary to FCRs are those crop residues that are more nutritious and can therefore be used judiciously to improve the overall diet. This category includes a variety of oilseed cakes and meals, such as coconut cake, palm kernel cake, cottonseed cake and sweet potato vines, which are often used as dietary supplements (Devendra, 2007). Wanapat et al., (1985) successfully demonstrated the efficient use of urea-treated rice straw as a roughage source when supplemented with various levels of concentrate in fattening beef cattle. It was also confirmed on-farm that the use of urea-treated rice straw as a sole source of roughage for fattening beef proved to be economical in the prevailing village system (Wanapat et al., 1992).
Cassava hay
Cassava hay (Manihot esculenta, Crantz) was demonstrated to be excellent foliage, high in protein for feeding to ruminants as earlier reported by Wanapat et al., (1997). Higher levels of cassava hay supplementation especially at about 2 kg/hd/d, improved efficiency, reduced
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production cost and increased profits (Wanapat et al., 2000). However, Wora-anu et al., (2004) observed that feeding fresh cassava foliage as full-feed resulted in anorexia and ataxia, as well as frequent urination. Therefore, sun-drying of fresh cassava whole crop is recommended.
Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala)
Leucaena leucocephala leaves have been widely used in diets of all animal species. Cheva- Israkul (1988) reviewed the use of leucaena as a feed. Leucaena can be fed fresh (Wongsrikeao and Wanapat, 1986) or dried (Paengkoum and Traiyakun (2011); Paengkoum, 2011; Paengkoum and Paengkoum, 2010). Paengkoum (2010) reported that supplementing the rice straw diet of growing goats with dried leucaena leaves produced good results (Table 1).
Mulberry (Morus alba)
Liu et al., (1991) reported that the benefits resultant from supplementation with mulberry leaves in sheep diets included an increased intake of the basal diet, lower consumption of concentrate and an increased income.
Samanea saman
Using Samanea saman as a feed at 2 kg samanea pods to a basal rice straw diet of buffaloes enabled body weight to be maintained throughout the dry season (Seedtakosed et al., 1988) Streblus asper Lour
Ruminant feeding systems based on poor quality roughage where protein is one of the first limiting factors may require additional protein to maintain an efficient rumen ecosystem that will stimulate nutrient intake and improve animal performance (Preston and Leng 1987).
However, the supplementation of high protein and energy concentrates
involve extra cost. On the other hand, foliages from locally grown shrubs and trees such as Streblus aspe Lour and Leucaena foliages have been successfully tested as protein supplements for ruminants (Aranachal et al., 2002; Kahindi et al., 2007; Paengkoum, 2011).
Table 1. The utilization of local feed resources in goat diets Treatments Digestibiliy
(%)
N-balance (g/d)
ADG (g/d)
References
DM CP NDF
Control 68.3 59.2 55.0 15.4 50.5 Paengkoum (2011) Streblus asper Lour 66.9 59.8 54.5 17.0 48.0
Leucaena leucocephala 67.0 59.5 55.2 17.1 47.5
Control 59.1 56.3 50.0 5.6 59.3 Paengkoum
and Paengkoum (2010) Pithecellobium dulce 56.1 55.1 49.5 5.7 62.9
Leucaena leucocephala 56.9 49.5 49.2 4.9 62.5
Control 69.3 58.6 51.7 9.9 55.5 Paengkoum (2010)
Azadirachta indica 67.6 57.9 50.6 11.0 52.0 Leucaena leucocephala 68.9 57.3 51.8 11.1 53.5
Artocarpus heterophyllus 64.1 71.0 - - - Paengkoum and Traiyakun (2011) Leucaena leucocephala 53.2 55.0 - - -
52 Extrusion-processed mixture of cassava pulp
Studies with an extrusion-processed mixture of grain starch and urea (Starea) indicated that ammonia was released slower from this product both in vivo and in vitro than when a non- heated control mixture was used and, additionally, this product was superior to urea as a nitrogen supplement for lactating cows and for growing-fattening cattle (Helmer et al., 1970).
The research in Thai native x Brahman beef cattle fed with concentrate mixed of extrusion- processed mixture of cassava pulp and urea and varying levels of RUP. The results showed that dry matter intake increased linearly (p<0.01) as the level of RUP increased. Moreover, organic matter digestibility increased linearly (p<0.05) with increasing the level of RUP.
Total volatile fatty acid increased linearly (p<0.01) as the level of RUP increased. TVFAs decreased quadratically (p<0.01). Nitrogen absorption was not significantly different among dietary treatments. These results indicated that 35% CP from EMCPU replacement for RUP levels at 40% in concentrate have positive effects on crossbred cattle production (Paengkoum et al., 2012).
Dried Tomato Pomace
Dried tomato pomace may be considered as an alternative feedstuff in ruminant nutrition. The limited literature data that are available so far may be interpreted as indirect and suggestive evidence for diminished ruminal fermentation and bacterial synthesis after substitution of dried tomato pomace for soybean meal (Yuangklang et al., 2010). To reduce the feed costs of animal production, it can be advantageous to replace imported feedstuffs by those produced locally. Dried tomato pomace contains 20-25% crude protein, 9-12% crude fat and 57-67%
neutral detergent fiber. There are indications that tomato pomace may be used in ruminant nutrition. It has been reported that the feeding of corn silage mixed with wet tomato pomace to dairy cows left unchanged the production and composition of milk (Weiss et al., 1997). In beef cattle, the feeding of dried tomato pomace as sole source of roughage increased body- weight gain when compared to either hay or fresh grass (Yuangklang et al., 2006). It would appear that dried tomato pomace in the ration can support ruminant production. However, less favorable effects of tomato pomace have also been described. In goats, replacement of soybean meal by dried tomato pomace produced an increase in the ammonia concentration and pH of rumen contents (Yuangklang et al., 2007).
Conclusions
Livestock production will continue to be important component of the farming system and contribute to the well-being of human as protein food products and income generator.
Importance of local feed resources will increasingly become more essential for livestock production as well as the role to enrich the environment through the food-feed-system. To empower the scientists especially the graduate students with international perspectives, interactive participation in the scientific forums are deem important and warrant immediate and continuous undertakings by all concerned, particularly senior researchers and high- learning institutions.
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